Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407

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Gondwana Research
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g r

The position of the Amazonian Craton in supercontinents

U.G. Cordani a,⁎, W. Teixeira a, M.S. D'Agrella-Filho b, R.I. Trindade b
a
Institute of Geosciences, University of São Paulo (USP), Rua do Lago 562, Cidade Universitária, 05508-080, São Paulo, Brazil
b
Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics and Atmospheric Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), Rua do Matão 1226, Cidade Universitária, 05508-090, São Paulo, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper examines the extensive regions of Proterozoic accretionary belts that either formed most of the
Received 29 July 2008 Amazonian Craton, or are marginal to its southeastern border. Their overall geodynamic significance is
Received in revised form 5 December 2008 considered taking into account the paleogeographic reconstruction of Columbia, Rodinia and Gondwana.
Accepted 6 December 2008
Amazonia would be part of Columbia together with Laurentia, North China and Baltica, forming a continuous,
Available online 24 December 2008
continental landmass linked by the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic mobile belts that constitute large portions of
Keywords:
it. The Rodinia supercontinent was formed in the Mesoproterozoic by the agglutination of the existing
Amazonian Craton cratonic fragments, such as Laurentia and Amazonia, during contemporary continental collisions worldwide.
Supercontinents The available paleomagnetic data suggest that Laurentia and Amazonia remained attached until at least
Columbia 600 Ma. Since all other cratonic units surrounding Laurentia have already rifted away by that time, the
Rodinia separation between Amazonia and Laurentia marks the final break-up of Rodinia with the opening of the
Gondwana lapetus ocean.
Earth history © 2009 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction supercontinents and its relative position towards other cratonic

masses. Therefore, we will examine and interpret the overall
Supercontinents are formed by the amalgamation of pre-existing geodynamic significance of the extensive regions of Proterozoic
continental masses, with the concomitant disappearance of the accretionary belts that formed the SW portion of the Amazonian
intervening oceans. The reconstruction of their internal structure, Craton, as well as the ones that occur marginally to its southeastern
with the proposed relative position of the crustal components, is border. Their tectonic evolution is indicated, by means of the available
based on the available tectonic correlations, such as terrain with geochronological control. The pertinent paleomagnetic constraints are
similar structural trends, similar ages, or specific and distinctive considered, as well as the convenient tectonic and geochronologic
geological features (see Rogers and Santosh, 2003, 2004; Rogers, 1996; correlations, with the specific objective of outlining the possible
Santosh et al., 2009 — this issue). Paleomagnetic evidence is also of position of Amazonia within the paleogeographic reconstructions of
capital importance in such reconstructions (e.g., Piper, 2007; Rodinia, Gondwana and Pangea. An attempt will be given also for the
Pisarevsky et al., 2008). However, paleomagnetic data are usually time-frame of Columbia, and for the Amazonia-West Africa con-
scanty, and they are normally affected by large uncertainties, tinental nucleus of the Paleoproterozoic.
especially regarding paleolongitudes.
Amazonia, in South America (Fig. 1), consists of the Amazonian 2. Tectonic history of Amazonia
Craton, a very large tectonic feature with more than 4.4 million square
km, bounded to east by the Neoproterozoic Tocantins province, in Fig. 2, adapted from Cordani et al. (2000), brings the subdivision of
which the active orogenic systems are the Araguaia and Paraguay the Amazonian Craton into two Archean nuclei and five Proterozoic
mobile belts. Its tectonic provinces were formed prior to the tectonic provinces, which show coherent structural and geochrono-
Neoproterozoic, mainly through soft-collision/accretion events. In logical patterns. The account that follows is largely based on the recent
its central part the Amazonian Craton is covered by the Phanerozoic synthesis made by Cordani and Teixeira (2007). In addition, Table 1
Amazon basin, and in its north-western, western and south-western brings a short synthesis of the principal geologic features, and to some
parts it is covered by the foreland sedimentary basins connected with extent the related geochronological control, for the Archean and
the Andean Chain. Proterozoic tectonic units of this Craton.
In this work we wish to address the tectonic evolution of The ancient nuclei of the Central-Amazonian province consist of
Amazonia, considering, for different time frames, its situation within the large Carajás granite–greenstone terrain, and the Xingu–Iricoumé
block, where the extensive Paleoproterozoic cratonic cover of the
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 11 3091 3933; fax: +55 11 3091 4207. Roraima Supergroup occurs, overlying gneissic and granitoid rocks.
E-mail address: ucordani@usp.br (U.G. Cordani). However, clearly established Archean crust is restricted to the Carajás

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2009 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.gr.2008.12.005
 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407 397

Fig. 1. Geotectonic provinces of South America.

