Theory of gas detectors,

scintillation detectors, solid

state detectors: use in
Radiology & Nuclear Medicine

Louise Bowden, Temple Street

Children’s University Hospital
louise.bowden@cuh.ie

Radiation detectors for

nuclear medicine and
general purposes
Types of Radiation
Particle Symbol Mass
(MeV)
Charge
Alpha α 3700 +2
Electron e-, β- 0.511 -1
Positron e+, β+ 0.511 +1
Gamma photon
γ No rest
none mass
3

X-rays vs. γ-rays

∎ Maindifference is how they are
produced.
 ∎ γ-rays
originate from the
nucleus of a radionuclide after
radioactive decay

∎ X-rays are produced when

electrons strike
a target or when electrons are
rearranged within an atom.
α-particle range in
matter (mono-
energetic)
➢ Loses energy in a more or less continuous slowing
down process as it travels through matter.
➢ The distance it travels (range) depend only upon
its initial energy and its average energy loss rate

in the medium.
➢ The range for an α particle emitted in tissue is on
the order of μm’s.
α - particle
Rad. Detect & Measure, 2008 (TKL)
5

β-particle range in
matter (continuous
energy spectrum)
➢β particle ranges vary from one electron to the
next, even for β s of the same energy in the same

material.

➢ This is due to different types of scattering events

the β encounters (i.e., scattering events,
bremsstrahlung-producing collisions, etc.).

➢ The β range is often given as the maximum

distance the most energetic β can travel in the

medium.

➢ The range for β particles emitted in tissue is on

the order of mm’s.

β - particle

mm’s
6

Photon interaction with matter

(Interaction Probability: P=1- e(-
μx)
)
Photoelectric effect ➢ photon is absorbed
Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering ➢ photon low
photon deflected energies with (<50 very keV) little
energy loss, only significant at Compton scattering
➢ part continues of the on energy with lower of the

energy photon is absorbed scattered photon Pair

production ➢ positron-electron MeV.
pair is created, requires photons above 1.022 where μ
is the linear attenuation coefficient with units of cm-1, and x is the thickness
of the material in cm.
7

Photon interactions
J. Nucl. Med. Technol. March 1, 2005 vol. 33 no. 1 3-18

DETECTORS
Modes of Operation of
Detectors
Detector + electronic circuitry &
display = DETECTOR SYSTEM
Basic Radiation
Detector Systems
What do you want to know about the
radiation?

➢ Energy?

➢ Position?
➢ How many/ how much?

Important properties of Radiation Detectors:

1. Energy resolution

2. Spatial resolution

3. Sensitivity

4. Counting speed

11

Detector Requirements
▪ The particulate (α, β+, β-) or
electromagnetic radiation (γ or X-ray) must
be able to penetrate the detector casing to
deposit its energy.

▪ The detector itself must have enough

‘stopping-power’ to absorb (and detect) the
radiation.

▪ Accurate over a wide range of intensities

▪ Measurement independent of radiation

energy

▪ Identify type of radiation

12

Detector Requirements
▪ Sensitive enough to detect small amounts
of radiation energy

▪ High absolute detection efficiency

▪ Excellent energy resolution

▪ A linear response with increasing activity

13

Absolute Efficiency
Absolute efficiency is composed of two factors:

a. the intrinsic stopping power of the detector

(intrinsic efficiency)

b. the spatial orientation of the detector relative to

the radiation source (geometric efficiency).

e μ x =1 - -

Pγ
14

Intrinsic Efficiency
• Intrinsic Efficiency is the number of events detecte
given interval divided by the number of radiation q
incident on the detector.

• Only a fraction of events will be incident on the de

Of those which do strike the detector, only a fracti
absorbed:
some are absorbed before reaching the detector so
will pass right through it undetected.

15

Intrinsic Efficiency
The stopping power of a detector material for a particular radi
depends on

a. the thickness, b. the density

c. the atomic number, d. type of incident radiation

16

Absolute Efficiency
Absolute efficiency is composed of two factors:

a. the intrinsic stopping power of the detector (intrinsic efficien

b. the spatial orientation of the detector relative to the radiatio

source (geometric efficiency).

Radiation is emitted isotropically

Geometric efficiency decreases with increasing source-to-det

distance in accordance with the inverse square law.

17

Geometric Efficiency
Although absolute efficiency primarily determined by stop
power, the detector housing must be designed to allow no
penetrating radiations (e.g. low energy β-particles) to ente
detector without first being absorbed achieved by means
very thin entrance window.
18

Geometric Efficiency
For high sensitivity and accuracy, detector may surround sour
(e.g. well counter for bioassay samples or wipe tests).

If source is positioned incorrectly, overall efficiency will decrea

19

Energy resolution
Only applies to spectrometers – want to accurately repres
energy of a detected event.

