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King Sejong the Great
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1
 Comments from Readers

“I would like to commend you on an excellent commentary about a native

son of Korea who gave his mind, body, and soul to the goal of achieving
freedom for his people and his country. To say that I was mildly surprised
about the incredible life and history of Admiral Yi Sun-sin is an
understatement. This incredible warrior and humble person is to be greatly
admired.”

- Colonel Thomas Brenner (RET), USA

“Yi’s patriotism was one that inspired him to do good, so pure and
untouched by hate, and not like modern-day patriotism which seems to
breed prejudice, arrogance and division. The way he yearned to serve his
country to best of his ability was much like the way holymen serve God--
unconditionally and without attachment to results or retreat in the face of
defeat. His story is an inspiration for the times we face today. In a world
where leaders' motives are suspect and full of self-interest we are left hoping
for leaders like Yi Sun-sin to arise.”

- April Cantor, USA

“On the day before the Battle of Myongnyang, Yi Sun-sin said, ‘He who
seeks death will live, and he who seeks life will die.’ His words charged the
soldiers’ spirits and changed the fate of his nation.”

- Silvia Riedle, Germany

2
 Admiral Yi Sun-sin
A brief overview of his life and achievements

He who seeks death will live, and he who seeks life will die.

3
c 2008 Diamond Sutra Recitation Group
○

Admiral Yi Sun-sin : A brief overview of his life and achievements

Published by Korean Spirit & Culture Promotion Project

www.kscpp.net

Printed and Bound by Samjung Munhwasa

Chungjeong-ro 37-18, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul

First Print 2005

Fifth Print 2009

ISBN: 0-9779613-1-1

Note on Romanization

The Romanization of Korean words in this book follows the

McCune-Reischauer system, except in the case of prominent figures

and place names for which alternative usages are better known.

Note on Names
In Korean, a surname comes before the given name.

Korean names in this book follow this convention.

4
 Contents

I. Yi Sun-sin: A National Hero of Korea……………………………7

II. About Yi Sun-sin…………………………………………………13
III. Historical Background…………………………………………16
IV. The Major Naval Battles of Yi……….……………..…………..19
1. The Battle of Hansando and the ‘Crane Wing’ Formation…….19
2. The Battle of Myongnyang, A Maritime Miracle……….…….24
3. The Battle of Noryang, The Final Battle…………………...….32
V. The Kobukson or ‘Turtle Ship’……….…..…………………......34
VI. The War Diary of Yi Sun-sin…………..………..……..…….....39
VII. Life and Death of Admiral Yi Sun-sin…………………….…..41
VΙΙΙ. Conclusion………………………..……………….……..…….46

Appendix
Admiral Yi’s War Diary and Memorials to Court………………......49
The Warships and Weaponry of Korea and Japan..........................60
Pictures of Kobukson……………………………………....…..…....66
The Admiralship of Yi Sun-sin……………………..………….........70
Yi Sun-sin: His Memories and Influence on Korea Today…..…...74
Naval Battles of Admiral Yi Sun-sin……………….…………….....77
Chronological Career Note…………………………………………84
Bibliography……………………………...……….…….…………....87

5
6
I. Yi Sun-sin: A National Hero of Korea

In Korean history, which spans over five millennia, there have been
many national heroes, but none compares to Yi Sun-sin who saved Choson
Korea from the brink of collapse during the Japanese invasion of 1592. He
is still held in high esteem by the Korean people today. In a nationwide
survey conducted by Soonchunhyang University in April 2005, Yi Sun-sin
was chosen as the greatest figure in Korean history by 43.8% of the vote
(The Chosun Daily, April 15, 2005).
It is, therefore, regrettable that Yi Sun-sin’s noble life and the marvelous
deeds he performed for his country and people are not well-known outside
of Korea. Admiral Yi achieved a battle record that no one in history has ever
matched. Genghis Khan lost two battles out of the twenty that he fought,
Napoleon Bonaparte lost four battles out of twenty three, Emperor Frederick
lost four battles out of twelve, and Hannibal lost one battle out of five. In all
of his twenty three battles, Admiral Yi was never once defeated.
Overcoming formidable odds in terms of the number of enemy ships and
troops, he led his navy to victory in every engagement he fought during
seven years of war with the Japanese.

7
 In his book, The Influence of Sea on the Political History of Japan,
George Alexander Ballard (1862-1948), a vice-admiral of the British Royal
Navy, summarized Yi’s life and victories as follows.

It is always difficult for Englishmen to admit that Nelson ever had

an equal in his profession, but if any man is entitled to be so
regarded, it should be this great naval commander of Asiatic race
who never knew defeat and died in the presence of the enemy; of
whose movements a track-chart might be compiled from the wrecks
of hundreds of Japanese ships lying with their valiant crews at the
bottom of the sea, off the coasts of the Korean peninsula...and it
seems, in truth, no exaggeration to assert that from first to last he
never made a mistake, for his work was so complete under each
variety of circumstances as to defy criticism... His whole career
might be summarized by saying that, although he had no lessons
from past history to serve as a guide, he waged war on the sea as it
should be waged if it is to produce definite results, and ended by
making the supreme sacrifice of a defender of his country. (p. 66–
67)

The following is an extract from a paper published by the Japanese

Institute of Korean Studies.

Togo returned from the victorious Battle of Tsushima(1905) in

which he had defeated the Russian Baltic Fleet, at that time the
world’s most powerful naval force. He had been instated as
Admiral of the Japanese Navy, and at a celebratory gathering, a
member of the company exclaimed, “Your great victory is so
remarkable that it deserves an everlasting place in history. You can

8
 be regarded the equal of Admiral Nelson, who defeated Napoleon
in the Battle of Trafalgar; you are indeed a god of war.” To this
Admiral Togo replied “I appreciate your compliment. But,…if there
ever were an Admiral worthy of the name of ‘god of war,’ that one
is Yi Sun-sin. Next to him, I am little more than a petty officer.”
─Andohi, Kotaro. History and Theory of Relations of Japan, Korea
and China, Japanese Institute of Korean Studies, 1964.

Japanese scholar Hujizka Akinao mentions in his essay “In Admiration

of Admiral Yi Sun-sin” (Kyung Hee Vol. 8. 1977) that Togo regarded Yi as
his master, and held a ceremony for him before the Battle of Tsushima (it is
a Japanese custom to hold a ceremony for ancestors or historically
significant figures before important occasions).
Few of the world’s great war heroes have been able to avoid criticism
and censure, least of all from those they fought against, enduring such taunts
as ‘brutal oppressors’ or ‘starving wolves.’ Admiral Yi, in contrast, has been
held as an object of admiration and reverence even among the Japanese,
whose minds were swayed by his pure and absolute loyalty to his country
and people, his brilliant use of strategy and tactics which led invariably to
victory, his invincible courage that overcame every adverse circumstance,
and his unbending integrity. This admiration is apparent in many speeches
and writings by Japanese military officers and historians which speak of
Admiral Yi. The following are some examples.

Throughout history there have been few generals accomplished at

the tactics of frontal attack, sudden attack, concentration, and
dilation. Napoleon, who mastered the art of conquering the part
with the whole, can be held to have been such a general, and among
admirals, two further tactical geniuses may be named: in the East,

9
 Yi Sun-sin of Korea, and in the West, Horatio Nelson of England.
Undoubtedly, Yi is a supreme naval commander even on the basis
of the limited literature of the Imjin War, and despite the fact that
his bravery and brilliance are not known to the West, since he had
the misfortune to be born in Choson Korea. Anyone who can be
compared to Yi should be better than Michiel de Ruyter from
Netherlands. Nelson is behind Yi in terms of character and integrity.
Yi was the inventor of the iron-clad warship known as the Turtle
Ship (Kobukson). He was a truly great commander and a master of
the naval tactics of three hundred years ago.
─Sato Destaro (1866-1942), a vice-admiral of the Japanese Navy,
A Military History of the Emperor (帝國國防史論), p. 399.

Yi Sun-sin is a famous Korean admiral who defeated the Japanese

in every one of the battles at sea when Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s troops
invaded Choson Korea. He was unique among Choson civil and
military officers for his honesty and incorruptibility, and in terms of
leadership and tactics, as well as loyalty and courage, he was an
ideal commander almost like a miracle. He was a renowned admiral
before the time of Nelson, and has never yet had an equal in world
history. Although the existence of this figure grew to be almost
forgotten in Korea, the admiration of his memory was handed down
in Japan through generations so that his tactics and
accomplishments were researched and subjected to close study
when the Japanese Navy was established during the Meiji period.
─Siba Ryotaro, “Clouds over the hill”, Sankei Newspaper,
March 27, 1972.

10
 Of Admiral Yi’s twenty-three sea battles, the most crucial were the
Battle of Hansando and the Battle of Myongnyang. In the Battle of
Hansando, considered one of the greatest naval engagements in history, Yi,
by means of his famous ‘Crane Wing’ formation, achieved a great victory
by sinking and capturing fifty nine of the seventy three Japanese ships
which opposed him, thereby frustrating Hideyoshi’s plan of advancing
along the coast. The Battle of Myongnyang, in which he defeated 130
enemy ships with only 13 ships his own, is regarded among maritime
historians as nothing less than a miracle.
Yi is often compared with Admiral Nelson and Admiral Togo. All three
men were heroes who fought for the destiny of their countries and saved
their countrymen from foreign invasion by securing key naval victories.
However, the circumstances of Nelson’s Battle at Trafalgar and of Togo’s
Battle at Tsushima differ strikingly from those of the Battle of Myongnyang
fought by Admiral Yi.
At the Battle of Trafalgar, England, a nation traditionally strong on the
sea, was facing an enemy who was at that time inexperienced in naval
warfare, and who commanded a fleet not much larger than her own (27
English ships against 33 French and Spanish ships). In the case of the Battle
of Tsushima, the Japanese navy also had the upper hand in many respects.
The Russian crews of the Baltic fleet who opposed them were exhausted
after a seven-month voyage which had taken them halfway round the world;
the Arctic-born Russian crews had suffered greatly from outbreaks of
disease as they sailed through the equator area. Taking this into account, it is
of little surprise that an intensively trained Japanese Navy, in high morale
and fighting near the mainland of Japan, emerged victorious over the
dispirited Russian forces. The battles discussed above may be summarized
in a chart as follows:

11
 Naval Battles of Togo, Nelson, and Yi

Home Forces Enemy Forces Outcome

4 warships 11 warships
Togo, Heihachiro Japanese Victory
27 cruisers 8 cruisers
Battle of Tsushima 25 enemy ships
Other vessels Other vessels
May 27-28, 1905 sunk and captured
(Japan) (Russia)

Nelson, Horatio English Victory

27 33
Battle of Trafalgar 23 enemy ships
(England) (France & Spain)
October 21, 1805 sunk and captured

Korean Victory
Yi, Sun-sin
13 130 31 enemy ships sunk
Battle of Myongnyang
(Korea) (Japan) 90 enemy ships
September 16, 1597
severely damaged

Admiral Yi achieved a truly legendary naval record. His greatness,

however, lies not in mere battle figures, but rather in the great and noble
sacrifice which he made for his country. The Imjin War, to which he
dedicated both his life and his death, was not a war driven by a politician’s
desire for imperial expansion, but by a pure wish to defend one’s country
and people against a foreign invader.