region, southeast of the Amazon basin, whose rocks yielded radio- reactivated the Guri fault zone that makes the tectonic limit between
metric ages between 2600 and 3200 Ma (Tassinari et al., 2000; the Imataca terrane and the Maroni-Itacaiunas province (Tassinari
Dall'Agnol et al., 2001; Santos, 2003). et al., 2004).
The Paleoproterozoic Maroni-Itacaiunas province occurs to the In a broader context, the Maroni-Itacaiunas province correlates
north and to the northeast of the Central-Amazonian province. It well with the Birimiam System in West Africa, affected by the
consists of greenstone belts with clear oceanic affinity, associated with Paleoproterozoic Eburnean orogeny, making up a large cratonic mass
juvenile calc-alkaline granitoid rocks, presenting positive εNd(T) values resulting from amalgamation of independent fragments of the proto-
and radiometric ages between 1950 and 2250 Ma. These rocks were Amazonian and West African cratons, as suggested by the interpreta-
deformed by the widespread Transamazonian orogeny (ca. 2.0 Ga; tion of paleomagnetic data (Onstott and Hargraves, 1981; Nomade et
Hurley et al., 1967), which produced largely low to medium-grade al., 2003), as well as by the coherent radiometric ages of the correlated
metamorphic belts along the northern coast of South America, from units (e.g. Tassinari et al., 2000; Tassinari and Macambira, 2004). After
Venezuela to the west to Guiana, Surinam, French Guiana and Brazil to the Transamazonian and Eburnean orogenies, this large continental
the east (e.g. Gibbs and Barron, 1983). The Maroni-Itacaiunas province mass acted as a tectonically stable foreland for the succeeding tectonic
exhibits in part a reworked continental basement, the Amapá Block evolution. Fig. 3, adapted and modified from Nomade et al. (2003),
(Rosa-Costa et al., 2006), a Neoarchean fragment to the east, and shows a possible reconstruction of the cratonic mass in existence
another large Archean unit, the Imataca terrane at its western corner. thereafter.
The latter may represent an allochtonous crustal fragment that was Beginning at ca. 2.0 Ga, a series of successive magmatic arcs started
juxtaposed to the Maroni-Itacaiunas province in the Paleoproterozoic. to be accreted along the southwestern margin of the tectonically
(Tassinari et al., 2004). High-grade metamorphic rocks are described stable Paleoproterozoic nucleus, giving rise to the Ventuari-Tapajós
in Suriname and Guyana, making up the Central Guyana Granulite Belt (VT) and Rio Negro-Juruena (RNJ) provinces. The continued soft-
(e.g. Gibbs and Barron, 1983; Fraga, 2002). Their radiometric ages are collision/accretion processes driven by subduction produced a very
slightly younger than typical Transamazonian ages, suggesting a large “basement” domain, at least 2700 km long and about 1000 km
collisional event that may have taken place during a late stage of that wide, in which granites, gneisses and migmatites predominate.
orogenic cycle (Tassinari et al., 2000). To the south, this high-grade However the geologic knowledge of the VT province is not
terrain was intruded by anorogenic complexes of granite AMCG comprehensive enough to delineate well defined boundaries with
(anorthosite, mangerite, charnockite) type, of Mesoproterozoic age the adjacent provinces. Calc-alkaline, granite–gneiss complexes and
(Gaudette et al., 1978; Reis et al., 2000), and was also affected, later, by felsic volcanics (sensu lato), formed essentially between 2000 and
a strong deformation and heating at about 1300–1100 Ma, along 1800 Ma (Santos, 2003; Santos et al., 2004; Cordani and Teixeira,
cataclastic zones related to the so-called Nickerie or K'Mudku event 2007), are the main constituents of this province, most of them with
(Snelling and Mc Connell, 1969; Priem et al., 1971). This event also juvenile-like Nd isotopic signatures. Post-tectonic and anorogenic
398 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407

Fig. 2. Tectonic framework of South America with emphasis on the Amazonian Craton and its tectonic provinces. The São Francisco Craton, the São Luís and Luiz Alves cratonic
fragments, as well as the Neoproterozoic Brasiliano–Pan African orogens are shown in the eastern part of the figure. These belts are the Borborema province (B) in northeastern Brazil,
the Tocantins province (T) in Central Brazil which includes the Goiás Magmatic Arc (GMA) and the Mantiqueira province (M) in eastern and southeastern Brazil. The Andean belt is
also indicated, with its main basement inliers. Adapted from Cordani et al. (2000).

granites as well as volcanic-sedimentary covers are also present. There post-tectonic or anorogenic AMCG granitoids occur, frequently
is no evidence of Archean basement inliers, and regions with high- exhibiting rapakivi textures, such as the El Parguaza, Surucucus,
grade metamorphics are absent or restricted. Serra da Providência and others (Gaudette et al., 1978; Gibbs and
After the cratonization of the VT province, subduction was Barron, 1983; Dall'Agnol et al., 1999; Payolla et al., 2002).
resumed, initiating a new accretionary cycle, characterized by The southern boundary of the RNJ province with the Rondonian-
granitoid rocks with radiometric ages in the 1780–1550 Ma interval San Ignacio (RSI) province comprises several metamorphic belts, some
(Tassinari et al., 1996; Payolla et al., 2002). Therefore, the RNJ province of which reaching granulite facies, as well as large shear zones, and a
was formed, with a general younging of accretionary wedges from NE recurrent plutonism (Fig. 4; see Table 1). Such features seem to be a
to SW. Like the VT, the RNJ province is composed predominantly of good indication for the collisional nature of the boundary (Cordani and
granite–gneiss and granitoid rocks, with positive to slightly negative Teixeira, 2007). The RSI province involves allochthonous terranes, and
εNd(T) signatures, suggesting that juvenile accretionary events played also accreted domains of intra-oceanic character, roughly dated
a major role in the tectonic evolution. between 1500 and 1300 Ma (Tassinari et al., 2000; Geraldes et al.,
For the VT and RNJ provinces, geologic evidence, coupled with Sr 2001; Santos, 2003). Several intrusive granitoid suites, some of them
and Nd isotopic constraints, is consistent with a scenario of successive affecting the adjacent RNJ province, exhibit positive or slightly
amalgamation of magmatic arcs, mainly intra-oceanic, of which the negative εNd(T) values, indicating a predominant juvenile component
roots are now exhumed. Several large rifts and similar structures, in their magmas. For example, the Rio Alegre Complex which includes
associated with development of cratonic volcanic-sedimentary basins some mafic rocks, BIFs, deep-ocean sediments, and granitoids (1520–
and aulacogens, are found over the entire area of the VT and RNJ 1470 Ma), and the Santa Helena plutonic arc (1450–1420 Ma), in Mato
provinces (Tassinari et al., 2000; Neder et al., 2002). Mafic and alkaline Grosso, Brazil, are crustal domains progressively built by intermittent
intrusions are also found, most likely formed under extensional convergent-margin magmatism and soft-accretion by stacking of
regime, and generally following the stacking of individual accre- outboard juvenile magmatic arcs during a continued subduction
tionary arcs. Moreover, within this very large area, non-deformed, regime (Geraldes et al., 2001). We envisage a similar scenario for the
 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407 399

Table 1
Main geologic and geochronologic characteristics of the Archean and Proterozoic provinces of the Amazonian Craton (see text for details).