Example:
• Scintillation detector irradiated with a beam of gamma photo
• detector output is a series of voltage pulses
• amplitude of pulses are proportional to the energy deposited
• pulses sorted by amplitude and produce an energy spectrum

20

The broadening of the distribution occurs due to:

(a) photoelectric interactions in the detector

(b) Compton scattering out of and into the detector

The photopeak characterises the photon energy being detecte

The width of the photopeak indicates the ability of the detecto

accurately represent detected energy – the narrower the bette

Energy resolution
21

Energy resolution
The energy resolution is determined by the Full- Wi
Half-Maximum height (FWHM) of the photopeak.
Usually given as a percentage of the peak energy (
FWHM Energy Resolution =

PE

× (%)100
22
(t)
I

Pulse Mode

∎ Two interactions must be separated Time ->

by a finite amount of time to produce dist

signals.

∎ There is a time period when the system can

process or count another ionisation even

dead time

∎ Dead times of different systems vary greatl

need to know the count-rate behaviour of

detector system.
i.e. if a detector system is operated at an interaction rate

too high, the effect of dead time will be significant an

artificially low count rate will be obtained.

Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable
∎ Pulse mode: if incident events are
separated by a time greater than the de

time of the system, they will be proces

∎ If event rates increase until they start to

overlap, detection efficiency deteriorat

∎ Paralyzable refers to dead time behavio

where an event is lost if it occurs withi

the dead time of any previous event (e

those not recorded).

Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable

∎ Nonparalyzable refers to dead time behav

where an event is lost if it occurs within th

dead time of a previous recorded event.

∎ An ideal system has a linear relationship

between expected counts and actual coun

Paralyzable vs.
Nonparalyzable
Current Mode
∎ In current mode, there is continuous
Time ->
(t)
I

charge collection ►loss of information for individua

events.

∎ Amplitude of signal is proportional to the rate of e

deposition (dose rate) and represents the total ener
being detected.

∎ Because individual events are not being processe

energy of individual photons being detected cannot
measured.

∎ Detectors subject to very high interaction rates ar

often
operated in current mode to avoid dead-time losses
incurred in pulse mode.
Modes of Operation of Detector
used in Radiology
∎ Geiger-Muller counters – pulse mode

∎ Scintillation detectors for Nuclear Medicine

– pulse mode

∎ Most Ionisation chambers & dose

calibrators – current mode

∎ Scintillation detectors for digital

radiography, fluoroscopy and CT – current mode
Radiation Detectors used in
Radiology & Nuclear Med
1. Gas-Filled (ionisation) Detectors 2.
Semiconductor / Solid State Detectors
Scintillation Detectors
Radiation Detectors used in
Radiology & Nuclear Med

∎ Gamma cameras & PMTs operation

covered in detail in separate lecture

GAS FILLED
DETECTORS
Gas-filled Detectors &
Ionisation
• As radiation passes through air or a specific ga

ionisation of the molecules in the air occur.

• Voltage source is placed between two areas of

gas filled space.

Gas-filled Detectors &

Ionisation

• Positive ions will be attracted to the negative si

the detector (cathode)

• Free electrons (-) will travel to positive side (ano

Gas-filled Detectors &

Ionisation

• Charges are collected by anode and cathode w

then form a very small current in the wires going

detector.

• Small current is measured and displayed as a s

Gas-Filled Detectors
∎ The more radiation which enters the chamber, the

more current displayed by the instrument.

∎ Many types of gas-filled detectors exist, but three

commonly used are :

1. Ionisation chambers 2. Proportional counters 3. G
Muller counters

∎ Type of detector is primarily determined by the vo

applied (low, med, high etc.) between the two

electrodes.

Detector design

Gas detectors: ∎ The gas is pressurized to increas

the linear attenuation coefficient which in turn

increases sensitivity

∎ The gas used should have a high atomic numbe

to increase the number of ion pairs produced

(Xenon commonly used)

∎ The gas used should be inert to avoid corrosive

effects

∎ The container should be sealed to avoid tempera

and pressure dependence

Voltage Dependence
∎ The number of ions collected by any
detector (and hence the induced curre
a function of the applied voltage

∎ These numbers can be divided into f

distinct regions as a function of voltage
Recombination 4. Geiger-Muller 2. Ionisation 5.
Continuous Discharge 3. Proportional
Gas-Filled Detectors – Regions
Operation

ABCDEF
pairs produced
Recombin by ionising
ation radiation will not
move fast
Region (A) enough towards
their respective
∎ When the electrodes.
potential applied
across the tube ∎ The ion pairs
is very low, ion will then reform
or recombine into ∎ Applied electric
neutral gas field is sufficiently
molecules and
strong to collect
produce little or
no current flow. almost all
A

Ionisation electron - ion

Region (B) pairs.

∎ As the voltage ∎ An additional

is increased, a increase in the
plateau is applied voltage
reached in the does not
curve. significantly

increase the
 region.
current. AB

∎ Ionisation
chambers are βγ

operated in this
Ionisation Region
∎ Ionisation Chamber detectors produce a ve

small current requiring high signal

amplification.