12
II. About Yi Sun-sin

Yi Sun-sin was born on April 28, 1545 in the aristocratic neighborhood

of Konchondong, Hansung (now Seoul) as the third son of Yi Chong and
his wife Pyun. Although he was of good ancestry, his family was not well
off because his grandfather had been embroiled in a political purge during
the reign of King Chungjong and Yi’s father did not pursue a civil service
job. When the economic situation worsened for his family, they moved to
Asan, the country home of Yi’s maternal family.
At the age of 21, he married a woman from a neighboring town and had
three sons and a daughter. Like any other young man of aristocratic family,
he studied Confucian classics with his brothers from an early age. He began
to train in the military arts when he turned 22. Although Yi was fully aware
that the literary tradition was more highly regarded than the military
tradition in his society, he chose the military service because of his personal
convictions. But the refined writings in his dairy, reports, and poems
demonstrate that he had remarkable literary talent, as well as the valor and
brilliance of a warrior.
In 1572, when he was 28, Yi took a military service examination. During
the exam, he fell from horseback and broke his left leg. The crowd was
13
 astonished when they saw him
quietly get up on one leg to
bind the broken leg with a
branch from a nearby willow
tree. Four years after his first
trial, at the age of 32, he
passed the military service
examination.
Thereafter, he was always
true to his duties as a military
officer while stationed at
various locations. However,
because of his unwillingness
to compromise his integrity,
he did not seek favors from
those in power. As a result,
Yi’s military career languished
and his accomplishments went
unnoticed. He was even
relieved of his post for
refusing to participate in
unlawful activities solicited by his superior. Also, he experienced a harsh
demotion to a common foot soldier as a result of false accusations by
another officer who blamed Yi for his own mistake.
Just a few months before the outbreak of war, he received an exceptional
promotion and became the Commander of Cholla Left Naval Station. This
was a result of the vigorous recommendation from Prime Minister Yu, who
had known Yi since childhood and firmly believed that Choson Korea was
in need of his abilities.
14
 As soon as he became a naval commander, he took up the task of
reviving and restoring the Korean Naval Force. He reorganized the
administrative system, improved the condition of weapons and tightened
sailors’ discipline even though it was not yet clear that war was imminent.
He also put his efforts in making warships and completed building a Turtle
Ship just a day before the Japanese invasion. In the following seven years,
Yi saved his homeland and his people by leading all his 23 naval
engagements to victory with his unshakable loyalty, brilliant tactics, and
indomitable spirit that transcended life and death.
While he accomplished unbelievable feats at sea as an admiral, Yi
suffered continuous tragedies and hardships in his personal life, which
makes his noble life even more remarkable. Even when he was faced with a
King who tried to kill him, his loyalty to his country never wavered. He did
not harbor a grudge against Won Kyun and his enemies at the king’s court
for falsely accusing him of treason. Even when the Korean Navy he had
built with so much care was obliterated by Won Kyun’s disastrous defeat
against the Japanese Navy, he did not allow his anger and resentment to stop
him from carrying out his duties. His absolute loyalty to his country and
people enabled him to achieve a maritime miracle of uninterrupted victories.
In 1598, at the age of 54, he died gloriously in his final battle at Noryang,
which concluded the Imjin War. He was posthumously titled Chung Mu
Gong (Master of Loyal Valor).

15
III. Historical Background

The closing years of the sixteenth century found Choson Korea beset
with considerable political and economical difficulties. Incessant conflicts
between political parties had led to corruption, which in turn had led to
confusion in the tax system. The effects of inter-party wrangling had
inevitably spread to regional governments, destabilizing national politics as
a whole. The unjust and unreasonable appointments of officials and the poor
administration which naturally followed them stirred distrust and resentment
in the people. As a result, there was a decline in military discipline, and
national defense was put at serious risk.
Meanwhile, across the Korea Strait, Toyotomi Hideyoshi had in the year
1590 put an end to 130 years of civil conflict by successfully unifying Japan
under his rule. As he was dealing with the task of unification, he had looked
for a way to dilute the power of feudal lords (daimyo) who were the most
serious threat to his authority, and thereby reinforce the power of the central
government. With this end in mind, he planned the invasion of neighboring
countries so that he would be better able to control their internal feuding and
divert the energy and attention of the daimyos abroad.
At first, he requested the Korean King to permit free passage through
16
Korea for the swift movement of his army into Ming China. Korea sent a
two-man mission to observe Hideyoshi’s true intention and the likelihood of
Japanese invasion, but they returned with conflicting opinions. Hwang
expressed the possibility of invasion, while Kim thought little of the
possibility. The King and the ruling classes were not alarmed. They laughed
away the Japanese diplomatic approaches and ignored the possibility of war.
When his overtures met with steadfast refusal, Toyotomi Hideyoshi
resolved to invade the Korean peninsula.
Korea, a nation accustomed to peace for centuries, was completely
unprepared when Japan presently invaded with 160,000 troops in April 1592.
Against the Japanese, with their superior numbers, training, and new arms
called muskets, the poorly equipped Korean military were as good as
17
helpless. The southern defense perimeter was breached within a matter of
days, and the forces of Japan began to make their way north without
difficulty.
The Korean King, Sonjo, fled with his son to Pyongyang on April 30;
two days later the Japanese reached the capital Seoul, eighteen days after
their unopposed landing in Pusan. As the Japanese army continued their
relentless advance northwards, defeating every Korean force that had the
courage to face them, King Sonjo and his Court abandoned the defense of
Pyongyang and fled again to Uiju, the northern tip of the Korean peninsula.
The Korean people were furious with the incompetence and irresponsibility
of the King and his Court. After only two months, the entire country had all
but fallen to Japanese invaders.

18
IV. The Major Naval Battles of Yi

Fortunately, Korea had not yet lost control of the sea. Since an overland
supply route would have cost too much in time and resources, the Japanese
had planned to deliver supplies to their soldiers in the field by boat as the
army moved northwards, making use of the southern and western coasts for
landing. In this, they were disappointed; the series of naval successes that
fell to the sailors of Yi Sun-sin compensated richly for the losses endured by
the beleaguered Korean land forces, doing much to restore the country’s
tattered morale. It also greatly imperiled the situation of the Japanese
soldiers by severing their lines of communication and supply, thus bringing
their previously unchallenged invasion to an abrupt standstill. Following are
brief accounts of the most crucial victories won in Admiral Yi’s counter-
campaign.

1. The Battle of Hansando and the ‘Crane Wing’ Formation

Admiral Yi Sun-sin, having enjoyed a continuous run of successes since

May 1592, was now engaged in the task of reorganizing and restoring his
19
naval forces at his headquarters in Yosu. Hideyoshi meanwhile was
anxiously looking for an opportunity to blot out the disgrace he had
incurred in recent defeats at sea. His first task was to re-establish a safe
supply route. This would necessarily involve the humbling of the Korean
Navy. With this in mind, he sent Wakisaka Yasuharu, one of his ablest
generals, together with 70 ships and an elite detachment of his own troops to
Wungchon as the First Fleet. The Second Fleet under Kuki Yoshitaka and
the Third under Kato Yoshiakira later joined Wakisaka by Hideyoshi’s
special command.
Aware of these developments, Admiral Yi assembled a fleet of 51 ships
by combining the forces of Admiral Yi Ok-ki with his own, and set off for
Kyonnaeryang where Wakisaka and his fleet were riding at anchor. He was
joined by Admiral Won Kyun enroute. He learned that the Kyonnaeryang
channel was an unfit place for battle as it was too narrow and strewn with
sunken rocks. His board-roofed ships, he reasoned, would be in danger of
colliding with one another, and the nearby land would offer the enemy too
near a place of refuge if they were defeated. He therefore decided to attempt
to lure the enemy out into the open sea before the island of Hansando. Since
Hansando lay between Koje and Kosong and was thus remote from the
safety of the mainland, the Korean navy would be at liberty to attack the
enemy in safety, and the enemy, if they chose to swim ashore, would face
death by starvation.
According to this plan, he positioned the greater portion of his warships
near Hansando and sent five or six ships into the Kyonnaeryang Channel.
Seeing their meager number, the Japanese fleet set sail immediately to offer
them battle. Yi then ordered the board-roofed ships to pull back as if in
retreat toward Hansando, where the rest of the fleet was lying in wait. As
expected, the Japanese fleet, elated by the Korean navy’s feigned cowardice,
redoubled their fire and began to give chase.
20
21
Yi took care to maintain a fixed distance between his own ships and those of
the pursuing enemy. When they emerged into the open sea, and had reached
the agreed spot near the island, he shouted suddenly,
“Now, turn and face the enemy! Turn about in Hagik-jin1! Attack the
flagship first!”
Immediately, the Korean fleet turned to face the Japanese and spread out
in Hagik-jin, surrounding the foremost vessels in a semi-circle; the Japanese,
before they knew it, were trapped with little room to maneuver and had little
choice but to remain where they were and weather the storm of cannon balls
and fire arrows which Yi’s ships now poured upon them. Seeing the fate of
their comrades, the remaining enemy ships scattered and fled in all
directions in great confusion and were pursued hotly by the Korean fleet. In
this engagement, without any losses of their own, Admiral Yi’s navy burned
and sank 47 enemy ships and captured 12, leaving Wakisaka only 14 ships
out of 73, a thousand men out of ten thousand.2
James Murdoch and Isoh Yamagata write in their book, A History of
Japan, as follows.

1 Crane Wing formation (Kor. Hagik-jin): One of Admiral Yi’s famed naval
formations. A Turtle-ship sails at the head of a detachment of board-roofed ships,
which spread out in a curved line resembling a crane’s wing when they come close
to the enemy, thus surrounding him before attacking. The renowned Japanese
history journal, History Studies (歷史硏究, May 2002) revealed that Admiral
Togo’s ‘T’ formation, used in the Battle of Tsushima, was based on this formation
by Admiral Yi.
2
No conclusive evidence exists for the loss of 9000 men, but it is by no means an
improbable estimate. The Japanese Navy lost 35 large-sized ships, each of which
would have typically held 200 men, as well as 17 medium-sized and 7 small-sized
ships which would have carried 100 and 40 men each respectively, producing a
total of 8980, a figure which is supported by the account of Je Man-chun, an eye-
witness of the battle who, while held as a prisoner-of-war in Japan, was able to
inspect the “Official Record of the Number of Personnel Recruited and Sent
Overseas” (兵糧調發件記), in which it was recorded that Wakisaka had initially
10,000 men under him but later 1,000.
22
 It [the Battle of Hansando] may well be called Salamis of Korea. It
signed the death-warrant of the invasion. It frustrated the great
motive of the expedition - the humbling of China; and thenceforth,
although the war dragged through many a long year, it was carried
on solely with a view to mitigating the disappointment of Hideyoshi.
(p. 337)

Having suffered a catastrophic loss in this last serious gamble,

Toyotomi Hideyoshi forbade sea battles to be fought against the Korean
Navy from then on. The Battle of Hansando, apart from being one of the
three most glorious Korean victories in the Imjin War—the other two being
those won at Chinju and Haengju, both land battles—is also considered as
ranking among the greatest naval battles of world history.
George Alexander Ballard (1862–1948), a vice-admiral of the British
Royal Navy, paid the following tribute to Admiral Yi’s extraordinary
achievements leading up to the Battle of Hansando in his book, The
Influence of the Sea on the Political History of Japan.

This [the Battle of Hansando] was the great Korea admiral’s

crowning exploit. In the short space of six weeks he had achieved a
series of successes unsurpassed in the whole annals of maritime war,
destroying the enemy’s battle fleets, cutting his lines of
communication, sweeping up his convoys,...and bringing his
ambitious schemes to utter ruin. Not even Nelson, Blake, or Jean
Bart could have done more than this scarcely known representative
of a small and cruelly oppressed nation; and it is to be regretted that
his memory lingers nowhere outside his native land, for no impartial
judge could deny him the right to be accounted among the born

23
 leaders of men. (p. 57)

The effects of Yi’s latest victory were considerable. The Koreans were
now the undisputed masters of the sea, and the Japanese on the Korean
mainland were completely isolated from their country’s support. Shortly
after the battle, Pyongyang was returned to Korean hands, with the aid of
the Ming Chinese forces who had arrived to relieve the land army. Two
months later Seoul was abandoned by the invaders, who were compelled to
submit to a truce agreement. In recognition of his ample role in bringing
about this happy outcome, Yi was instated as Tongjesa and given the
command of the combined naval forces of three provinces, which was then
the highest honour in the Korean Navy.