General characteristics of the province Main tectono-metamorphic events Regional geologic units Post-tectonic and anorogenic complexes
Central Amazonian (CA) (N 2.6 Ga) Archean Meso- and Neoarchean juvenile episodes Xingu-Iricoumé and Roraima blocks: Granitic intrusions (b 1.9 Ga) Proterozoic
nuclei with cratonic volcano-sedimentary with migmatization and granitogenesis. Archean supracrustal sequences (e.g. alkaline complexes and mafic dikes.
covers. Stable tectonic domain for the MI Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic tectonic Carajás granite–greenstone terrain), TTG
orogenic events. reactivation in many regions. and sanukitoid suites. Neoarchean and
Paleoproterozoic granitoids. Mafic–
ultramafic complexes. Undeformed to
slightly deformed volcano-sedimentary
covers. Continental sedimentary covers.
Maroni-Itacaiunas (MI) (2.25–2.05 Ga) Predominant juvenile accretionary arcs. Extensive granite–greenstone terrains, Mafic sills and dikes (e.g. 1.65 Ga).
Paleoproterozoic belts. Stable cratonic Transamazonian/Birimian deformation supracrustal sequences and calc-alkaline Granitoid intrusions (AMCG type); 1.56–
foreland for the succeeding arc evolution. and metamorphism. Proterozoic granitoids. Central Guyana Granulite 1.52 Ga.
reactivation, along faults. collisional belt (Backhuis, Falawatra and
Kanuku). Archean inliers (e.g. Amapá
Block) and the Imataca terrane.
Ventuari-Tapajós (VT) (1.98–1.81 Ga) Post-Transamazonian metamorphism and Roots of juvenile arcs: calc-alkaline and Granitic intrusions: 1.87–1.86 Ga. Rapakivi
Predominant soft-collision/accretion deformation. Tectonic reactivation related sub-alkaline granitoid rocks (plutonic- suites (1.56–1.55 Ga): El Parguaza,
processes and agglutination of magmatic to the stacking of the marginal arcs. volcanic suites). Low grade supracrustal Surucurus. Mafic and alkaline complexes.
arcs. sequences. Platform-type sedimentary Kimberlite plugs.
rocks (rift structures with volcanic-
sedimentary covers). Foreland basins.
Rio Negro-Juruena (RNJ) (1.78–1.55 Ga) Medium grade polycyclic metamorphism. Alto Jauru granite–greenstone terrain Serra da Providência Intrusive Suite (1.60–
Predominant soft-collision/accretion Cachoeirinha calc-alkaline arc: 1.59– (1.79–1.75 Ga). Rio Apa cratonic fragment 1.53 Ga). Rio Branco bimodal Suite (1.47–
processes, with plutonic recurrent pulses. 1.52 Ga. Tectonic reactivation, (1.76 Ga). Coeval granitoid suites 1.42 Ga). Rondonian Tin Province: (1.08–
Agglutination of magmatic arcs. deformation, reworking and magmatism (1.78 Ga). Migmatites and gneissic 0.92 Ga).
along the southern boundary of the associations: Tonalitic gneisses (1.75–
province, as reflection of the RSI and SU 1.73 Ga); Granitic to charnockitic gneisses
orogens. (1.60–1.53 Ga). Rift structures associated
with volcano-sedimentary sequences:
1.76–1.75/1.69 Ga).
Rondonian-San Ignacio (RSI) (1.55–1.30 Ga) San Ignacio orogeny (Colorado and Lomas Maneches Complex (1.69–1.66 Ga) Granitic intrusions (1.41–1.31 Ga).
Collisional orogeny involving a possible Pensamiento complexes: 1.37–1.30 Ga) and Chiquitania paragneisses. Juvenile Rondonian Tin Province (tectonic reflex
microcontinent combined with accretionary Reworking of the crystalline basement (e.g. rocks/domains: Rio Crespo Intrusive Suite due to SU orogen): Maçangana (0.99–
domains and plutonic pulses inboard the RNJ Paraguá craton). Tectonic reactivation and (1.50 Ga); Rio Alegre complex (1.51– 0.98). Mafic sills (1.20 Ga and mafic
province. shear zones, and rift basins, as reflection of 1.48 Ga); Santa Helena calc-alkaline volcanism (1.00 Ga). Kimberlite plugs.
the Sunsas orogen. batholith (1.45–1.42 Ga); Colorado
Metamorphic Suite (1.36–1.30 Ga),
Pensamiento granitoid complex (1.36–
1.30 Ga). Rift basins and aulacogen-type
structures (Nova Brasilândia; 1.21–
1.12 Ga).
Sunsas (SU) (1.28–0.95 Ga) Collisional Sunsas orogeny: extensional setting Passive margin supracrustal assemblages, Granites and pegmatites (1.07–0.92 Ga).
orogeny overprinting the RNJ and RSI evolving to crustal shortening, further deformed and metamorphosed Rondonian Tin province. Rincon Del Tigre
provinces. Final cratonization of the area deformation, plutonism and (e.g. Nova Brasilândia belt; 1.10 Ga), basic complex (0.99 Ga).
(1.00–0.92 Ga). metamorphism (Vibosi and Sunsas belts). accompanied by bimodal syn- to late
tectonic granitoid rocks. Sunsas low- to
medium metamorphics. Flat lying
sedimentary covers over the tectonically
stable foreland: Huanchaca and Aguapeí
sequences.