∎ Generally operate in current mode (no dead

time)
∎ This type of detector can be used to measu

dose rate or accumulated dose

∎ In ionisation chambers, the two electrodes

have almost any configuration: parallel pl

two concentric cylinders or a wire within a

cylinder.
Ionisation Region
∎ Ionisationis extremely sensitive - if a
energy of 33 eV forms an ion pair, a
deposit of 100 keV creates ~3000 ion p
∎ Ion pairs can be collected to produce
electrical signal directly related to the
intensity of radiation.
Ionisation Chambers
Advantages ∎ These detectors can be designed to
respond to different types of radiation including

and alpha particles

∎ Very sensitive to low levels of low-energy radiatio

Disadvantages ∎ Sensitivity decreases as the ener

photons increase

∎ Also sensitive to changes in temperature and pre

Ionisation Chamber - Applicatio

∎ Dose meters (DAP), Dose-rate meters, Per

dose meter ∎ Large chamber-scatter dos
measurements
Diagnostic Radiology
Ionisation Chambers - Applicati

Nuclear Medicine: Dose calibrators ∎ Well-t

ionisation chambers
∎ used in Nuclear Medicine Depts to assay
the activity of radio-pharmaceuticals to be administe
to patients.

∎ Chamber is filled with pressurised argon to

maximise intrinsic efficiency

Dose Calibrators
∎ Consists of a hollow, lead shielded cylinder, in w

samples of radionuclides are lowered for

measurement.

∎ Operated in current mode: does not suffer from d

time

∎ Response is linear over clinically useful activities

0.1MBq to 80GBq.

Dose calibrators
∎ For fixed geometry and linear response,
ionisation current is directly proportional to

activity

∎ Response varies with type, energy and

abundance of radiation emissions - cannot

distinguish different energies

∎ Adjustments required to ensure that the

amplification of signal (calibration factor) f

each isotope is set to give correct units of

activity.

∎ So must use correct factor for the radionucli

being measured
ABC Proportional Region (C)
∎ As filled ionisation the the proportional chambe
voltage chamber is potential region. increased

plateau, across past it enters the the gas into ∎ In

and this pairs electrons region, which the toward

send voltage the the positive potential anode. ion

continues towards to the produce cathode ∎ Howe
produce Townsend the applied avalanches volta
now in the large vicinity enough of the to anode.

∎ This from diameter.

avalanche the anode region wire, which occurs its

only is fractions of a very of small a millimeter

Proportional Region (C)

Proportional Region
∎ Each original ionising event due to incident

radiation produces only one avalanche.

➢ i.e. measured pulse amplitude α incident particle

energy
∎ This is to ensure proportionality between th

number of original events and the total io

current

∎ Therefore the applied voltage, the geometr

the chamber and the diameter of the ano

wire are critical to ensure proportional

operation.
Proportional Region
∎ Proportional counters can be used to
discriminate between various types and ener
of ionising radiation.
∎ Must contain a specific gas.

∎ Commonly used in standards laboratories,

physics research but seldom used in medica
centres
➢ notsuitable as a portable measuring device ➢ volt
must be very carefully controlled

Limited Proportionality (D)

ABCD If avalanches start to self-multiply due to

photons, then the counter enters a region of
limited proportionality

The proportionality feature is lost.

ABCDE Geiger-Müller Region
 ∎ GM last detectors voltage counters plat
operate of at gas the ∎ The avalanche

proportional produced anode. increased w

of counters) secondary voltage electrons

potential ionisations strike also UV the n

photons collecting only (as for causes are

These ionisations, except added UV to t

ensure photons a which quenching the w

produce process gas be self another (alco

ceases. perpetuating avalanche or bromin

 is
Geiger-Müller Region
Geiger-Müller Region
∎ The time taken to quench a discharge is the
dead time.

∎ These meters have thin windows to allow m

beta particles and conversion electrons to rea
the gas and be detected.

∎ GM counters produce a very large signal fo

each ionising event. The signal is the same f
ionising radiation.
Geiger-Muller Counters
∎ Used for radiation surveys

∎ Relatively high sensitivity but inaccurate (yes/no

answer)

∎ Can be calibrated within a limited energy range

∎ They are operated in pulse mode with very long

times

∎ Different probes with different entrance windows

be used discriminate between different radiati

types for specific purposes.

Continuous Discharge (F)

ABCDEF

∎A steady discharge current flows ∎ The applied vo

is so high that once ionization takes
place in the gas, there is a continuous discharge of
electricity so that the detector cannot be used for
radiation detection
Gas-filled Detectors in Practice
Ionisation Chamber vs. GM
Counter
∎ Type of radiation
➢ both respond to X-rays, gamma rays and beta pa

∎ Sensitivity
➢ GM more sensitive than IC and may be used to d

low levels of contaminations.

∎ Nature of reading
➢ IC gives reading of exposure and exposure rate. G

not a radiation monitor but a radiation detector.

Gas-filled Detectors in Practice
Ionisation Chamber vs. GM
Counter
∎ Size
➢ IC generally larger than GM as it must collect all
secondary ionisations.

∎ Robustness and simplicity

➢ the GM tube is generally preferred.

Problems with Gas detector

Inefficiency:
• Relatively low density of gases, many x-ray photon

pass through the chamber undetected

• Partially overcome in three ways

• using Xenon as the detector. This is the heaviest o

inert gases - provides a large target

• by compressing the Xe by 8 to 10 atmospheres,
increasing the density of the gas
• by using a long chamber to increase the number o

atoms along the path of the beam

60