Biology Project

Sensory
Organs
Name: JOHN SOJAN

Class: XI-B (boys)

Roll No.: 08
Acknowledgement
 Index

A. Sensory organs

1. olfactory receptors
2. hearing receptors
3. the sense of sight
4. taste receptors
5. sensory receptors
B. Conclusion
C. bibliography

s
 Sensory organs

Sensory organs can be simply defined as bodily

structures that receive a stimulus and are affected in
such a manner as to initiate excitation of associated
sensory nerve fibers which convey specific impulses
to the central nervous system.

Sensory organs are a developed group of tissues

known as receptors. Receptors are groups of specialised
cells. They can detect changes in the environment, which
are called stimulus, and turn them into electrical
impulses. Receptors are often located in the sense organs,
such as the ears, eyes and skin. Each organ has receptors
sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus.

The five basic senses consist of: sight, smell, hearing,

taste and touch.

Sensory organs can further be classified on the basis

of the receptors present in them, namely:
General Receptors: These are found throughout the body
because they are present in skin, visceral organs (visceral
meaning in the abdominal cavity), muscles, and joints.
Special Receptors: These include chemo-receptors, i.e
chemical receptors, found in the mouth and nose,
photo-receptors, i.e light receptors, found in the eyes, and
mechano-receptors, i.e sound receptors, found in the ears.
In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing,
humans also have awareness of balance
(equilibrioception), pressure, temperature
(thermoception), pain (nociception), and motion all of
which may involve the coordinated use of multiple
sensory organs.

The sense of balance is maintained by a complex

interaction of visual inputs, the proprioceptive sensors
(which are affected by gravity and stretch sensors found
in muscles, skin, and joints), the inner ear vestibular
system, and the central nervous system. Disturbances
occurring in any part of the balance system, or even
within the brain's integration of inputs, can cause the
feeling of dizziness or unsteadiness.

Olfactory Receptors

The nose is the organ responsible for the sense of smell.

Olfactory cells line the top of your nasal cavity. On one
end, olfactory cells have cilia — hair-like attachments —
that project into the nasal cavity. On the other end of the
cell, are olfactory nerve fibers, which pass through the
ethmoid bone and into the olfactory bulb. The olfactory
bulb is directly attached to the cerebral cortex of your
brain.
As you breathe, anything that is in the air that you take in
enters your nasal cavity: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
dust, pollen, chemicals. You don’t “smell” air or dust or
pollen, but you can smell chemicals. The olfactory cells
are chemo-receptors, which means the olfactory cells
have protein receptors that can detect subtle differences
in chemicals.
The smells themselves consist of vapors of various
substances. The nose also has a structure called the
vomeronasal organ whose function has not been
determined, but which is suspected of being sensitive to
pheromones that influence the reproductive cycle. The
smell receptors are sensitive to seven types of sensations
that can be characterized as camphor, musk, flower, mint,
ether, acrid, or putrid. The sense of smell is sometimes
temporarily lost when a person has a cold.
The chemicals bind to the cilia, which generate a nerve
impulse that is carried through the olfactory cell, into the
olfactory nerve fiber, up to the olfactory bulb and to your
brain. Your brain determines what you are smelling. If
you are sniffing something that you haven’t experienced
before, you need to use another sense, such as taste or
sight, to make an imprint in your brain’s memory.
Diseases that Affect the Nose are:

 Choanal Atresia
According to the National Institutes of Health's
MedlinePlus medical encyclopedia, choanal atresia is the
most common nasal defect affecting newborns, occurring
in one out of every 7,000 births. Its main symptom is
breathing difficulties which result in a bluish color to the
skin, lips and fingernails due to a lack of oxygen. This
disease also leads to problems nursing, nasal blockage
affecting one side of the nose and chest retractions
(sinking of the chest as the baby breathes inward). The
cause of choanal atresia is not known.