western sector of Amazonia, where the San Ignacio orogeny (1370– Cordani and Teixeira, 2007). The best approximation of the time of
1320 Ma) produced supracrustal belts, gneisses, granites and volca- tectonic stabilization of the RSI province seems to be provided by the
nics, collectively named as Pensamiento Granitoid Complex (Lither- youngest K–Ar mica dates (ca. 1250 Ma) obtained from the
land et al., 1986), making up the so-called “Paraguá Craton” in Bolivia, Pensamiento Granitoid Complex in Bolivia (Litherland and Power,
the tectonically stable region in relation with the Sunsas belt occurring 1989), and by the comparable 40Ar/39Ar muscovite and hornblende
to the south-west (Figs. 2 and 4). The Pensamiento rocks show ages for the Colorado schists of Rondônia (Brazil), slightly older than
subalkaline to calc-alkaline affinity and display varied εNd(T) values, 1300 Ma (Rizzotto et al., 2002).
suggesting a derivation from mixing of a predominantly juvenile The collisional type Sunsas (SU) orogenic belt (Litherland and
material with some older crust, possibly within a continental margin Power, 1989) was formed roughly between 1280 and 950 Ma along the
environment (Darbyshire, 2000; Matos et al., 2008). southern boundary of the Paraguá Craton (Bolivia), at the south-
The San Ignacio orogeny is coeval with deformation of the western end of the Amazonian Craton (Fig. 4). The Sunsas orogen,
Colorado Metamorphic Suite in Rondônia, Brazil, with similar ages, structurally marked by shear and mylonitic zones (e.g. Rio Negro,
and whose rocks similarly display εNd(T) juvenile-like signatures Santa Catalina and San Diablo fronts), comprises voluminous pluton-
(Rizzotto and Quadros, 2007), and this supports the idea of ism, low- to medium grade metamorphic belts and reactivated
considering the Mesoproterozoic Rondonian-San Ignacio collisional crystalline basement (e.g. Litherland and Power, 1989; Boger et al.,
orogeny as the principal tectono-magmatic event for the entire RSI 2005). It was originated in an extensional environment, consisting of a
province (e.g. Teixeira et al., 1989; 2006; Cordani and Teixeira, 2007). passive margin sedimentary sequence (the Vibosi and Sunsas belts)
As a consequence of tectonic duplication along the collisional belt, a that was subsequently deformed during a continental collision. This
cratonic fragment exhibiting a relevant lithospheric thickness, may deformed sequence was intruded by syn- to late-tectonic granitic
exist below the Paleozoic and possibly Precambrian sediments that fill suites accompanying extensive deformation along the tectonic zones,
up the very large Pimenta Bueno graben basin (Tohver et al., 2004a; followed by the emplacement of post-tectonic plutons. Radiometric
400 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407

Fig. 3. Reconstruction of the relative positions of the ancient nuclei of West Africa and Northern South America in Paleoproterozoic times. Adapted from Nomade et al. (2003).

age determinations of the granitic suites of the SU belt are included in evidence of the large oceanic basin that existed at about 900–1000 Ma
the 1270–1000 Ma time interval (e.g. Litherland et al., 1986; Boger between the rifted margins of the Amazonian and some other
et al., 2005). unidentified cratonic fragments (see Fig. 2). The GMA is a major
Over the cratonic area, in Brazil, the Nova Brasilândia and Aguapeí area of soft collision/accretion regime, and contains Neoproterozoic
belts, dated at about 1160 Ma (Rizzotto et al., 2001; Santos, 2003), granitoids (ages within the 900–550 Ma interval), with the oldest of
were formed in rift-type structures that were affected by later these clearly juvenile, according to their Sr–Nd isotopic constraints
transpression, crustal shortening and granitic injections due to the (Pimentel et al., 2000). It is a large and elongated region, closely
SU collisional dynamics (e.g. Cordani and Teixeira, 2007). The related associated with the Transbrasiliano megasuture (see Fig. 2), where
tectonic reactivation led to anorogenic magmatism (e.g. granites, sills, calc-alkaline orthogneisses and associated rocks predominate. The
dikes) over the tectonically stable crust (Figs. 2 and 4), such as the principal rock types of this unit are plutonic, ranging in composition
widespread anorogenic granitic magmatism of the Younger Granites from tonalite to granodiorite.
of Rondonia (YGR), also referred as the Rondonian Tin Province (ages At the south-western extremity of the Amazonian Craton, the
between 970 and 1100 Ma, Priem et al., 1989; Bettencourt et al., 1999), Araguaia–Paraguay belt makes a very large bend, changing from NE–
the coeval plutons in Mato Grosso (Brazil),as well as emplacement of SW to almost N–S trends, as also mirrored by the exposures of
the 990 Ma Rincon del Tigre mafic–ultramafic complex in Bolivia Corumbá and Cuiabá Groups (see Fig. 4). In the Bolivian territory, a
(Litherland et al., 1986 — see Table 1). These intraplate tectono- large rift developed, most likely as a result of the evolution of a triple
magmatic events are here considered as tectonic reflections of the junction at about the Proterozoic–Paleozoic time-boundary. The
Sunsas orogeny over the stable foreland. Tucavaca syncline was formed, with a NW–SE trend, roughly parallel
Just after the termination of the tectonic events of the SU belt, a to the structural trends of the Sunsas belt. The extensional structures
fragmentation affected the eastern margin of the Amazonian Craton, of the Tucavaca belt suggest that they are related to an aulacogenic
producing the observed truncation of the major structures. The type setting, leading to disruption between the Amazonian Craton and
Araguaia and Paraguay folded belts are the passive margins formed in the Rio Apa cratonic fragment (Figs. 2 and 4), and possibly the
this major event, in the Neoproterozoic, at the onset of the Brasiliano Arequipa-Antofalla terrane, as will be dealt with later (see Fig. 7a). The
orogeny. Their geologic framework is consistent with a series of estimated age of the original extensional tectonics has been suggested
Neoproterozoic marginal basin settings evolving to rift–drift tectonics at 590–560 Ma, which compares well with the time of deformation of
parallel to the margins of the Amazonian Craton (e.g. Boggiani and the GMA (Pimentel et al., 1997; Trompette et al., 1998). Later tectonic
Alvarenga, 2004), that were inverted later to active margins. activation within the Tucavaca belt is inferred from K/Ar mineral ages
The intra-oceanic Goiás Magmatic Arc (GMA, Pimentel et al., obtained in rocks of the underlying crystalline basement, which
2000), a major tectonic unit adjacent to the Araguaia belt, is the main yielded ca. 520 Ma (Litherland and Power, 1989).
 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407 401