2. The Battle of Myongnyang, A Maritime Miracle

In December 1596, when negotiations between Ming China and Japan

had broken down, Hideyoshi renewed his Korean invasion plans after a
standstill of four years. Meanwhile, Admiral Yi was having trouble due to
an accusation laid against him by General Won Kyun and the intrigues of
the Japanese double-agent Yoshira. Won Kyun, who had always resented
that Yi should hold a position higher than his own, had not only deliberately
countermanded many of Yi’s orders in the past, but also frequently made
false reports to the King’s Court concerning the state of the navy and the
results of battles so as to defame Yi’s character. As a result, there was a
growing suspicion at court that the flourishing admiral could not be trusted.
The Japanese were aware that if they were to succeed in their fresh
invasion plans, they would need first to eliminate the man who had been the
ruin of all their former attempts. To that end, they devised a plan to oust him
24
from the favor of the King.
A Japanese soldier named Yoshira was sent to the camp of the Korean
general, Kim Eung-su, where he offered to work for the Koreans as a spy.
The general readily agreed, and Yoshira was able to act the role of an
informer, giving the Koreans what appeared to be valuable information. One
day he reported to General Kim as follows: ‘Before long, General Kato
Kiyomasa of Japan will arrive in Korea. I will soon be able to provide you
with full details regarding the exact time and the ship on which he is sailing,
but in the meantime, let Korea send the Tongjesa to intercept him.’
General Kim believed him and sought permission from King Sonjo to
send Admiral Yi to the scene of the enemy’s expected approach. The King
granted the request and ordered Yi to dispatch his ships. Yi, however, found
himself unable to obey the King’s order because he knew that the given
location was highly dangerous with many submerged rocks. It would have
been an act of suicide to attempt any kind of naval operation in such
conditions. When informed of this by General Kim, King Sonjo was greatly
angered, assuming that Yi was disobeying him out of haughtiness. Yi was
placed under arrest and taken to Seoul in chains, where he was beaten and
tortured. The King wanted to have him put to death, but Yi’s supporters at
Court convinced him to spare the admiral in view of his many past services
to the throne. Spared the death penalty, the Tongjesa was demoted to the
rank of common foot soldier, a humiliation he accepted without a word of
complaint or resentment.
Won Kyun, thanks to the exertions of his partisans, the Soin faction at
court, was instated as Tongjesa in Yi Sun-sin’s place, as he had wished for
so long. He was, however, far inferior to Yi in his direction of naval affairs
and lazy in the duties of managing the sailors and the fleet. Meanwhile, the
spy Yoshira continued to urge General Kim to send the Korean Navy to
intercept the fleet of Japanese ships, which he announced were now on the
25
point of arriving. The order was given, and Won Kyun, having marshaled
together every ship he could find, reluctantly set sail.
The result, as might have been predicted, was disastrous and made even
worse by Won Kyun’s inept and clumsy maneuvers, by which he very
narrowly avoided bringing the entire Korean fleet to destruction. Panic-
stricken and having lost the confidence of all his men, the admiral fled to
land, only to be beheaded by a Japanese soldier lying in wait for him. This
battle was the sole naval defeat experienced by the Korean Navy throughout
the whole course of the Imjin War, but its outcome was devastating and
irreparable. Of the Korean Navy’s 134 warships, a mere 12 escaped to
safety under Commander Pae Sol.
Upon hearing the news of Won Kyun’s disastrous defeat, the King
repented his rash decision and hastily reinstated Yi as Supreme Naval
Commander. Yi Sun-sin, in spite of his previous shameful demotion and the
recent heartbreaking news of his mother’s death, made his way to
headquarters, ready to do his duty. During the journey, he planned his
campaign. He ventured to take the longer, more dangerous route around the
Cholla Province in the face of his pursuing enemies, so that he would be
able to gather together the remaining ships with the help of refugees,
requisition supplies and weapons, and enlist new recruits. He visited the
officials of each village he passed through in order to give them
encouragement and to help restore the collapsed local administration. He
nursed within himself a passionate sense of duty and a loyal conviction that
the destiny of his country and people now depended on his labors.
When he arrived, he found that he had only 12 ships at his disposal. He
managed to obtain one more ship, provided by local residents. The King’s
Court, learning of the pitiful condition of the fleet, urged Yi to give up the
fight at sea and to join his forces with those of the land army, which would
mean the effective dissolution of the Korean Navy. Yi, however, submitted
26
the following memorial to the throne insisting on the importance of
preserving the country’s naval force.

During the past five or six years, since the earliest days of the war,
the enemy have been unable to penetrate the Chungchong and
Cholla provinces directly, for our navy has blocked their way. Your
humble servant still commands no fewer than twelve ships. If I
engage the enemy fleet with resolute effort, even now, as I believe,
they can be driven back. The total decommissioning of our navy
would not only please the enemy, but would open up for him the
sea route along the coast of Chungchong Province, enabling him to
sail up the Han River itself, which is my heart’s greatest fear. Even
though our navy is small, I promise you that as long as I live, the
enemy cannot despise us.
─ A Complete Collection on Chung Mu Gong Yi, Vol. 9

Yi’s memorial convinced the King and his courtiers, and the plans to
abandon the navy were set aside. Meanwhile, despite his seemingly
hopeless situation, Yi was doing his best to prepare for the coming battle.
To cope with the enemy’s vastly greater numbers, the engagement would
have to take place in a long narrow strait through which the enemy fleet
would only be able to enter by dividing into smaller groups. On the southern
coast, there were only two places befitting this description: Kyonnaeryang
and Myongnyang. The former was already under Japanese control, and so
Yi moved his headquarters to Myongyang with all speed.
Myongnyang was a passageway the Japanese had to go through to attack
Seoul (capital city), as they advanced from the South to the West Sea, and
up the Han River. As the waters of the expansive sea are forced into its
narrow strait, the drift of the current noticeably increases; at its fastest, it
27
reaches 10 knots (approximately 18 km/h), strongest of all the channels in
the Korean peninsula. And beneath the narrow and fast waterway of
Myongnyang, Yi mapped out a plan to lay a massive underwater trap in the
form of an iron rope tied to a capstan, a blockade device that would catch
the Japanese ships, and cause them to capsize and collide with each other
amidst the strong, fast current. The mainstay of the Korean war vessels at
the time were designed with a U-shaped base that was shallow and flat, but
the Japanese Navy had a V-shaped hull which was deep and sharp. An
underwater obstacle, therefore, was an effective way to stop the Japanese
Navy.
On September 15, 1597, one day before the decisive battle, Admiral Yi
called together all his staff officers and ships’ captains and delivered the
following address:

“According to the principles of strategy, ‘He who seeks death will

live, and he who seeks life will die.’ And again, ‘If one defender
stands watch by a strong gateway, he may drive terror deep into the
heart of an enemy coming up by the ten thousand.’ To men in our
condition, these sayings are worth more than gold. You, my
Captains, are expected to render strict obedience to my commands.
If you do not, not even the least error will be pardoned, nay, but
severely punished according to Martial Law”.
─War Diary, September 15, 1597

Early in the morning, on the 16th of September, Yi received news that a

large fleet of Japanese ships was approaching his base. He called on all of
his captains to take the Oath of Valor. Then he weighed anchor and put out
to sea at the head of his fleet, ready to engage an enemy fleet of 330 war
vessels with only 13 of his own.
28
 The thirteen ships of the Korean Navy stood arrayed against the enemy
in Ilja-jin (One Line Formation). Ilja-jin is one of the simplest formations,
consisting of a group of ships lined abreast with their prows facing the
enemy; understandably, with only 13 ships, Yi was not at liberty to attempt
anything more complex or diverse. Thus a single battle line of the Korean
Navy faced a huge enemy fleet of over 300 vessels.
Owing to the narrowness of the channel, only 130 Japanese ships were
able to come in to attack, and before long, they had surrounded Admiral
Yi’s fleet. Outnumbered by ten to one, the overwhelmed captains of the
Korean Navy stealthily began to pull back in fear. Yi’s flagship sped
forward alone into the midst of the advancing enemy, fearlessly bombarding
them with a constant volley of arrows and gunfire.
As the Japanese fleet enveloped the flagship with line after line, the
sailors on board lost heart and crouched down, motionless. Admiral Yi
quietly remonstrated with them, “Though the enemy may boast of his
thousand warships, he will not dare come near us. Have no fear! Engage the
enemy with all your might!” Yi looked about for his other ships, but they
had already fallen astern from the flagship by some distance.
He raised the military command flag and hoisted a call signal towards
the captains, whereupon they drew nearer to the flagship. Admiral Yi called
to one of them furiously, “Do you want to be hanged under court martial?
Do you want to die by military command? Do you think you can live by
hanging back?” Awakened by these words, the ships of An and Kim
charged the enemy line at full speed, and fought desperately. But they soon
grew exhausted in the face of the countless enemies who crowded in
unceasingly against them.
At that moment, the tide of the battle was turned by a single fortunate
circumstance. On Admiral Yi’s flagship there was a Japanese defector who
worked for Yi as a translator. As he looked down upon the enemy soldiers
29
 Sea Battle of Myongnyang
16th of 9th moon, 1597

30
and sailors swimming in blood on the surface of the sea, the dead body of a
man clothed in a red brocade uniform caught his eye; it was Matashi, the
Japanese general. Straightaway, Admiral Yi ordered his men to haul up the
floating body and display it to the enemy, suspending it from the top of the
mast. As expected, the sight of their dead commander sent terror and dread
sweeping through the Japanese navy.
Just then, the current of the Myongnyang, which changes direction four
times a day, every six hours, turned against the Japanese Navy, in favor of
the Korean fleet, putting the formations of both sides out of order. Admiral
Yi quickly took command and at his encouragement the Korean ships darted
forward beating drums and calling out battle cries. The Japanese fleet
scattered and took flight. Taking advantage of the tide’s new direction, the
confined nature of the battleground, and the cumbersome size of the enemy
fleet, now a weakness rather than strength, Yi’s fleet drove the enemy into a
melee of chaos and destruction.
The capstan turned, the iron ropes tightened. As their front edges and the
rudders entangled with the iron ropes, the Japanese ships rushing in retreat
capsized into the strong current and collided into each other. It was a scene
of turmoil.
As they lost order, the Japanese ships became entangled, ramming into
one another, as if fighting amongst themselves. The Korean Navy
meanwhile kept up the attack, hailing down arrows and firing the cannons
marked “Earth” and “Black” (For an explanation of these terms, see section
V on the Kobukson). Of the 130 enemy warcraft that entered the
Myongnyang Channel, 31 ships were sunk and more than 90 were severely
damaged; none of the Korean ships were lost. Such was the Battle of
Myongnyang, won, as Admiral Yi wrote in his diary, purely by the grace of
heaven, and regarded as a miracle in the history of marine warfare.

31
 3. The Battle of Noryang, The Final Battle

Japan’s second invasion of Korea in 1597 was encumbered once again

by the formidable presence of Admiral Yi on the sea as well as the volunteer
Korean patriots and Chinese relief forces on land. The death of Hideyoshi in
August of the following year brought with it the recall of the Japanese
forces from Korea. Admiral Yi decided to block the enemy’s return route in
collaboration with the Ming Chinese Navy, at that time under the command
of Admiral Chen Lien.
Chen Lien, however, had been offered a bribe by Konish Yukinaga, a
Japanese general, in return for his granting the Japanese Navy a safe passage
back to Japan. The two admirals, therefore, with opposite purposes, each
attempted to persuade the other, the one hoping to destroy the retreating
Japanese force, the other to spare it. In the end, Lien could do nothing but
accept Yi’s adamant intention to intercept the fleeing enemy forces. While
these plans were being made, Yukinaga sent a message to his colleague
Simath Yoshihiro and requested him to assemble the entire Japanese fleet at
Noryang, planning to make one final attack on the combined naval forces of
Korea and China during their retreat.
Yi therefore ordered his crews to sail out to Noryang, where he engaged
the Japanese in a fierce battle, in which 50 enemy ships were destroyed.
Around daybreak the following day, the Japanese Navy, unable to resist any
longer, began to flee towards Kwaneumpo, imagining that they were
heading for open sea. Upon reaching it, however, they discovered that they
were blocked in on every side. Left with no choice but to turn back and fight,
the Japanese ships charged at the flagship of Admiral Yi. Chen Lien,
discovering that Yi was in trouble, penetrated the encircling line of the
enemy fleet and brought him to safety. As the battle continued, however, it
was now Chen Lien who found himself surrounded by a circle of enemy
32
ships. Yi, noticing three enemy generals standing in the bow of the Main
Command ship directing and encouraging their fleet, ordered all his gunners
to aim at them. Of the three, one was killed. The noose then loosened as the
encircling ships headed towards their Main Command ship for her
protection, and Chen Lien was safe.
The combined Korean and Chinese navies then renewed their attack on
the Japanese, sinking 200 of their ships. As Admiral Yi, roaring out the call
to advance, led the fleet in a final foray against the forces that remained, he
was hit by a stray bullet from an enemy vessel and fell mortally wounded.
Yi bid his men cover him with a shield. “The battle is at its height,” he said
to them, “Tell no one of my death.” These final words he left behind him as
a bequest of loyalty to his country. By his side stood his eldest son Hoe and
his nephew Wan with bows in their hands. Holding back their tears, they
continued to wave the flag and beat the drum, signaling to the navy to fight
on.
Admiral Yi’s sailors did not slacken in their efforts until the very last
moments of the battle were over. As a result, only 50 out of the 500
Japanese were able to escape. It was this, the Battle of Noryang, which
finally put an end to the Imjin War.