Treatment may involve placing a tube into the baby's

mouth to help him breathe (intubation). Sometimes, a
tracheostomy may be needed; this involves surgically
creating an airway via the neck. Other types of surgery
are also used to treat the condition.
 Hay Fever:
Hay fever, also known as allergic rhinitis, is a condition
characterized by a runny nose, nasal congestion, cough,
sneezing, and a reduced sense of smell and taste. Fatigue,
irritability, facial pain, sinus pressure, swollen eyes and
drowsiness are other symptoms of hay fever, says the
Mayo Clinic.
Hay fever may be seasonal and affect people when the
levels of pollen, ragweed and weeds are elevated in the
environment. Pet dander and molds are also possible
triggers of hay fever.
Nasal corticosteroids and oral (taken by mouth)
corticosteroids are used to decrease inflammation, while
decongestants, antihistamines and leukotriene modifiers
are used to relieve hay fever symptoms. Sometimes,
washing out the nose with a saline rinse can also reduce
hay fever.
  Rhinitis:
Rhinitis, commonly referred to as the common cold and
is a viral infection that leads to a runny nose, nasal
congestion, sneezing, a sore throat a cough, and
headaches. It is supported by a viral etiology, particularly
rhinovirus and parainfluenza virus.It is characterised by
nasal respiratory obstruction associated with abundant
nasal secretions. Possible bacterial infections are
characterised by muco-purulent secretions. Treatment for
the common cold involves drinking plenty of fluids and
resting.
  Turbinate Hypertrophy
Nasal turbinates are normal outgrowths of the nasal
sidewall bone that are covered in nasal cavity mucous
membrane. Turbinate hypertrophy is when these
outgrowths become enlarged and obstruct the nose.
The nasal cavity generally contains three sets of
turbinates on each side:
 Superior turbinates
 Middle turbinates
 Inferior turbinates

Approximately 50 percent of nasal airflow passes

between the middle and inferior turbinates. Therefore,
abnormal enlargement of these two structures can be a
culprit cause of nasal obstruction.
A. Inferior turbinate:
Enlargement of the inferior turbinate typically occurs in
response to inflammation or may be developmental.
 Medicines such as nasal steroid sprays can help treat the
inflammation.
In cases that do not improve with medication, procedures
may be necessary to remove tissue from the turbinates.
One such procedure is a submucous resection to reduce
the size of the inferior turbinate.
Other turbinate treatments such as coblation are available.
Excision of part or all of the inferior turbinate is not
recommended and may have a number of consequences,
including:
 Severe bleeding requiring packing may occur during
surgery. Packing is rarely required for submucous
resection.
 "Empty nose syndrome” may develop with over
aggressive removal, where though the nasal airway is
wide open, the loss of lining that normally senses
airflow leaves patients feeling like their nose is
obstructed.
B. Middle turbinate:
The middle turbinate may be enlarged due to a concha
bullosa, or air-filled turbinate. This is a congenital
condition, meaning that it is present at birth.
Nevertheless, a concha bullosa can be large and occupy a
significant amount of space in the nose. Because of its
location near sinus drainage pathways, sinusitis may be a
consequence of or be worsened by a concha bullosa.
Endoscopic surgery is an effective way to precisely
remove the concha bullosa.
 Hearing Receptors

The ear is the organ of hearing. The outer ear protrudes

away from the head and is shaped like a cup to direct
sounds toward the tympanic membrane, which transmits
vibrations to the inner ear through a series of small bones
in the middle ear called the malleus, incus and stapes.
The inner ear, or cochlea, is a spiral-shaped chamber
covered internally by nerve fibers that react to the
vibrations and transmit impulses to the brain via the
auditory nerve. The brain combines the input of our two
ears to determine the direction and distance of sounds.

The inner ear has a vestibular system formed by three

semicircular canals that are approximately at right angles
to each other and which are responsible for the sense of
balance and spatial orientation. The inner ear has
chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles
(otoliths) containing calcium carbonate. The movement
of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear
sends signals to the brain that are interpreted as motion
and acceleration, it also is responsible for maintaining
equilibrium — or balance. To maintain equilibrium, the
ear must detect movement. To hear, the ear must respond
to mechanical stimulation by sound waves.
The outer ear is the external opening to the ear canal.
Sound waves are shuttled through the ear canal to the
middle ear. The eardrum sets the mechanics in motion:
When a sound wave hits the eardrum, the eardrum moves
tiny bones — the malleus, incus, and stapes — which
subsequently move.

This movement is picked up by the mechano-receptors in

the inner ear, which exist on hair cells containing cilia
between the end of the semicircular canals and the
vestibule.
When the cilia move, the cells create an impulse that is
sent through the cochlea to the eighth cranial nerve,
which carries the impulse to the brain.The brain then
interprets the information as a specific sound.

The fluid within the semicircular canals of the inner ear

moves, and that movement is ultimately detected by the
cilia. When the fluid doesn’t stop moving, you can
develop motion sickness. The cilia transmit impulses to
the brain about angular and rotational movement, as well
as movement through vertical and horizontal planes,
which helps your body to keep its balance.