Fig. 4. Geologic outline of the SW margin of the Amazonian Craton showing major tectonic components of the Rio Negro-Juruena (1.78–1.55 Ga) Rondonian-San Ignacio (1.55–
1.30 Ga) and Sunsas (1.28–0.95 Ga) provinces, bounded to the east by the Neoproterozoic Araguaia and Paraguay folded belts (adapted from Cordani and Teixeira, 2007). The inferred
boundaries between the provinces are also displayed in dashed lines. See text and Table 1 for details.

In Phanerozoic times, the Amazonian Craton remained tectonically provinces attests to the existence of a very large ocean, where a
stable. The Amazon Basin was formed overlying its central part, continued series of subduction events occurred. This means that in
starting in the Lower Paleozoic, and many tectonic and magmatic Paleo- and Mesoproterozoic times Amazonia started much smaller
features were described, always related to major tectonic events and was growing with time, and this must be taken into account in the
occurring at its margins. To the North and West, the Andean belt was reconstructions envisaged for those time-frames.
the source of the stresses responsible for important tectonic
reactivations, mainly related to compressional or transpressional 3.2. Amazonia in Columbia
tectonics. To the north-east, extensional features are the result of the
opening of the North-Atlantic, starting at about 200 Ma. The existence of a Paleoproterozoic supercontinent has been
envisaged by several authors based mainly on the age of ancient
3. Supercontinent reconstructions and the position of Amazonia mobile belts found in several cratonic blocks (e.g. Rogers, 1996; Meert,
2001; Rogers and Santosh, 2002; Pesonen et al., 2003; Zhao et al.,
3.1. Amazonia in the Paleoproterozoic 2003, 2004; Rogers and Santosh, 2009 — this issue). In the case of
Amazonia, the age and the character of the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic
Since paleomagnetic measurements are not available, it is not belts occurring at its south-western part permit correlation with the
possible to indicate with some confidence the position of the cratonic Svecofennian domain and the Trans-scandinavian Igneous Belt within
nuclei related to the Amazonian Craton before the onset of the Baltica, an idea first advanced by Almeida (1978), and also with the
Transamazonian/Eburnean orogeny, in the Paleoproterozoic. After Mid-continent region of Laurentia. Such assembly of large continental
this event, the northern part of the Guyana Shield was attached to masses has received several names, Columbia being the one currently
West Africa, as indicated in Fig. 3. From about 1900 Ma, and during employed for the supercontinent assembled ca. 1800 Ma ago (Rogers
most of the Proterozoic, the series of intra-oceanic magmatic arcs and Santosh, 2002, 2009 — this issue; Meert, 2001). Amazonia would
found in the VT, and later within the RNJ and the RSI tectonic be part of it, together with Laurentia and Baltica, forming an elongated
402 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407

and continuous landmass linked by the Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic

mobile belts which constitute large portions of these continental
nuclei.
Paleomagnetic evidence is available for all cratonic units that took
part in Columbia. Using key paleomagnetic poles for Laurentia, Baltica,
North China and the Amazonia, Bispo-Santos et al. (2008) proposed a
paleomagnetically consistent paleogeography for Columbia at
1790 Ma ago (Fig. 5). Pesonen et al. (2003) had already attempted
to reconstruct a similar relative position of these three cratonic masses
for a somewhat later time, at about 1500–1600 Ma. Such a
configuration was further refined by Kusky et al. (2007), which
included the North China Craton between Baltica and Amazonia. The
main element of correlation between the mentioned cratonic nuclei is
the existence of a very large oceanic realm towards west. The
correspondent oceanic lithosphere was active during most of Paleo
and Mesoproterozoic time, and was responsible for a series of
eastward directed subduction-related magmatic arcs, many of them
exhibiting intra-oceanic character.
According to the configuration attempted in Fig. 5, North China fills
the gap between Baltica and the Amazonia. The paleomagnetic data
favors the model of Zhao et al. (2005, 2006), where the Trans-North
China belt accommodates the final collision between the two halves of
North China at Paleoproterozoic times (1850 Ma), preceded by
widespread subduction-related magmatism in the western border of
its eastern half. At the same time, similar processes were in progress
Fig. 5. Paleogeographic reconstruction for 1790 Ma. Archaean cratonic areas (light-
along the western border of Baltica, Laurentia and specifically of the grey): Laurentia (S — Slave; C — Churchill; SU — Superior; N — Nain and equivalent in
Amazonian Craton, where juvenile magmatic arcs (VT province, Fig. 2) southern Greenland), Baltica (KO — Kola; KA — Karelia), North China (YB — Yinshan
were formed between 1950 Ma and 1800 Ma (Tassinari and Block; OB — Ordos Block; WB — West Block; EB — East Block), Amazonia (CA — Central
Amazonia Province). Paleoproterozoic belts (dark grey): Laurentia (NQ — New Quebec;
Macambira, 2004; Cordani and Teixeira, 2007).
T — Tornget; W — Wopmay; P — Penokean; K — Kefilidian; NA — Nagssugtoqidian; FR —
The Columbia supercontinent may have been short-lived, splitting Foxe-Rinklan), Baltica (LK — Lapland-Kola; SD — Svecofennian Domain), North China
in at least two parts, because widespread extension is recorded in (NH — North Hebei/Khondolite belt; TNC — Trans-North China), Amazonia (MI —
North China between 1800 and 1770 Ma, soon after the time Maroni-Itacaiunas; CA – Central Amazonian; VT – Ventuari-Tapajós). Modified from
envisaged for its amalgamation (Kusky et al., 2007). In the northern Bispo-Santos et al. (2008).