33
V. The Kobukson or ‘Turtle Ship’

The Kobukson, also known as the Turtle Ship, was the first ironclad
warship in the world. Boasting unparalleled firepower and mobility, it
proved a pivotal instrument for victory in the sea battles under Admiral Yi.
Effectively a sea tank, it was capable of sinking large numbers of enemy
vessels and did much to maintain the morale of Korean sailors.
It should not be supposed that Admiral Yi designed and built the Turtle
Ship entirely by himself. The planning and the actual construction of the
Kobukson required the combined efforts of a large number of people, both
craftsmen and naval officers. On the practical side of the work, for instance,
Na Tae-yong (1556~1612) played one of the most important roles in
bringing the plans for the ship to fruition.

An Overview of Kobukson

The following are the main features of Kobukson, as recorded by Yi

Sun-sin’s nephew, Yi Pun, in his book, Haeng Rok.

34
 Replica of Kobukson at the War Memorial of Korea

1. Its dimensions are 34.2m in length, 6.4m in height, and 10.3m in width; it
is thus roughly the same size as a Panokson (the standard warship of the
Korean Navy at the time of the Imjin War).
2. The prow is fashioned in the shape of a dragon’s head; cannon balls are
fired through the mouth.
3. The stern is in the shape of a turtle’s tail. Additional gun ports are
stationed beneath it.
4. The turtle’s ‘back’ is a roof made with planks and is covered with iron
spikes. Amid the spikes is a narrow, cross-shaped alley that serves as a
passageway along the roof for the crew to use.
5. Six gun ports are positioned on each side of the deck.
6. During combat the spikes on the roof are concealed with straw mats, on
which an unsuspecting enemy will be impaled if he tries to board.
7. Any attack from port or starboard is repelled by arrows and cannon fire,

35
 which can be launched from every part of the ship.
8. From the inside, the outside can be seen, but the inside cannot be seen
from the outside.
9. It employs every variety of projectile-based weapon, including long-
ranging cannons such as Chon (Heaven), Chi (Earth), Hyon (Black) and
Hwang (Yellow).
10. As such, it is able to roam freely and unopposed amid many hundreds of
enemy ships.

Detailed Description of Kobukson

The Kobukson was mounted with a dragon’s head at the bow and a
turtle’s tail at the stern. It had two decks; a lower deck for oarsmen and an
upper deck for archers and gunners. It was specially designed so that its
sailors could see their enemies outside while remaining invisible.
In the naval warfare of the day, it was usual to attempt to board an
opponent’s ship and engage him in hand-to-hand combat. The Kobukson
was designed to make this kind of assault particularly difficult. Not only
was the ship roofed over, protecting both combat (45) and non-combat (80)
personnel alike, but the roof itself was fitted with deadly iron spikes, which
were often concealed beneath innocent-looking straw mats.
Unlike other warships, the Kobukson had guns stationed not only along
its sides, but also in the bow and in the stern, allowing it unprecedented
accuracy and flexibility of range in firepower. The dragon head was
designed not only to ‘breathe out’ flaming arrows and cannon balls, but also
sulfurous fumes and clouds of smoke, which provided the Korean Navy
with cover for tactical maneuvers, as well as frightening the more
superstitious of the Japanese sailors.
A little below the bow, there protruded the head of a gargoyle, which
36
served as a charging device, and together with the dragon head constituted
the secret of the Kobukson’s tactic of ramming. In battle, the Kobukson
would charge an enemy ship and, once the gargoyle’s head had breached its
hull, cannon balls would be fired from the dragon’s head into the breach as
the ship withdrew. The gargoyle had the further effect of improving the
ship’s hydrodynamic performance by cutting the waves as the ship sped
along, thus increasing its ramming speed.
Two further features of the Kobukson made it particularly serviceable
for the execution of this tactic. First, it was built with Red Pine timbers no
less than 12cm in diameter; the advantage offered by this type of wood was
that its relative density of 0.73 was much higher than that of average timber,
which lay typically between 0.41-0.47. Second, wooden nails were used in
the construction of the Kobukson. Unlike metal, which was quick to rust,
the wooden nails absorbed water and expanded, and thus over time the
joints became more secure. The Kobukson as a whole was constructed on
this principle: support beams were fitted to the roofs by means of a system
of matching indentations and interlocking teeth, thus making the entire
structure of the vessel stronger and more resilient.
The Japanese ships, built out of wood with a low density, were light and
swift, but the relative weakness of the wood to withstand the recoil of
cannon put a restriction on the number of heavy fire-arms that could be
carried on one ship. Consequently they normally preferred to use muskets,
which had a maximum range of 200 meters. The Kobukson, on the other
hand, were able to carry a whole array of different cannons on board,
including long-distance cannons such as the Chon (Heaven) with a range of
over 500 meters, the Chi (Earth), its slightly smaller companion, which had
a range of 350 meters, and the Sung (Victory), a portable cannon with a
range of up to 200 meters.
Kobukson had eight oars on either side, with a team of five men — a
37
leader and four regular oarsmen — assigned to each oar, making a total
rowing crew of 80. During combat every oarsman was expected to be on
duty, but at other times they would take turns at the oar in pairs. The leader
would direct his colleagues to row forward or backward, to increase or
decrease speed, to halt or turn about, according to the changing
circumstances of the battle. This innovative division of duties thus gave the
Kobukson superior potential of movement not only in terms of speed but
also in terms of the range of its possible maneuvers.
The combat personnel on board the Kobukson were divided into three
groups: gunners, chargers responsible for the loading of cannons with shells
and gunpowder, and archers. It was thus possible for the Kobukson to
produce an uninterrupted shower of cannon balls and fire-arrows, wreaking
havoc on everything that came within its range.
The number of gun ports generally varied from ship to ship, but the
Tongjeyong Kobukson which we find described in The Complete Works of
Yi Sun-sin had a total of 74: 12 ports on either side of the turtle’s back, 44 on
either side of the shielded boards underneath, 2 above and below dragon’s
head, and so on.
Invented late in the 16th century, Kobukson was a unique warship, the
like of which cannot be found used anywhere else in world naval history.
Planned with meticulous care, and the result of much detailed scientific
research, it boasted unsurpassed structure and performance. Above all, much
meaning lies in the fact that Kobukson was a refinement and a remodeling
of the Panokson, the existing warship of Korea, based on careful
investigation of the primary Japanese tactic of grappling and boarding.
Replicas of Kobukson are on display at various national museums, such
as the War Memorial of Korea, as well as other museums in many other
countries including China, Japan, Germany, France, USA, and Canada.

38
VI. The War Diary of Yi Sun-sin

Yi Sun-sin kept a careful record of daily events in his diary. This diary,
when completed, contained some 2539 entries, both private and official,
together comprising an account of his life in the camps during the period of
the Imjin War. The first entry appears on January 1, 1592, the day of his
appointment as Admiral of the Left Cholla Province, and the last on
November 17, 1598, two days before his death at the battle of Noryang.
Two copies of the diary have been handed down to us: one is the original
diary (designated National Treasure No.76) and is housed at the Asan
Memorial Shrine, and the second is to be found in The Complete Works of
Yi Sun-sin, a work edited and published by Yun Hang-im by Royal
Command in the 19th year of King Chongjo’s reign, 1795. Admiral Yi did
not give an official title to his diary, but it has been known as War Diary
(Kor. Nangjung Ilgi) since Yun conceived it as a convenient title when
compiling his Complete Works.
War Diary is a source of utmost historical importance, as its detailed
pages provide for us the most reliable information about the course of
events during the Imjin War. Not only this, but it is from its entries that
we have learned much of what we know today about the mind and
39
 Yi Sun-sin’s War Diary

character of a hero who lived almost half a millennium ago. War Diary
presents a vivid description of Admiral Yi’s daily life, military affairs,
secret strategic meetings, of social visits from friends, family, colleagues
and celebrities, of rewards and punishment, correspondence, personal
reflections on the state of the country, and so on. Like a warrior’s writing,
the diary was written in a simple yet sincere language, and its bold brush
strokes illustrate the gallant spirit of the author, making the War Diary a
true work of art.

40
VII. Life and Death of Admiral Yi Sun-sin

The life and splendid accomplishments of Admiral Yi took place amid

grim hardships and constant adversities; his country was in crisis and his
people were suffering. From the outside he had the Japanese to contend with,
from within, the jealousy and mischievous slanders of the King and his
Court. The war in which he took part was a desperate fight on which the fate
of his nation depended and was a heavy responsibility, one undertaken in
spite of the almost total absence of material support and reinforcement from
central or local governments.
The one thing Yi received from the government was the position of
Tongjesa, Supreme Naval Commander, which immediately made him the
target of political antagonism and intrigue, and later became the cause of his
demotion and imprisonment. The local governments were officially obliged
to provide the navy with supplies for battle, but the collection and
distribution of these supplies were made almost impossible by the constant
desertion of the land by farmers and the incorrigible venality of local
officials. The results spoke for themselves. In 1593, the Korean Navy
suffered from serious starvation in their camp at Hansando. Around 600
sailors (that is, around 10% of the total manpower) died of hunger, while the
41
rest endured malnutrition and serious illness. In such circumstances, it was a
hard task indeed for Admiral Yi to muster sufficient numbers of men to
fight for him.
Yi’s work was not limited to commanding his men in battles. He was
also responsible for provisions, military supplies, distribution, recruitment,
care for the wounded, shipbuilding, manufacture of cannon and ammunition,
farming, and salt production as a source of raising money. In short, he had
to provide for every aspect of warfare by and for himself. The government,
meanwhile, so far from lending him support, would even occasionally
demand that he should send supplies of paper and weapons for the Royal
Court from his camp.
Yi’s political misfortunes dated back to the days before his appointment
in the Royal Navy when he served as a junior officer. His promising career
was suddenly cut short when he became an innocent victim of the bitter
struggle for power between the warring parties at court. Yi Sun-sin was a
man whose only loyalties were to his country and to his principles. A man
of this kind, for whom personal glory and influence held so little interest,
and who never paid deference to power for its own sake, was naturally a
thorn in the side of the corrupt politicians who were his contemporaries. In
actuality, it was his upright character which constituted the true substance of
the accusation laid against Yi Sun-sin at Hansando. Officially, however, it
was charged that he had:

(1) Deceived and thereby held in contempt the throne and his court.
(2) Betrayed his country by failing to attack a retreating enemy.
(3) Assumed credit for others’ accomplishments and slandered the
innocent: thus showing an unreserved and impudent attitude.