The human ear can perceive frequencies from 16 cycles

per second, which is a very deep bass, to 28,000 cycles
per second, which is a very high pitch. Bats and dolphins
can detect frequencies higher than 100,000 cycles per
second. The human ear can detect pitch changes as small
as 3 hundredths of one percent of the original frequency
in some frequency ranges. Some people have "perfect
pitch", which is the ability to map a tone precisely on the
musical scale without reference to an external standard.
It is estimated that less than one in ten thousand people
have perfect pitch, but speakers of tonal languages like
Vietnamese and Mandarin show remarkably precise
absolute pitch in reading out lists of words because pitch
is an essential feature in conveying the meaning of words
in tone languages. The Eguchi Method teaches perfect
pitch to children starting before they are 4 years old.
After age 7, the ability to recognize notes does not
improve much.
 1.

2. Diseases that affect the Ear are:

 Meniere’s Disease
Meniere’s Disease is a disease that affects the inner ear,
specifically the endolymphatic sac, also called the
labyrinth. This semi-circular canal processes sound
signals to the brain and is also responsible for the
perception of balance.

In this disease, a part of the cochlea called the organ of

Corti becomes swollen, leading to a loss of hearing that
may come and go over time. It can also cause severe
dizziness, ear pain, and pressure. The disease can exist in
mild or severe forms.

Some of the symptoms of Menieres’s Disease include

vertigo or dizziness, tinnitus, dizziness, sweating and
palpitations. Some degree of hearing loss may also be
experienced.

Some symptoms of ear diseases may only be treated but

the root cause may have no cure.. To help alleviate the
discomfort of the disease, drugs that combat motion
sickness and nausea may be prescribed, along with
diuretics. Dietary changes and stress management
techniques may also be recommended.

 Cholesteatoma
Cholesteatoma is characterized by abnormal growth of
skin in the middle ear. It is usually caused by chronic
infection. Its symptoms include growth of small pouches
and cysts in the inner ear, leading to hearing loss. In
severe cases, paralysis of facial muscles and dizziness
may occur, but only rarely.Any infection present is
treated with antibiotics.

 Otosclerosis
Otosclerosis is the buildup of spongy or bone-like tissue
in the middle ear that prevents the ossicles, namely the
stapes in the middle ear, from working properly. The
impaired movement and function reduces the sound that
actually reaches the ear. Otosclerosis usually results
in conductive hearing loss, a hearing loss caused by a
problem in the outer or middle ear.
If the buildup of tissue spreads to the inner ear, it is
called Cochlear Otosclerosis. This can cause
permanent sensorineural hearing impairment due to
interference with how the nerves in this part of the ear
work.
Scientists aren’t sure about the exact cause but there is
some research suggesting a relationship between
otosclerosis and the hormonal changes associated with
pregnancy and also with viruses.
Treatment for people who are diagnosed with
otosclerosis depends on the extent of hearing loss and
may include surgery to replace some or all of the ossicles
with artificial ones. It is important to discuss the risks
and possible complications of this and any procedure, as
well as the benefits, with a doctor and a surgeon.
If the hearing loss is mild, surgery may not be an option
but a properly fitted hearing aid may help some people
with otosclerosis. A hearing aid is designed to
compensate for a hearing loss by amplifying sound.
C.

 Cancers of the Ear

Cancers of the ear usually occur on the skin of the outer
ear. Cancers of the ear can develop inside the ear too, but
these are very rare. There are different types of cancers
(carcinomas and melanomas) that can affect the ear.
Most ear cancers are squamous cell carcinoma on the
outer ear, but basal cell carcinoma and malignant
melanoma can also occur inside the ear.
1. Cancer of the Outer Ear:
Symptoms:
A scabbed area of skin that is jagged and irregular with
crusting and oozing—usually on the upper edge of the
 outer part of the ear. This area may be present for many
years and may or may not be associated with a swelling
or lump in the neck.
Cause: Long periods of time in the sun
Treatment for people with small cancers of the skin of
the ear includes surgery to remove the affected
area. Often no further treatment is required, especially if
the cancer is confined to the outer edge of the ear.