part, Baltica and Laurentia, the eastward subduction-type active

margin seem to have continued in Mesoproterozoic times, with the
development of the Yavapai–Mazatzal–Labradorian Belts (1800– more or less synchronous continental collisions worldwide. The type-
1400 Ma) in Laurentia, and the Trans-Scandinavian–Konegsbergian locality for the so-called “Grenvillian orogeny” is the Grenville Belt of
Belts (1800–1700 Ma) in Baltica. To the south, Amazonia rifted away North America. Several classical works on the tectonic evolution of the
from North China, and witnessed the accretion of several magmatic Grenville belt were produced, among which the synthesis of Rivers
arcs making up the RNJ tectonic province (1850–1550 Ma, see Fig. 2). (1997), that proposed three orogenic pulses, the Elzevirian (starting
at about 1300 Ma), Ottawan (about 1150 Ma) and Rigolet (about
3.3. Amazonia in Rodinia 1000 Ma). When a correlation is attempted with the Amazonian
Craton, the first of these orogenic pulses would correspond to the
With Columbia's fragmentation, Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia and Rondonian-San Ignacio orogeny, while the other two would be
North China went adrift, and new oceanic floors were growing among synchronous with tectono-magmatic events within the Sunsas belt.
them. From then on, the relation of Amazonia and Laurentia became a A few scenarios have been proposed by different authors for the
key issue for the supercontinent reconstructions, in the final part of Laurentia–Amazonia continental collision in the context of the global
the Mesoproterozoic. The juvenile magmatic arcs of Pensamiento-Rio Grenvillian orogeny that formed Rodinia. As one of the main
Alegre (Geraldes et al., 2001; Cordani and Teixeira, 2007; Matos et al., alternatives, Sadowski and Bettencourt (1996) envisaged a large
2008), dated between 1340 and 1500 Ma, could well correspond to the continent (a proto-Laurentia plus a proto-Amazonia?), that was
accreted intra-oceanic material that attests to the existence of a large disrupted by the onset of two successive Wilson cycles. Their view was
ocean that separated Amazonia from Laurentia. proposed when the idea of Columbia was not yet available, and
Rodinia was initially defined as a long-lived supercontinent that therefore it is slightly different from the one proposed here. They
assembled all the continental fragments around Laurentia and envisaged that Laurentia and Amazonia were already close together,
remained stable from 1000 up to 750 Ma (McMenamin and as parts of the same continental mass, since at least 1500 Ma. Their
McMenamin, 1990; Hoffman, 1991). In most reconstructions, (e.g., preferred evolutionary model includes formation and consumption of
Sadowski and Bettencourt, 1996; Weil et al., 1998; Keppie and Ortega- a reasonably large ocean floor during the first Wilson cycle (about
Gutierrez, 1999; Tohver et al., 2002), Amazonia is placed against the 1500 Ma) and only a small ocean during the second (about 1250 Ma).
eastern side of Laurentia by matching the Grenville and Sunsas belts. Following their hypothesis, the onset of the second Wilson cycle may
These reconstructions, although keeping the general correlation for have produced the passive margin that later was inverted to produce
the ~1000 Ma mobile belts, place Laurentia and Amazonia in different the Sunsas belt, within the final collisional event related to the
positions, in order to accommodate other smaller cratonic fragments agglutination of Rodinia.
such as Oaxaquia of southern Mexico, or the Grenvillian age basement The close connection between Laurentia and Amazonia within
inliers of the Andes in South America. Rodinia is generally admitted in all proposed reconstructions, but the
Rodinia was formed by the agglutination of the existing cratonic exact position of Amazonia along the more than 3000 km of
masses in the Mesoproterozoic, such as Laurentia and Amazonia, in Laurentia's Grenvillian margin is intensely debated. For instance,
 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407 403

Fig. 6. The along strike migration of the Amazon craton relative to Laurentia, according to D'Agrella-Filho et al. (2008), indicated by the ~ 2000 km shift from the 1.2 Ga position
(Tohver et al., 2002) to the 1.15 Ga position using the Fortuna Formation paleomagnetic pole (Euler pole 10.5, 298.7, −150°). Grey arrow indicates the APW path for proto-North
America. Individual poles for Greenland (circles) and Laurentia (squares) are numbered according to Tohver et al. (2002). Stars indicate Amazonia poles (NF: Nova Floresta, FF:
Fortuna Formation) rotated according to each reconstruction. The Euler rotation pole (triangle — 75°N, 155.5°E, 15°) that takes the Amazonian from the 1.2 Ga to 1.15 Ga is also shown.
Matching the APWPs, as discussed in the text, results in an alternative position for the Amazonian Craton (dashed outline) with no Grenvillian connection between Amazonia and
Laurentia.