These grave allegations were the fruits of Yi Sun-sin’s disastrous

42
relationship with General Won Kyun that had begun soon after the outbreak
of war and also the result of the efforts of the Japanese double agent Yoshira
who worked to eliminate Yi and thus clear the path for the Japanese
campaign.
Seven Royal Assemblies were held in order to determine Yi’s fate. The
discussion held among the courtiers was recorded for us by the Sonjo Sillok
(Royal Archives). From this, it is clear that King Sonjo had already decided
that Yi should be killed, and that he was constantly soliciting the agreement
of the court by means of subtle hints. The admiral’s supporters, however,
succeeded in convincing the King that the execution of a general during
wartime could only be in the interests of the enemy. In this way, Yi
narrowly escaped being put to death and was led back to prison. When the
second Japanese invasion took place, he found himself fighting as a
common foot soldier. In a rigidly hierarchical society such as the Choson
Dynasty of Korea, demotion from Supreme Naval Command to the rank of
common soldier was one of the worst humiliations imaginable, worse than
even the death penalty.
It is a testament to the noble nature of Yi Sun-sin that in his diary we
find no mention of his torture and demotion, nor of political intrigue and
persecution. Neither is any trace of his misfortune and disgrace to be found
in much of the literature written about him by others. He left no record or
statement on the subject of his dishonor and dismissal. As a disgraced
private soldier, he kept his silence; and later, when he had to fight with only
13 ships against a 130-strong enemy fleet after Won Kyun’s disastrous
defeat, he quietly did his duty without blaming anyone.
Yi, who had returned as the Tongjesa, had once again saved Choson
Korea with his great victory at Myongnyang. At the news of the victorious
battle, the entire populace, the government officials, and even the Ming
generals were astounded and greatly rejoiced. Meanwhile, the Japanese,
43
having suffered a disastrous defeat, dispatched 50 soldiers to Yi’s home in
Asan in revenge. They burned the house and plundered the neighborhood.
Other family members narrowly escaped to mountains nearby, but his third
son Myon, who remained, fought against them with a bow and a sword in
his hand. Killing three Japanese soldiers, resisting till the end, he finally lost
his life to the enemy’s sword. He was then 21 years old. The death of his
beloved son deeply scarred Yi’s heart and left him in an even worse state of
health.3
The task of leading and controlling his men was never an easy one. The
crimes of robbery, rape, disobedience, mutiny, drunkenness, desertion,
divulgence of military secrets, improper recruitment, espionage,
dissemination of false rumors – all these took place, as they do in all such
camps during wartime.
Yi Sun-sin, however, forced his men to face the hellish reality of life,
the wretched plight of the Korean Navy, and never accepted any excuse for

3
Yi sun sin expresses his painful sorrow over the death of his youngest son in his
diary as follows: How could the Heavens be so merciless. It is as if my heart is
being burned and torn to pieces. Proper, by Nature, it is I who should have died and
it is you who should have lived. Yet since you are dead and I alive, how contrary to
Nature, how improper is it. The heavens and the earth are dark, and even the sun
has lost its color. Ah, how sad! My son, where are you now, having deserted me? Is
it because you are such an outstanding figure that the heavens are unwilling to
leave you in this world, or is it because of my sin, that this great misfortune has
befallen you? Even if I hold out in this world, now on whom can I lean my heart? I
wish to follow you to the grave, to stay and weep with you together under the
ground, but if I do, your brothers, sisters and your mother will have no one to lean
their hearts on. Thus I endure, but my mind that wails is already dead, soulless.
Passing a night now seems like waiting for a year to go by. (War Diary, October 14,
1597)
“It has been exactly four days since I heard the news of my youngest son’s death. I
had been unable to weep freely, so I went to the house of Kang Makji, the fire-
tender at the saltern, and cried.” (October 16, 1597) [Editor’s Note] Yi could not
express his sorrow in the presence of his seamen so he had sought privacy at
Kang’s house.
44
avoiding them. He shared with his men the firm belief that ‘He who seeks
death will live, and he who seeks life will die.’ He put his belief into
practice by always leading his navy from the front in battle and was
wounded in the Battle of Sachon as a result of this courageous policy.
Throughout his whole career, Yi Sun-sin fought face-to-face with death
on behalf of his country and countrymen, and in the last battle of the war, he
finally offered up his life.

45
VIIΙ. Conclusion

Sitting alone under a lighted candle, I took thought of the present state
of our nation’s affairs; I found the tears rolling down my cheeks.
─War Diary, January 1, 1595

At times, he agonized in tears as he watched his soldiers train while

enduring starvation. He sacrificed himself and tended to the needs of his
soldiers and people before his own. He carried forth his love for them.
With his uncompromising loyalty, his dauntless will, and steadfast
courage, he saved his country when its leaders were lost in the crisis of war.
He firmly held on to honest principles, put an end to evil customs, and led
his men with thorough preparation and a pioneering spirit. He possessed
unshakable conviction, achieved repeated successes in battles by means of
brilliant tactics and strategy, and by his unselfish devotion, gained the
absolute trust of his men. He had no experienced, well-trained navy as
Admiral Togo and Admiral Nelson had, nor was he himself trained as an
admiral. His country was small and weak and unable to support him.
However, even the Heavens were moved by his noble spirit of loyalty,
and he attained the legendary record of 23 consecutive victories. He raised
up fruit from barren earth. Indeed, he created everything from nothing.
To Koreans, he is not a hero, but a holy hero.
He is Admiral Yi Sun-sin.

46
 Appendix

A. Admiral Yi’s War Diary and Memorials to Court

B. The Warships and Weaponry of Korea and Japan

C. Pictures of Kobukson

D. The Admiralship of Yi Sun-sin

E. Yi Sun-sin: His Memories and Influence on Korea Today

F. Naval Battles of Admiral Yi

G. Chronological Career Note

47
48
 Admiral Yi’s War Diary and Memorials to Court

The English versions of Admiral Yi Sun-sin's War Diary and

Memorials to Court have been published by Yonsei University Press.
Written from the admiral’s own perspective, they give a vivid description of
his life at sea and the situations he faced during the war. Because these
records were written by a man of strict integrity, who lived in a society
where the progression of the war was reported meticulously to the king by
his overseers, they provide trustworthy accounts of the events of the battles
and are free from the exaggerations and inaccuracies so typical of historical
records of wars. Here are a few selected entries of the diary and memorials,
a clear mirror that reflects Yi’s noble life and profound spirit in various
aspects.

Memorials to Court: 1. Emergency Measures Against Japanese

Invasion

Yi, Your Majesty’s humble subject, Commander of Cholla Left Naval

Station, addresses the throne about some emergency measures against the
enemy attack. Today, on the 15th of fourth moon at 8:00 p.m., I received
from Won Kyun, Commander of Kyongsang Right Naval Station, an official
dispatch with the information that urgent reports from Commandant Chon
Ung-nin of Kadok Fort and Captain Hwang Chong-nok of Ch’onsongp’o
had reached him on the 14th at 10 a.m., relaying the alarms given by Yi On,
the lighthouse keeper at Ungbong and So Kon, the beacon watch in Naesan-
49
myon, Kimhae-gun, that on the 13th at 4 p.m., about ninety Japanese vessels,
having passed by Chugido, sailed toward Pusanpo in a long line of battle
and that the commandant ordered his right-wring captain at Tadaepo, Pusan
to lead his warships out to sea to watch the movements of the Japanese
vessels.
In the above dispatch Won Kyun saw these vessels as the Japanese
trading boats coming to our land annually, but the continuous arrival of such
a larger merchant fleet of ninety vessels is an uncommon event. In order to
cope with the worst possible condition that might befall us, I sent official
dispatches of warning to all ports under my command to watch carefully in
full war-alert day and night, and I also stand on the watchtower at the
entrance of the sea with my battleships in martial array.
I report as above for today. I must add that in another official dispatch
on the same day Won Kyun stated that he had received a special dispatch at
4 p.m., from Pak Hong, Commander of Kyongsang Left Naval Station,
based on an urgent report from Commandant of Kadok Fort - “One hundred
and fifty Japanese vessels are entering the harbors of Haeundae and Pusan.”
Won Kyun expressed his grave concern, saying that these are not the
Japanese trading boats on their annual visit to Korea. It will take a long time
to analyze the individual items of the messages, so here I transmit their main
points only and will report on the coming developments of the situation. I
will maintain battle-ships at the entrance of the sea to meet any emergency
that might arise. At the same time, I sent round circular letters to the
Provincial Governor, the Army Commander, and the Commander of Cholla
Right Naval Station in addition to the keepers of coastal towns and ports,
calling upon them to be on the alert.

Yi, Commander
th
8:00 p.m., 15 of Fourth Moon, 1592
50
Memorials to Court: 9. Defeating the Japanese at Kyonnaeryang [the
Hansando Battle]

I memorialize the throne about the capture and slaughter of the enemy.
Before the arrival of the royal orders, the Japanese robbers, roving on the
sea of Kyongsang Province, gradually encroached upon the coastal areas
under the jurisdiction of the Kyongsang Right Naval Station, burning and
plundering everywhere until the invaded Sach’on, Kongyang, and Namhae.
Therefore, I sent official dispatches to both Cholla Right Naval Station
Commander Yi Ok-ki and Kyongsang Right Naval Station Commander Won
Kyun to take united action with me. As a result, we captured the enemy
vessels and cut off the heads of his officers and men and destroyed them
altogether before we returned to our respective headquarters on the 10th of
sixth moon as I have already reported.
When I received from the Joint Border-Defense Council an official
letter transmitting Your Majesty’s written orders I pledged anew with the
two Commanders and sent official dispatches to annihilate the individual
raiders who frequent our shores and islands, as I assembled my warships in
battle formation.
As a result of reconnaissance of the enemy movements in Kyongsang
Province, it has come to my knowledge that the Japanese vessels in groups
of ten to thirty frequent the islands of Kadok and Koje, and I have also
heard that the Japanese ground troops invaded Kumsan in Cholla Province.
In this way, the enemy is extending his attacks on land and sea, but no one
rises to resist. Should things go on this way, the enemy will march farther
and deeper north through the heartland of our country. Therefore, in the
evening of the 4th of seventh moon I led my fleet to the appointed
rendezvous agreed upon with Yi Ok-ki, Commander of Cholla Right Naval
Station. On the fifth we renewed our pledge to fight, and on the sixth I led
51
our united fleet to Noryang on the boundary of Konyang and Namhae, and
saw Won Kyun, Commander of Kyongsang Right Naval Station, who had
been staying there with seven damaged warships barely repaired. We met at
sea for a strategic conference, and sailed to Changsin-do, where we passed
the night. On the seventh a strong easterly wind arose and navigation was
difficult. On reaching Tangpo at nightfall our men gathered wood and drew
water, when Kim Chon-son, a cowherd on that island came running toward
our warships and reported, “Over seventy enemy vessels large, medium, and
small, sailed from the sea off Yongdungpo today at 2:00 p.m., and entered
Kyonnaeryang, where they are now riding at anchor.” I ordered my ships’
captains to be on the alert, and early on the morning of the eighth we set out
to sea. As we looked toward the enemy anchorage, two enemy vanguard
vessels, large and medium, came out, spied our ships and returned to their
positions. We immediately chased them and found eighty-two enemy
vessels (36 large, 34 medium, 12 small) lined up in a long row, but the
channel of Kyonnaeryang was narrow and strewn with sunken rocks so it
was not only difficult to fight in the bay for fear our board-roofed ships
might collide with one another but also the enemy might escape to land by
jumping ashore when driven into a corner. For these reasons, I adopted the
tactic of luring the enemy out to the sea in front of Hansando where we
could capture his vessels and slaughter his men in strike, because Hansando
lies between Koje and Kosong, separated all round from land to swim to,
and even those who landed would die of starvation.
First, I ordered out five or six board-roofed vanguard ships to make
chase, feigning a surprise attack. When the enemy vessels under full sail
pursued our ships, they fled from the bay as if returning to base. The enemy
vessels kept pursuing ours until they came out to open sea. Immediately I
commanded my ships’ captain to line up in the Crane Wing formation so as
to surround the enemy vessels in a semi-circle. Then I roared “Charge!” Our
52
ships dashed forward with the roar of cannons “Earth,” “Black,” and
“Victory,” breaking two or three of the enemy vessels into pieces. The other
enemy vessels, stricken with terror, scattered and fled in all directions in
great confusion. Our officers and men and local officials on board shouted
“Victory!” and darted at flying speed, vying with one another, as they hailed
down arrows and bullets like a thunder storm, burning the enemy vessels
and slaughtering his warriors completely...
…In addition, the remaining enemy vessels (20 large, 17 medium, and
5 small) were broken and burnt by the united attacks of scores of our
warriors from the Right and Left Naval Stations. Countless numbers of
Japanese were hit by arrows and fell dead into the water.
However, about four hundred exhausted Japanese, finding no way to
escape, deserted their boats and fled ashore, while the remaining Japanese
boats (one large, seven medium, and six small) which had fallen behind
during the battle, seeing from afar the horrible sight of burning vessels and
falling heads, rowed their boats very fast and fled in all directions. Both
officers and men on our ships were exhausted by the fierce day-long battle,
and the gathering dusk made it impossible for us to pursue the escaping
Japanese to the end, so we returned to our position in the inner sea of
Kyonnaeryang to rest for the night…
…I fear that the enemy might return in a second invasion with
reinforcements and attack us from both flanks. Therefore, before breaking
up our combined fleet, I agreed with Yi Ok-ki, Commander of Cholla Right
Naval Station, to keep our sailors on the alert, with bows and spears beside
them, waking for sleeping, to be ready when an emergency rises once again.
I also gave instructions to the local officials to give relief to the persons
who have been recaptured and to send them home when peace is restored.
The recent victories were won thanks to the united strength of
commanders, sailors, and local officials. At the present time, the Royal
53
Headquarters is far away, and traffic is blocked. If the war exploits of our
valiant officers and men are graded and announced after the arrival of the
government orders, the delay would not be good for morale. Therefore, in
consideration of what they achieved in battle I have marked the order of
their individual merit by three classes – A, B, & C… on the list of their
names in the appendix. The officers and men are placed on the record with
marks they deserve in line with my promise, even though they did not cut
off many enemy heads.
Yi, Commander
th
15 of Seventh Moon, 1592

Memorials to Court: 20. Request for Order to Settle War Refugees on

Tolsando Farms

I memorialize the throne on the following matter for reference.

There are about two hundred families of wandering war refugees who
fled from Kyongsang Province and live in the districts under the jurisdiction
of my Navy Headquarters. These refugees were given accommodations in
temporary quarters to pass the winter, but there is no way to get supplies for
their relief, and even though they can return to their native homes when
peace is restored no one can bear to see them die of starvation in the
meantime. Following my letter addressed to Chief State Councilor Yu Song-
nyong, an official dispatch arrived from the Border Defense Command, “If
there are arable lands on the islands suitable for agriculture, send the
refugees to those islands to cultivate crops and make a living thereon. Take
proper measures for the establishment of farm villages as you deem fit.”
After careful survey I have found that no other islands are preferable to
Tolsando, because this island lies between my naval station (in Yosu) and
54
Pangtap, which is protected by high mountains all around its vast fertile
plains, and inaccessible to thieves or sea-rovers. I have instructed the
refugees to enter the island and to commence the spring plowing, which
they did with gladness.
When former Royal Supreme Commissioner Hong Chong-nok,
Governor Yun Tu-su, Naval Commanders Pak Son, Yi Ch’on, and Yi Yong
memorialized the throne about farm cultivation by border guards at my
Navy Headquarters, the Ministry of War objected to the plan for the reason
that agriculture would interfere with horse-breeding on that island. Now that
the country is at war and many people have lost their livelihood, and in any
case, the tilling of soil by wandering refugees will not do any harm to horse-
breeding, it is earnestly hoped that a royal decree be issued to facilitate both
horse-breeding and refugee relief.
Yi, Commander
th
26 of First Moon, 1593

War Dairy: September 3, 1594

Drizzled. At dawn I received a confidential letter from the King’s court.

It says “The generals on land and the admirals at sea have folded their arms
as they look at each other’s faces without making any single plan to proceed
or to attack the enemy.” I should like to reply, “No such thing in my sea-life
during the past three years. Though I swore with other captains of war to
avenge our slaughtered countrymen upon the enemy by risking our own
lives, and we pass many days on land and at sea in this resolution, the
enemy has taken his positions in deep trenches and high fortresses on steep
hills inaccessible to us. It is not wise to proceed frivolously. A wise captain
of war should keep to the rule “Knowing yourself and knowing the enemy is
55
the surest way to secure success in a hundred battles.” A strong wind blew
all day. From early in the evening I sat in candle light all alone. As I think of
the state affairs in utter confusion and disturbance, there seems nobody in
the central government who could save the nation from danger. What should
be done? Seeing that I sat up alone until ten o’clock, Hungyang came in and
talked with me deep into midnight before he retired from my presence.

War Diary: July 1, 1595

Showers. Being a national memorial service day (for King Injong) I did
not attend office; sitting alone in my pavilion, I thought of the nation power
as if as ephemeral as the morning dew; there does not seem to be any
eminent minister who can make positive decisions within, nor is there a
general who can save the nation without. I cannot even guess what will
become of the nation. My thoughts are perplexed; I tossed and rolled in
deep thought.

War Diary: September 15, 1597 [A day before the Battle of

Myongnyang]

Clear. By riding the rising tide I led the Captains of all ships to move to
the sea off Usuyong, because it was not right for a small fleet to take a
fighting position with its back against Myongnyang (Ultolmok, the Roaring
Channel), whose swift current falls like a cataract behind Pyokpajong (the
Sea-Viewing Pavilion). Calling my Staff Officers and all ships’ Captains, I
gave the following instruction: “According to the principles of strategy, ‘He
who seeks his death shall live, he who seeks his life shall die.’ Again, the
56
strategy says ‘If one defender stands on watch at a strong gateway he may
drive terror deep into the heart of the enemy coming by the ten thousand.’
These are golden sayings for us. You Captains are expected to strictly obey
my orders. If you do not, even the least error shall not be pardoned, but shall
be severely punished by Martial Law.” In this way I showed them my firm
attitude. In my dream this night a spirit appeared before me and declared, “If
you do in this way, you shall win a great victory; if you do in that way you
shall suffer a tragic defeat.”

War Diary: September 16, 1597 [The day of the Battle of Myongnyang]

Clear. Early in the morning, a special scouting unit reported “The

enemy vessels in countless numbers, having passed the Channel of
Myongnyang, enter the area where we have our positions.” At once I
ordered all ships in my fleet, including my Flagship, to weigh anchor and I
led them out to sea. Soon after, one hundred and thirty odd enemy vessels
enveloped us. Our ships’ Captains lost their fighting morale at the sight of
the enemy’s overwhelming strength of numbers, and used various devices to
fall out from the line of battle. In particular, the ship of Kim Ok-chu,
Commander of the Cholla Right Naval Station, had already fallen away to a
distance of over one mile. I had our oarsmen row the Flagship swiftly and
dash forward like an arrow while our gunners at my signal poured down fire
on the enemy vessels from our “Earth” and “Black” type Cannons. The
cannon balls burst on the enemy vessels like a hailstorm, and the fire arrows
flying from the bows of men standing on the Flagship fell like rain. Before
this attack the enemy only milled around and did not dash against us. Being
surrounded two and three deep by the enemy vessels, however, the officers
and men on our ship looked at each other with fear. At this time I reassured
57
them once again in a quiet voice “The enemy vessels are many, but they
cannot come to attack us. Have no fear, but shoot at them with all your
might.” Then I looked around for our ships, which had fallen far astern. I
thought of turning the bow of my Flagship to issue my commands, but if I
did, the enemy vessels will come nearer and I would find myself between
the devil and the deep sea – impossible to advance or turn back. Just then a
fresh idea flashed in my mind. I blew a horn and ordered my Staff Officers
to raise a military command flag together with a call signal, accompanied by
shell trumpets, then the ship of Kim Ung-ham, Commandant of Mijohang
and the leader of the central squadron drew nearer to my Flagship, preceded
by the ship of An Wi, the Magistrate of Koje. Standing on the bridge of my
Flagship, I roared, “An Wi! Do you wish to die at my order? An Wi, do you
wish to die under court martial? If you escape, where can you find a place to
live?” Then An Wi, inspired, plunged into the line of battle. Next, I called
Kim Ung-ham, and roared “As leader of the central squadron, you fell far
astern and would not come to the rescue of your Commanding Admiral.
How can you escape from your guilt?” I wanted to execute him right away,
but since the attacking enemy was so near and so dangerous, I gave him an
opportunity to redeem himself with a fine military feat. As the two ships
were darting toward the enemy position, the enemy’s flagship ordered two
boats under its command to attack, then the enemy hordes like black ants
climbed up An Wi’s ship. Seeing this, An Wi’s sailors fought them off
desperately with sharp-edged clubs, long spears, or sea-washed stones until
all the fighters were exhausted. I ordered my men to turn the bow of my
Flagship and to dash forward under cover of gunfire and fire-arrows. In a
moment three enemy vessels were burnt and turned over. Then the ships of
Nokto (Song Yo-jong, captain) and Pyongsanpo Acting Captain Cong Ung-
tu, came to reinforce our ships and killed off the enemy warriors remaining
on board. On my Flagship there was a surrendered Japanese named
58
Toshisuna, who came from the enemy’s camp in Angol. When he looked
down at the enemy soldiers and sailors swimming in blood on the surface of
the sea, he caught sight of a man wearing a red brocade uniform
embroidered with flower crests, and cried “It is, it is Matashi, the Japanese
general in Angol!” I ordered Kim Tolson, a water carrier on my ship, to
hook up the floating body onto the hatchway. Then Toshisuna leaped with
joy and shouted “I am positive, it is he – Matashi!” I commanded my men to
cut the body into pieces and, from that time the morale of the enemy was
greatly affected. Knowing that the enemy could come to fight us no more,
our ships, beating drums and shouting battle cries, darted forward, and
attacked the enemy vessels, shooting of cannons marked “Earth” and
“Black,” whose bursting detonations shook the seas and the mountains.
Together with the rain of arrows, they destroyed thirty-one enemy vessels in
this single battle. The enemy scattered and fled to return no more. We
wished to pass the night on the field of battle, but the waves were extremely
rough and an adverse wind was blowing hard, making the area dangerous.
Therefore we moved out formation to Tangsado to stop overnight. The
victory was really made with heavenly aid.

59
 The Warships and Weaponry of Korea and Japan

During the Imjin War, the Korean Navy used both Panokson and
Kobukson warships. The Panokson was the mainstay of the navy, while one
to three Kobukson would be used as the main assault ships. The ships of the
Japanese Navy consisted of the large Atake, the medium-sized Sekibune and
the smaller Kobaya. The Atake served as the flagship, carrying on board the
commanding admirals, while the medium-sized Sekibune comprised the
greater part of the rest of the navy.
A key feature of the Panokson was its multiple decks. The non-
combatant personnel were positioned between the main-deck and the upper-
deck, away from enemy fire. The combatant personnel were stationed on the
upper-deck, which allowed them to attack the enemy from a higher vantage
point. The Japanese fleet serviced mostly single-decked vessels, with the
exception of a few large Atakes.
In line with the traditional structure of Korean ships, the Panokson had a
flat base. This feature was due to the nature of the Korean seacoast, which
had a broad tidal range and flat, expansive tidelands. A level underside
enabled a ship to sit comfortably on the tideland when the tide was out, after
coming ashore or inside a wharf at high water. It also ensured greater
mobility and a light draft and in particular allowed a ship to make sharp
changes of direction at short notice. This Panokson was one of the main
reasons why Admiral Yi was able to employ the Crane Wing formation at
the Battle of Hansando with such success.
By contrast, the hulls of the Japanese vessels were V-shaped. A sharp
underside was favorable for swift or long-distance travel because of lower
60
water resistance. Since this variety of hull had a deep draft, however, the
ship’s turning radius was considerable and changing direction was therefore
a lengthy process.
Both Korean and Japanese ships used sails and oars. Of the two basic
types of sail, square and lateen, the square gives a strong performance
downwind but struggles windward, whereas the fore-and-aft lateen sail
excels against the wind, though requiring a large crew to handle it. In the
West, square sails were used in the galleys of Ancient Greece and the Viking
longships, and the fore-and-aft variety later in the Mediterranean ships of
the Late Middle Ages. When the Age of Exploration began in the fifteenth
century, multiple-masted ships equipped with both types of sails eventually
appeared. In Korea such ships had been in use since the eighth century.
Korea’s Panokson and Kobukson therefore had two masts by default, and
their position and angle could easily be managed so that the sails could be
used in all winds, whether adverse or favorable.4 The Atake of the Japanese
Navy also had two masts, but the main parts of its vessels were square-
rigged and their sails limited to use in favorable winds.
It is worthwhile also to compare the hulls of the two nations’ respective
warships, and their relative strength. The Panokson used thick high density
boards, giving an overall sturdiness to the ship’s structure. Japanese
warships were weaker, due to the thin, lower density timber used to build
them.5 The Sekibune in particular, being the standard warship of the

4
Korea employed multiple-masted ships from the Silla period (BC 57 – AD 935).
A Japanese record states that the ships used by Paekche and merchant ships of
Chang Pogo of Silla had multiple masts. The superior performance of such ships
came to be known to China also, and an ancient Chinese text Defending the Seas: A
Discussion explains that “The turtle-shaped ship of Korea can raise and lay down
its sail at will, and it can travel with equal ease whether the wind is adverse or the
tide low.”
5
The main type of timber traditionally used in Korea for shipbuilding is pine; to
increase its strength oak, in particular the evergreen, was often used. Korean pine
61
 Korean Panokson