three different configurations have been suggested by several authors authigenic xenotime rims on detrital zircons by U–Pb SHRIMP
mainly based on geological arguments. A northerly position alongside analysis.
Newfoundland and Labrador was chosen by Dalziel (1991) mainly on A summary of the available robust paleomagnetic constraints for the
the matching of the Iapetan rift history of Laurentia with the Laurentia–Amazonia link was produced recently (Tohver et al., 2006a),
Argentine Precordilleran margin. But Loewy et al. (2003), testing where a common Rodinian paleogeography for both cratons was
this idea, have found contrasting Pb isotopic signatures for the pre- determined at least since 1200 Ma. A pole-by-pole comparison of
Grenville basement of the Labrador–Scotland–Greenland promontory Laurentia and Amazonia for 1.20 Ga and 1.15 Ga is coherent with an
and the proto-Andean Arequipa-Antofalla basement thus precluding evolving paleogeography between these two cratons (see Fig. 6). In this
that paleogeography. Other authors have placed the Amazonian scenario, the net sinistral strike-slip motion of the Amazonian Craton
Craton facing the central province of Ontario and New York (Hoffman, would contribute for the long span of the Grenvillian orogenesis for this
1991; Sadowsky and Bettencourt, 1996; Bettencourt et al., 1996; Weil period. Very likely, transtensive and transpressive conditions may have
et al., 1998) based on the fitting of Neoproterozoic mobile belts on occurred due to irregularities across the margins of the two cratons
both sides and paleomagnetic data for Laurentia. therefore accounting for the intervening basins, intracratonic mobile
Tohver et al. (2002) have provided the first paleomagnetic belts, and exotic terranes, left along Laurentia's margin, such as the Blue
evidence for the Amazonian Craton at Rodinian times, and the poles Ridge/Mars Hill terrane. An alternative interpretation of available
indicated a better matching for that craton alongside the Llano paleomagnetic data for Laurentia and Amazonia is also represented in
segment of Laurentia at 1200 Ma ago. In subsequent papers, Tohver Fig. 6. According to this configuration, obtained after matching the APW
et al. presented geochemical, isotopic and geochronologic evidence for path for both continents, Amazonia (dashed outline in Fig. 6) is far from
an oblique collision between these cratons about the whole the eastern margin of Laurentia. We discard this interpretation on the
Grenvillian margin of Laurentia (2004b, 2005a,b, 2006a,b). Recently basis of the isotopic and structured evidence discussed above.
available paleomagnetic evidence for the Amazonian Craton supports
the dynamic scenario of Tohver et al. A new paleomagnetic pole was 3.4. Amazonia in Gondwana
obtained from sedimentary rocks of the Aguapeí Group (D'Agrella-
Filho et al., 2008). In these redbeds, the characteristic component is According to Cordani et al. (2003) and Kröner and Cordani (2003),
carried by authigenic hematite formed during early diagenesis. The the geological, geochronological, and paleomagnetic database accu-
age of diagenesis is constrained at about 1150 Ma by the dating of mulated for South America and Africa in the last decade seems to
404 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407

Fig. 7. Paleogeographic reconstructions for the collision related to the arrival of Amazonia. In (A) Amazonia joins Gondwana at the Ediacaran period as a result from closure of the
Pharusian-Goiás ocean (Cordani et al., 2003). In (B) the arrival of Amazonia at the western margin of a proto-Gondwana is shown in two steps: 1) agglutination of proto-Gondwana
by means of Mozambique, Brasiliano–Pan-African and Kuunga orogenies (940–530 Ma); 2) final formation of Gondwana at Cambrian times due to the Pampean-Araguaia Orogeny
(540–520 Ma) concominant with its separation from Laurentia (Trindade et al., 2006). I — India; M — Madagascar; AN — Antarctica; A — Australia; L — Laurentia; B — Baltica; K—
Kalahari; CSF — Congo–São Francisco; LP — Rio de la Plata; AM — Amazonia; WA — West Africa; RA — Rio Apa; AA — Arequipa-Antofalla; PR — Paraná; PA — Pampea; BTS —
Borborema–Trans-Sahara. Pale grey represents the Neoproterozoic belts.

demonstrate that most of these continental fragments were not part Massif and the Paranapanema block (Cordani et al., 2003; Kröner and
of Rodinia. Tohver et al. (2006a) reached a similar conclusion on the Cordani, 2003). This large oceanic domain would include the well
basis of their review of the available paleomagnetic data from Africa documented Goiás and Pharusian oceans as well as the less well-
and South America. In the transition from Rodinia to Gondwana, it is defined Pampean ocean. The Pampean–Goiás–Pharusian started its
necessary to envisage the disappearance of at least two very large consumption in the earlier Neoproterozoic, by forming intra-oceanic
oceans: the Goias (or Brasiliano) Ocean (GMA) in the West, and the magmatic arcs. Later these units were united in a series of soft-
Mozambique Ocean in the East, this latter related to the collage of collisions, in the process of amalgamation of Gondwana, along the
West and East Gondwana (Cordani et al., 2003). The Goiás ocean Pampean-Paraguay-Araguaia-Pharusian belts. There is evidence for
extended into the Pharusian ocean to the northeast (Brito-Neves et al., extensive granitoid magmatism in the period between 840 and
1984; Trompette, 1994; Fetter et al., 2003; Caby, 1989). This ocean has 530 Ma, corresponding to the tectonomagmatic episodes of the
also extended to the southwest, towards the Neoproterozoic to Brasiliano/Pan-African orogenic cycle. The predominantly calc-
Cambrian Pampean belt, assuming that the granitoid rocks of that alkaline chemistry of these magmatic rocks indicates subduction-related,
belt originated through subduction processes. These oceanic domains active margin processes.
have closed trough the mega-sutures, the Transbrasiliano plus Hoggar The available paleomagnetic data suggest that Laurentia and the
4o50′ lineaments that cross the West Gondwana from north-east to Amazonian Craton remained attached until 600 Ma at least (Sanchez-
south-west. Based on the close correlation between northeast Brazil Bettucci and Rapalini, 2002, Trindade et al., 2006). Since all other
and West-central Africa, a large oceanic domain separating the West cratonic units surrounding Laurentia have already rifted away by that
African Craton from the Borborema–Trans-Saharan cratonic fragment time, the separation between Amazonia and Laurentia marks the final
in the Neoproterozoic was already proposed by Castaing et al. (1994). break-up of Rodinia with the opening of the Iapetus ocean. But the
The oldest granitoids in the GMA are dated at 900–850 Ma timing of the Iapetus ocean opening and the arrival of Amazonia in the
(Pimentel et al., 1997), indicating that the oceanic lithosphere western margin of Gondwana are still debatable due to the limited
consumed in the production of the granitoid rocks must have been number of Neoproterozoic paleomagnetic poles for Western Gond-
generated at least some 100 Ma earlier. This implies that, when the wana blocks and the controversies over the interpretation of the
main nucleus of Rodinia formed around Laurentia, including Amazo- contemporaneous paleomagnetic poles of Laurentia (see Pisarevsky
nia, a large ocean separated several continental masses and fragments et al., 2008 for a review; see also Vaughan and Pankhurst, 2008).
from this nucleus, such as the São Francisco–Congo, Rio de La Plata, At the western border of the Congo–São Francisco Craton,
and Kalahari cratons, plus the Borborema–Trans-Sahara, Central Goiás geological evidence suggest a protracted collision with development
 U.G. Cordani et al. / Gondwana Research 15 (2009) 396–407 405

of juvenile arcs with ages varying from 940 to 620 Ma (Pimentel et al., basement units of the northern Andes, such as the Santa Marta,
2000; Cordani et al., 2003) implying that an ancient ocean basin (the Santander and Garzón massifs in Colombia. They yield Grenvillian
Goiás ocean) was closing at the border of Congo–São Francisco Craton radiometric ages of about 1000 Ma (Tschanz et al., 1974; Cordani et al.,
when cratonic pieces around Laurentia were rifting away. At the same 2005), a fact that allows their correlation with the Sunsas belt.
time, limited rifting at the Congo–São Francisco junction led to the Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997) also suggested possible links with the
development of a relatively restricted oceanic domain from which southern terranes of the Arequipa massif in Peru (Wasteneys et al.,
ophiolitic remnants with Neoproterozoic ages are described (Pedrosa- 1995) and the Precordillera in Argentina (Ramos, 1988). A general
Soares et al., 1998, 2001; Tack et al., 2001). The coincidence of correlation of the Grenville-age terranes scattered in Mexico, Laur-
paleomagnetic poles for several units of Western Gondwana by entia, Amazonia, and Baltica was attempted by Keppie and Ortega-
570 Ma suggests that it was practically complete by that time. Gutierrez (1999), concluding for a close similarity between the
The age in which Amazonia and other minor blocks had joined this tectonic evolution of all them. These terranes may initially have
supercontinent is still open to debate. In Fig. 7, the two possible formed at 1200 ± 100 Ma during the collisional Grenvillian orogeny,
scenarios depend on the age in which the Amazonian Craton was and when Laurentia rifted away from Gondwana, forming the Iapetus
joined to Western Gondwana. If one considers the collision ages at the ocean at about 580 Ma, many fragments of the Grenville belt were left
western border of the Sao Francisco Craton as related to the collision of behind. Later on, these Grenvillian terranes, such as the already
Amazonia, then the final amalgamation of Western Gondwana would mentioned basement inliers of Colombia, (Cordani et al., 2005), as well
have occurred at 620 Ma or slightly later (e.g. Pimentel et al., 2000). as the Arequipa-Antofalla, and Precordillera terranes (Ramos, 2000),
This scenario (Fig. 7a), which is the preferred one by most researchers were later re-distributed and collided back to Amazonia, then already
dealing with supercontinent reconstructions, implies that Laurentia, within South America. Some of them, such as the Arequipa-Antofalla
still attached to Amazonia, has been part of Gondwana for a short and Precordillera terranes, collided back rather soon, possibly during
period of time until the opening of Iapetus. On the other hand, the the early Paleozoic (see for review Ramos, 2004). Some other terranes,
Tucavaca aulacogen allows a speculation for the enigmatic Arequipa- such as the basement inliers of Colombia (Cordani et al., 2005),
Antofalla terrane which is tentatively positioned as in this figure. This returned to South America as part of the Hercynian-Alleghanian
aulacogen could be easily envisaged as one of the major extensional orogenic belt, in the process of amalgamation of Pangea.
tectonic units associated to the separation between Amazonia and
Laurentia, just after 600 Ma, leading to the Iapetus opening. The Acknowledgements
Arequipa-Antofalla terrane would have been produced during this
major event, and may have later returned to South America, as an The authors acknowledge the support of the Brazilian National
allochthonous unit, during the early Paleozoic. Research Council (CNPq) and the Research Foundation of the State of
If one accepts the paleomagnetic results obtained on the Araras São Paulo (FAPESP), Brazil. We greatly appreciated the insightful
carbonates (Trindade et al., 2003) as indicating the position of comments of Dr Augusto Rapalini that greatly improved the revised
Amazonia at the beginning of the Ediacaran, then Amazonia was not version of this manuscript.
linked to Western Gondwana by 630 Ma, joining the supercontinent at
Early Cambrian times after the Iapetus opening (e.g. Trindade et al., References
2006). In this scenario (Fig. 7b), the Amazonian collision by means of
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