Japanese fleet, was built to be as light as possible, increasing its speed at the
expense of structural integrity.
The Panokson was not only built using thicker timbers, but its general
structure was held together by means of wooden nails, matching
indentations and interlocking teeth. This meant that as its boards absorbed
water and expanded, the greater integrity of the hull was made stronger. The
Japanese warships, on the other hand, relied on metal nails which, as time
passed and corrosion and rust set in, eventually weakened the hull.
This difference in structural integrity, which also determined the

often has knots and bends, and because it was dangerous to process such a tree into
thin timber, it was processed thickly to reinforce the strength. Traditional Japanese
ships were commonly made out of the Japanese cedar or fir, which are lighter and
easier to process than pine. Capitalizing on this, traditional Japanese ships have
been built out of timber processed thinly and accurately. But strength-wise, cedars
and firs suffer from the drawback of being weaker than pine. This in the end meant
that Japanese ships were built out of weak material processed thinly, while Korean
ships with strong material processed into thick timber.
62
 Japanese Atake

number of cannons that could be carried on board, suited Japan and Korea to
different types of naval combat. Because the Japanese ships lacked the
strength to withstand the recoil of cannon, even the largest ship Atake could
carry only three at the most. Since the hulls of Korean warships were strong
enough, however, they were able to carry a large number of long-range
cannons. These could be installed with ease on the large upper-deck of the
Panokson ships, and their angle configured at will to increase the range.
Since the Japanese warships only allowed for a very limited number of
cannons, their sailors mainly used muskets, which had a range of 100-200m
(330-660 ft). Korea, on the other hand, had on board several varieties of
cannon, such as Heaven, Earth, Black and Yellow. They fired taejon (a long,
thick arrow in the shape of a rocket) with a range of 500m (1,650 ft), as well
as chulwhan (cannon shot) which could travel up to a distance of 1km (3300
ft). Wangu, a kind of mortar, which fired stones or shells with a radius of
20cm (7.8 in), was also used by the Korean Navy.
63
 Another noteworthy aspect of Korea’s heavy fire-arms is that they were
not all invented to meet the sudden emergency of war. These weapons in
fact made their appearance some 200 years prior to the Imjin War. Korean
cannons first saw action at sea in 1380 against a large fleet of Japanese
pirate ships, and were found to be a great success. In comparison, the first
naval battle to have employed cannons in Europe was the Battle of Lepanto
(1571), 200 years later.
In the 15th century, under the lead of King Sejong, who was himself a
pioneer of scientific research, the performance of these heavy artilleries
improved dramatically. Having built a cannon range next to the Royal Court,
and after much experimentation and study, King Sejong finally increased the
extent of the cannons’ firepower from 300m (980 ft) to 1800m (60,000 ft).
Naval canons were also developed at this time and among them, Heaven,
Earth, Black, and Yellow cannon were later employed by Yi Sun-sin. The
development of artillery steadily continued after King Sejong, and saw the
invention of the Pikok Chinchonloe, a time-bomb that flung out hundreds of
metal shards upon explosion, and the Tapoki, a machine capable of firing
many arrows at once.
The main naval strategy employed by the Japanese was that of "grapple-
and-board," whereby sailors would attempt to board an enemy ship and fall
to sword fighting on the decks. The Japanese Navy's concept of sea battle
was therefore one of a fight between crews rather than the vessels
themselves. This was the most common naval strategy in the world during
this time, and was as common among the Europeans of the day. The Korean
Navy, however, utilizing superior warships and firepower to burn and sink
the enemy vessels, engaged in a more modern type of naval warfare.

64
 Comparison between Korean and Japanese Warships

Korean Warship Japanese Warship

U-shaped with level base

V-shaped
Quick to change direction
Greater potential for speed
Hull thanks to small turning
but large turning radius
radius

Atake: 200-300
Panokson: 120-200
Sekibune: 100
Crew Kobukson: 150
Kobaya: 40

Speed 3 knots 3 knots minimum

Multiple-masts:
Square-sail:
sails could be used both
Sail limited to downwind use
windward and downwind

Timber Pine and Oak Japanese Cedar and Fir

Wooden nail:
Metal nail:
expands in water to
corrodes in water weakening
Joints strengthen overall
overall structure
structure

Heavy artillery: Muskets:

Main range 500m (1,650 ft) range 200m (660ft)
Weapon Fire-arrows Spears, swords, arrows

Breaching enemy hulls Grappling and Boarding

Method
Burning and sinking Killing and wounding enemy
of Attack
enemy ships crews

65
 Interior of the Kobukson I

66
67
 Interior of the Kobukson II

68
69
 The Admiralship of Yi Sun-sin

Following are some of the key features of Admiral Yi Sun-sin’s

leadership that lead to his legendary naval victories.

1. Thorough preparation and intensive training

Before the war and throughout it, and even during the truce, Admiral Yi
always subjected his men to intensive training in archery, artillery, and the
various standard naval maneuvers and formations. He also tirelessly
engaged himself in manufacturing new weapons and building ships. For
example, only a year after the Battle of Myongnyang which he fought with a
mere thirteen ships, he had succeeded in building 70 more – an astonishing
rate of one new ship per every five days.

2. Careful study of the nature of the battlefield and its layout

The southern coast of Korea, the scene of many fierce sea battles between
Korea and Japan during the Imjin War, was a maritime labyrinth, consisting
of countless isles and inlets. Furthermore, the current in that region is very
fast and the long stretching coast provided a completely different
appearance with the rise and fall of every tide. Yi made a careful study of
the hourly changes of currents and winds, as well as the natural features
peculiar to each naval battlefield. Based on his investigations, he was able to
70
rely on a safe sea-route whenever he moved his fleet at night, escaping the
eye of the enemy. As evident from the battles fought at Hansando and
Myongnyang, his foreknowledge allowed him to turn the complex
geographical features of the coast to his advantage when pursuing or being
pursued by an enemy.

3. Diverse use of naval tactics

Admiral Yi used a wide variety of naval tactics in sea battles besides the
famous Crane Wing formation6. In his first battle at Okpo, he arranged his
fleet in horizontal line and made straight for the enemy fleet at full speed,
thus not allowing them the least room to maneuver or escape and pressing
them close with fierce cannon fire. In the sea battle at Pusan, the Long
Snake formation (Kor. Changsa-jin) was used in order to deal with the
formidable odds – 83 Korean ships against 480 Japanese. Yi adopted this
long, narrow formation to minimize the exposure of his fleet to the enemy’s
fire. Korea emerged victorious from this battle, sinking 128 enemy ships
and losing none herself. In the Battle of Happo, Yi’s fleet droved the enemy
fleet into a confined harbor, and was thus able to destroy all of its ships. In
that engagement, Yi had no need to use formal naval formations, but simply
ordered his ships to dash forward individually against the enemy as he
judged fit.

6
According to Right Naval Station Warfare Formations with Illustrations
published in 1780, over ten naval formations were used by the Korean Navy such
as the Command, the Crane Wing, the Little Crane, the Straight, the Diamond, the
Wedge, the Right Left Chal, the Circle, the Curvature and the Two Line.
71
4. Undermining enemy morale and winning the trust of his men

During naval engagements, Yi’s navy subjected the enemy to a

bombardment of arrows and cannon shot from the outset, a tactic which
proved highly effective in weakening the enemy’s fighting morale, and
finally getting the better of them. As a consequence, Korean sailors
developed an absolute trust in their admiral, and their morale grew higher
and higher with every victory to which he led them.

5. Maintaining perfect discipline and strict principles

Lazy officers were rewarded with strokes of the cudgel, regardless of

their rank. Soldiers who deserted the army were punished with death, as
were officers who accepted bribes and overlooked their desertion, and
indeed any man who was found to have committed the same crime more
than once. At the Battle of Myongnyang, Yi angrily reproved An Wi, who
had fallen back out of fear, threatening him with death under court martial if
he did not heed his call to advance, and his words awakened An Wi to
recover his spirit and fight. Admiral Yi’s emphasis on strict obedience to
martial law and the maintenance of absolute discipline meant that the whole
Korean Navy, from the supreme commander to the common soldier, were
firmly united as one and were thus able to carry out the naval formations
and tactics which demanded strong unity among crew members successfully.

6. Fellowship and Duty

Although Chinese Admiral Chen Lien had attempted to hinder Yi’s plan
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to destroy the retreating Japanese force, the admiral rescued Chen when he
was encircled by enemy ships at Noryang and in danger of being captured.
In the Battle of Myongnyang, An Wi abandoned his loyalty to his
commander at the sight of the enemy’s overwhelming numbers, but was
later saved by the admiral when he fell into trouble. Yi was always faithful
to his principles and would not permit injustice or irresponsibility in his men.
But at the same time, he harbored a deep sense of fellowship and obligation
to them and so gained their trust, respect, and devoted service.

7. Leadership overcame the worst conditions

Throughout the Imjin War, Admiral Yi alone undertook to provide for

every aspect of warfare, from supplies and provisions to recruitment and
shipbuilding, having no support from the government. In battles where
overwhelming odds were involved, he led his navy from the front to inspire
his men with his valor and zeal. In the desperate situation before the Battle
of Myongnyang, when the Korean Navy had only thirteen ships with which
to fight, Yi was able to re-arm his men, with the dauntless soldier’s maxim
“He who seeks death will live, and he who seeks life will die.”

Behind all these methods and devices lie Yi’s unshakable loyalty and
selfless dedication to his country and people. In the course of abiding by
them, Yi had to endure endless trials and sufferings. He remained loyal to
his country, however, even after imprisonment, torture, and ignominious
demotion to the ranks, since he firmly believed that remaining at sea and
defeating the enemy was the one thing he could do for his nation. It is this
splendid patriotic devotion that could be seen as the most powerful and
important strategy of Admiral Yi Sun-sin.
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Yi Sun-sin: His Memories and Influence on Korea Today

Even after 400 years, the noble spirit of Admiral Yi, which saved a
country from the brink of collapse, remains as the object of veneration and
admiration. The following are a selection of different ways in which the
admiral has been remembered by his countrymen since his valiant death at
the Battle of Noryang.

1. King Sonjo, expressing his apologies and praying for the soul of Yi, gave
the following funeral address.

I abandoned you, and yet

You did not once abandon me.
The sufferings you underwent in this world,
And those you take with you to the world after,
How could one convey them in words?

Later, in 1604, the 37th year of Sonjo’s reign, Yi was honored

posthumously as the Vice-Prime Minister. In 1643, the 27th year of King
Injo’s reign, he was awarded the posthumous title ‘Chung Mu Gong’
(Master of Loyal Valor). In 1793, the 17th year of King Chongjo’s reign, he
was honored posthumously as the Prime Minister.
Under the Royal Ordinance of King Chongjo, an exhaustive compilation
of the deeds and achievements of Yi’s lifetime was undertaken in 1793.
Entitled A Complete Collection on Chung Mu Gong Yi, it was published in
14 volumes after three years of research. Assigned and protected as the
cultural heritage, the collection is an important historical source which
illuminates all of Yi’s legacies to Korea.
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2. Numerous shrines and monuments dedicated to the admiral’s memory
have been built, including the Asan Memorial Shrine. All over the southern
part of Korea, where vestiges of his footmarks remain – at the sites of his
various battles, at Cholla Naval Station, at his training camps and so on –
the public continue to visit and pay their respects.
The world’s first ironclad warship, the Kobukson, was restored and
reconstructed by the Korean Navy in 1980, and placed on exhibit in the
Republic of Korea Naval Academy, Asan Memorial Shrine, The War
Memorial, and Chinju National Museum.
The scientific innovation behind Yi’s Kobukson is the spiritual
foundation and driving force behind the shipbuilding industry in Korea
today. Over 30% of the world’s ships are built in Korean shipyards, and its
marine technology is regarded as the most sophisticated in the world. In
terms of order volume, it continues to stay ahead of its nearest competitor
Japan as it has done for many years.

3. Admiral Yi is one of the most respected figures in Korean history and

there are no fewer than 200 books written on him, with 74 published in 2004
and 2005 alone. The biographical novel Song of the Sword, based on the
story of the admiral’s life, became a bestseller and was even singled out as
recommended reading by Korea’s former President Roh Mu-hyun.

4. Since the beginning of the 21st century, many Koreans have become keen
to learn the attitude and methods of Yi Sun-sin for their own development.
His integrity, loyalty and devotion, his fine strategies, creative thinking,
painstaking forward-planning and emphasis on the gathering of information
through contacts all fulfill the criteria demanded of a leader in modern times.
The field of economics and management is just one area in which the study
and application of Yi’s strategies and leadership has taken root. Professor Ji
75
Yong-hee, author of In Times of Economical Warfare: A Meeting with Yi
Sun-sin, is currently giving lectures under the series title ‘Yi Sun-sin on
Business Management.’ Regarding Yi as a model for 21st century leadership,
he argues there are many lessons we can learn from him, including being
faithful to basics, establishing trust between individuals, striving for
innovation, valuing information, and not falling victim to pride. Professor Ji
says, “Yi, above all, was strict with his own self, and he stood by his
principles till the very end, thereby earning the trust of those around him.
Today this might be called ‘Transparent Management.’ Since he founded
himself on morality, his subordinates believed and trusted him absolutely.
He was moreover very modest. And since modest, he was always prepared.”

5. Even in the sphere of culture, Yi has emerged as an iconic figure of 21st

century Korea. The television show “The Immortal Yi Sun-sin” had its
debut on September 4, 2004, went on to receive the record ratings of almost
30%, and was voted as one of the most popular broadcasts of the year. Its
success in the East generated considerable interest in the United States, and
a subtitled version was soon released for American audiences.

6. Admiral Yi is before all else a symbol of pride and inspiration to the

Korean Navy. To this day, much research takes place on his tactics and
leadership methods at the Republic of Korea Naval Academy, Republic of
Korea Navy, the Naval Education & Training Command, and the Republic
of Korea Marine Corps.

76
 Naval Battles of Admiral Yi Sun-sin

During the Imjin War, Yi Sun-sin had engaged in twenty-three naval

battles against Japan and emerged victorious in all of them. The naval
battles fought by the Admiral are summarized in the following chart.

Date Location Korean Japanese

Outcome
Month/Day/Year Ships Ships
26 enemy
1 5/7/1592 Okpo 27 26
ships sunk
5 enemy
2 5/7/1592 Happo 27 5
ships sunk
11 enemy
3 5/8/1592 Chokjinpo 27 13
ships sunk
13 enemy
4 5/29/1592 Sachon 26 13
ships sunk
21 enemy
5 6/2/1592 Tangpo 27 21
ships sunk
26 enemy
6 6/5/1592 Tanghangpo 51 26
ships sunk
7 enemy
7 6/7/1592 Yulpo 51 7
ships sunk
47 enemy
ships sunk
8 7/8/1592 Hansando-do 56 73
12 enemy
ships captured
42 enemy
9 7/10/1592 Angolpo 56 42
ships sunk
6 enemy
10 8/29/1592 Changrimpo 81 6
ships sunk
5 enemy
11 9/1/1592 Hwajungumi 81 5
ships sunk
8 enemy
12 9/1/1592 Tadaepo 81 8
ships sunk
9 enemy
13 9/1/1592 Sopyongpo 81 9
ships sunk

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 2 enemy
14 9/1/1592 Cholyong-do 81 2
ships sunk
4 enemy
15 9/1/1592 Choryangmok 81 4
ships sunk
128 enemy
16 9/1/1592 Pusanpo 81 470
ships sunk
10 enemy
17 3/4/1594 Chinhae 30 10
ships sunk
21 enemy
18 3/5/1594 Tanghangpo 124 50
ships sunk
2 enemy
19 9/29/1594 Changmunpo 50 117
ships sunk
31 enemy
ships sunk
20 9/16/1597 Myongnyang 13 330 90 enemy
ships severely
damaged
50 enemy
21 7/18/1598 Choli-do ? 100
ships sunk
30 enemy
211
ships sunk
22 9/20/1598 Chang-do (Korea 83+ ?
11 enemy
China 128)
ships captured
146
450 enemy
23 11/18/1598 Noryang (Korea 83 + 500
ships sunk
China 63)

In addition to the twenty-three sea battles, several minor engagements

took place. These include an assault by the Korean Navy on the Japanese
naval base, and its successful defense of its own camp from the Japanese.

Date Korean Japanese

Location Outcome
Month/Day/Year Ships Ships

2/10/1593 100 enemy

Wungchon 89 40
1 ~3/6/1593 sailors killed

Japanese
2 10/4/1594 Changmumpo 50 ?
Retreat

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 Japanese
3 8/28/1597 Eoranjin 12 8
Retreat
Japanese
4 9/7/1597 Pyokpajin 12 13
Retreat
146
Japanese
5 11/13/1598 Chang-do (Korea 83 + 10
Retreat
China 63)

Won Kyun had been instated as the Supreme Naval Commander in Yi’s
place while he was serving as a common foot soldier, and led three sea
battles which ended in the Korean Navy’s worst catastrophe.

Date Japanese
Location Korean Ships Outcome
Month/Day/Year Ships
7 Korean ships
1 7/7/1597 Cholyong-do 168 500 sunk &
captured
27 Korean
2 7/9/1597 Kadok 161 1000 Ships sunk &
captured
122 Korean
3 7/16/1597 Chilchonnyang 134 1000 ships sunk &
captured

* All dates are based on lunar calendar, which was used in East Asia until
the late nineteenth century.

* The number of ships involved and the outcome of each naval engagement
as shown in the charts have been taken from Admiral Yi’s War Diary and
Memorials to Court, as well as from the Royal Annals of the Choson
Dynasty (Kor. Choson Wangjo Sillok), the official record compiled by the
government.

* Throughout the Imjin War, the Korean Navy under Admiral Yi suffered
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some casualties but lost no ships in action; only two ships were lost by the
mistake of captains on their way back to the naval base after the battle at
Wungchon. Such overwhelming victories by the Korean Navy may be
attributed to the structural integrity of their ships, built in durable design and
material, and the superior firepower and range of their naval artillery. The
Japanese warships, limited by weaker design, could only carry at most three
cannons with much less firepower, and their main weaponry muskets were
effective in killing enemy sailors but not in destroying enemy ships. Yi thus
utilized the strategy of sinking the enemy warship with concentrated
cannon-fire before the distance between their ships had narrowed down to
the musket range of 200m. In short, the Korean Navy could achieve
successes unparalleled in the history of naval warfare due to Yi’s forceful
strategy that fully realized the superiority of Korean ships and guns.

* Of the twenty three battles Yi had fought, the largest and the fiercest was
the Battle of Noryang, the final engagement that put the 146 ships of Korea
and China against the 500 of Japan carrying back their entire army on retreat
home. The long, seven-year war, originating from the delusive ambition of a
man in search for fame and territory, had taken away countless innocent
lives and utterly destroyed their homeland. Boarding every supply and
weapon he had onto warships, Yi headed for Noryang to carry out his final
duty for his country and people. He took off his armor and helmet and
fought at the heart of the battle, firing arrows and beating the war drums
himself. He had never before taken off his armor or helmet in action.
Perhaps it had been his resolve to end his difficult, arduous life with this last
victory at sea. When he died by an enemy bullet, neither his crews nor the
Chinese Navy knew of his death. They poured their hearts and souls into
defeating the enemy till the very end and achieved the resounding victory
that saw the sinking of 450 Japanese warships out of 500. It was the most
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honorable and precious victory for the Korean Navy earned in sacrifice of
the admiral’s life.

With his last breath, he said, “Tell no one of my death.” He was

concerned that his death might encumber the fighting against the enemy.

81
Map

82
Map

83
 Chronological Career Note

1545. 8th day of 3rd moon. One o’clock in the morning Yi Sun-sin was born as the
third son of Chong at his home at Konchon-dong, Seoul. His clan origin was
Toksu; his mother was of the Pyon clan. His mother had a dream before she
brought forth her third son: Her father-in-law appeared in her dream and
advised as follows: “You will have a son who will be a great man and his
name shall be ‘Sun-sin’.”
1552. His family moved to Asan, the country home of the family.
1564. Married to the daughter of Pang Chin, a military officer.
1566. Started practice in archery and drilling necessary for military service.
1567. His first son, Hoe was born.
1571. His second son, Yol was born.
1572. In the 8th moon. He fell from horseback and broke his left leg while he was
taking the military service examination.
1576. 2nd moon. Passed military service examination. 12th moon. Appointed the
Acting Commandant of Fortress Tonggubi, Hamgyung Province.
1577. Third son, Myon was born.
1579. Appointed staff captain to the Army Commander of Chungchong Province.
1580. 7th moon. Appointed Naval commandant of Palpo, Cholla Province.
1583. 7th moon. Staff officer of the Hamgyong Army Commander.
10th moon. Appointed Acting Commander of Konwon Fortress, and
destroyed the Jurchen forces.
11th moon. Appointed Staff Officer of Military Training Command.
15th day of 11th moon. His father Chong passed away.
Resigned his official post in accordance with the custom of the society, which
required a mourner to withdraw himself from official posts for two years.
1586. Appointed Garrison Captain of Chosan Fortress, Hamgyung Province.

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1587. Dismissed from the post and enlisted as common soldier owing to the
jealousy of Yi Il, Army Commander of Hamgyung.
1588. 6th moon. Returned home.
1589. 2nd moon. Appointed Staff Officer of Cholla Commissioner.
11th moon. Appointed Concurrent Transmitter-Commissioner.
12th moon. Appointed Magistrate of Chongup Prefecture.
1591. 13th day of 2nd moon. Appointed Navy Commander of Left Cholla Province.
1592. Completed the Turtle Ship before the Hideyoshi Invasion started.
13th day of 4th moon. Japanese forces invaded Korea.
5th moon. The first campaign at Okpo with the signal victory of the Admiral.
6th moon. The second campaign at Tangpo with the victory of the Admiral.
7th moon. Defeated the Japanese Navy in the Hansando campaign.
9th moon. Fourth campaign at Busan-po with his victory.
1593. 2nd moon. Defeated Japanese fleet at Ungpo.
7th moon. Moved his fleet to Hansando-do.
8th moon. Appointed Tongjesa, Supreme Naval Commander of the Three
Provinces.
1594. 7th day of 3rd moon. Submitted his objection to the peace negotiation
proposed by Ming Chinese envoy Tan.
6th of 4th moon. Held provisional Military Examination at Hansando-do to
recruit sailors.
9th moon. Defeated the enemy at Changmunpo.
1595. 2nd moon. Submitted a memorial to be transferred from his present post
because of the criticism by Admiral Won Kyun. Refused.
1597. 2nd moon. Placed under arrest at Hansando-do.
4th day of 3rd moon. Imprisoned at Seoul.
1st day of 4th moon. Released under the order to enlist as a soldier under
the Field Marshall Kwon Yul.
11th day of 4th moon. His mother passed away.

85
 7th moon. Admiral Won Kyun (who replaced admiral Yi Sun-sin) was
defeated by Japanese fleet and beheaded in his refuge.
22nd day of 7th moon. Appointed Supreme Naval Commander.
8th moon. Resumed his duty. All he could gather was 12 ships and 120
sailors.
9th moon. Had a great victory in the campaign at Myongnyang.
10th moon. The third son Myon died in a fight against the Japanese Army at
his home, Asan.
1598. 2nd moon. Moved his Navy to Kogum-do.
7th moon, Organized United Naval Forces with the Ming Chinese
commodore Chen Lien.
19th day of 11th moon. Died in the final victorious fight against the retreating
Japanese.

86
Bibliography

Yi, Sun-sin, Kim, Kyung-su (translator), Nanjung Ilgi: War Diary, Joyful Reading Press, 2004.

Andohi, Kotaro, History and Theory of Relations of Japan, Korea and China, Japanese

Institute of Korean Studies, 1964.

Ballard, G. A., Vice Admiral, British Royal Navy, The influence of the Sea on the Political

History of Japan, E. P. Dutton, 1921.

Choi, Doo-hwan, A Collected Works of Admiral Yi Sun-sin, Wooseok, 1999.

Ha, Tae-hung, Nanjung Ilgi: War Diary of Admiral Yi Sun-sin, Yonsei University Press, 1977.

Ha, Tae-hung, Imjin Changch’o: Memorials to Court, Yonsei University Press, 1981.

Hujizka, Akinao, In Admiration of Admiral Yi Sun-sin, Kyung Hee Vol. 8, 1977.

Kim, Hoon, His leadership, A Historic Turning Point, Soonchunhyang University Press, 2004.

Kim, Su-yong, Naval Battles of Yi, Nelson, and Togo, Military Studies, 1997.

Kim, Jung-jin, Kobukson, Random House Joongang, 2005.

Roh, Byung-cheon, To Know Yi Sun-sin is to win the Japanese. 21c Military Institute, 2005.

Sato Destaro, A Military History of the Emperor, Su Moon Sa, 1908.

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