2. Cancer of the Auditory Canal:

Symptoms:
 Discharge from the ear canal, often tinged with
blood
 Hearing loss
 Sometimes facial paralysis on the side of the
affected ear
 Earache
Cause: Unknown—but may be more common in adults
with long history of outer ear infections.
Treatment for people with cancer of the auditory cancel
includes surgery to remove parts of the middle ear.
3. Cancer of the Middle Ear:
Symptoms:
 Discharge from ear for long period of time
 Recent blood stained discharge
 Hearing loss
 Sometimes facial paralysis
Cause: Unknown—but may be more common in adults
with history of discharge from ears for long periods of
time.
Treatment of people with cancer of the middle ear
includes surgery and radiation, which targets rays of
energy at small areas of cancer cells that might not have
been removed during surgery.
 The Sense of Sight

When you look at an eye, the iris is the colored part. The
iris actually is a pigmented muscle that controls the size
of the pupil, which dilates to allow more light into the
eye or contracts to allow less light into the eye. The iris
and pupil are covered by the cornea.
The eye is the organ of vision. It has a complex structure
consisting of a transparent lens that focuses light on the
retina. The retina is covered with two basic types of
light-sensitive cells-rods and cones. The cone cells are
sensitive to color and are located in the part of the retina
called the fovea, where the light is focused by the lens.
The rod cells are not sensitive to color, but have greater
sensitivity to light than the cone cells. These cells are
located around the fovea and are responsible for
peripheral vision and night vision. The eye is connected
to the brain through the optic nerve. The point of this
connection is called the "blind spot" because it is
insensitive to light. Experiments have shown that the
back of the brain maps the visual input from the eyes.

The brain combines the input of our two eyes into a

single three-dimensional image. In addition, even though
the image on the retina is upside-down because of the
focusing action of the lens, the brain compensates and
provides the right-side-up perception. Experiments have
been done with subjects fitted with prisms that invert the
images. The subjects go through an initial period of great
confusion, but subsequently they perceive the images as
right side up.

The range of perception of the eye is phenomenal .The

spectrum of light to which the eye is sensitive varies
from the red to the violet. Lower electromagnetic
frequencies in the infrared are sensed as heat, but cannot
be seen. Higher frequencies in the ultraviolet and beyond
cannot be seen either, but can be sensed as tingling of the
skin or eyes depending on the frequency. The human eye
is not sensitive to the polarization of light, i.e., light that
oscillates on a specific plane. Some kinds of snakes have
special infrared sensors that enable them to hunt in
absolute darkness using only the heat emitted by their
prey. Birds have a higher density of light-sensing cells
than humans do in their retinas, and therefore, higher
visual acuity.

Two types of sensors detect light:

 Rods: A type of specialized light-sensitive cell in
the retina of the eye that provides side vision and
the ability to see objects in dim light. These detect
motion. The rods work harder in low light
 Cones: A type of specialized cell that detects fine
detail and color. The cones work best in bright light.
There are three types of cones: one that detects blue,
one that detects red, and one that detects green.
Color blindness occurs when one type of cone is
lacking.
When light strikes the rods and cones, nerve impulses are
generated. The impulse travels to two types of neurons:
first to bipolar cells and then to ganglionic cells. The
axons of ganglionic cells form the optic nerve.
The optic nerve carries the impulse directly to the brain.
Approximately 150 million rods are in a retina, but only
1 million ganglionic cells and nerve fibers are there,
which means that many more rods can be stimulated than
there are cells and nerve fibers to carry the impulses.
Your eye must combine “messages” before the impulses
are sent to the brain.

Color blindness or "Daltonism" is a common abnormality

in human vision that makes it impossible to differentiate
colors accurately. One type of color blindness results in
the inability to distinguish red from green. This can be a
real handicap for certain types of occupations. To a
colorblind person, a person with normal color vision
would appear to have extrasensory perception. However,
we want to reserve the term "extrasensory perception"
for perception that is beyond the range of the normal.
Conditions that affect the eyes include:

 Myopia
Myopia is the term used to define short sightedness.
Light from a distant object forms an image before it
reaches the retina. This could be because the eye is too
long, or the cornea or crystalline lens is too strong.
  Hypermetropia

Hypermetropia (Hyperopia) means long sight and is where the image of a

nearby object is formed behind the retina. This could be because the eye is
too short, or the cornea or crystalline lens does not refract the light enough.
Diseases that affect the eyes include:

 Myasthenia Gravis
Myasthenia Gravis is an autoimmune disease of the
muscles leading to weakness and easy fatigability.
Commonly (80% to 90% of cases), the disorder presents
itself with drooping upper eyelids (ptosis) and double
vision. The symptoms are typically highly variable,
intermittent, and may be asymmetrical between the two
eyes. There may also be speech and swallowing
difficulties, problems with facial expression, and
weakness of the muscles of the arms and legs. The
symptoms tend to improve after rest and in the morning,
and tend to be worse later in the day and after exercise.
The underlying problem is the development of antibodies
to neuromuscular receptors present in all muscles
(acetylcholine receptors). There is some relationship with
the thymus gland, and there is a positive family history in
about 5% of cases. Symptoms tend to appear in the
middle age years for men and women. Some cases have
occurred after bone marrow transplantation.
Patients with prominent ocular symptoms often develop
a fairly severe drooping of one or both upper eyelids,
worse when tired, that may interfere with vision. The
double vision associated with myasthenia can be variable,
and does not usually fit into a typical pattern of any one
specific eye muscle being involved. If the drooping
lessens by 2 millimeters or more, myasthenia may be a
cause. There are other office tests that can be performed
to aid in diagnosis (Tensilon test).
Treatment of the disorder has typically been with drugs
that block the enzyme that degrades the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction. Thus, the
neurotransmitter will stay in the junction longer, and is
better able to stimulate the muscle to contract. Steroids
and other immune suppressants such as azathioprine
have been successful in reducing ocular symptoms, and
in slowing the worsening of the disease over time. These
medications are not without side effects, and need to be
closely monitored by the treating physician. In some
cases, removal of the thymus gland may help the
disorder.

 Lyme Disease
Lyme disease is a multi-system disorder caused by an
immune reaction to the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi
transmitted by the Dear tick (Ixodes dammini). There are
common ocular complications during all stages of Lyme
disease. The disease is most common in the Northeast
and upper Midwest United States. It involves joint pain
and dermatological and ophthalmic findings, as well as
neurologic and cardiac abnormalities. Three stages of
Lyme disease have been described, which may overlap:
Stage 1: The earliest stage includes a flu-like illness with
a typical expanding "bull's-eye" rash. This may or may
not be associated with a known tick bite. Some patients
can develop conjunctivitis during this stage.
Stage 2: The second stage of the disease (after weeks to
months of the disease) includes cardiac involvement (8%)
and neurologic involvement (15%). This can include
meningitis and paralysis of cranial nerves. Paralysis of
the third or sixth cranial nerves affect eye movement, and
lead to double vision. Paralysis of the seventh cranial
nerve causes Bell's palsy, or drooping of one side of the
face. During this stage inflammatory ocular disorders
such as iritis, retinal vasculitis, chorioretinitis, and optic
disc edema can occur. These conditions can cause a loss
of vision.
Stage 3: The last stage of the disease, starting within 2
weeks to 2 years of the infection, include arthritis and
chronic neurologic syndromes. This includes fatigue
syndromes and focal central nervous system disorders.
Ocular findings in this stage include corneal
inflammation (keratitis) and double vision.
Treatment of Lyme disease is by commonly available
antibiotics. Longer treatment is required for cases with
neurological involvement, and intravenous antibiotics are
required for severe neurological involvement and
arthritis.
 Taste recopters

The receptors for taste, called taste buds, are situated

chiefly in the tongue, but they are also located in the roof
of the mouth and near the pharynx. They are able to
detect four basic tastes: salty, sweet, bitter, and sour. The
tongue also can detect a sensation called "umami" from
taste receptors sensitive to amino acids. Generally, the
taste buds close to the tip of the tongue are sensitive to
sweet tastes, whereas those in the back of the tongue are
sensitive to bitter tastes. The taste buds on top and on the
side of the tongue are sensitive to salty and sour tastes.
At the base of each taste bud there is a nerve that sends
the sensations to the brain. The sense of taste functions in
coordination with the sense of smell. The number of taste
buds varies substantially from individual to individual,
but greater numbers increase sensitivity. Women, in
general, have a greater number of taste buds than men.
As in the case of color blindness, some people are
insensitive to some tastes.
Diseases that affect the tongue include:
  Oral thrush

Oral thrush, also known as candidiasis or candiasis, is a

yeast infection that develops inside the mouth caused by
a type of fungus called Candida. The condition causes
white patches to develop on the surfaces of the mouth
and tongue. These patches are often cottage cheese-like
in consistency and can be scraped off, exposing a red
surface.

Patients may experience a loss of taste or an unpleasant

taste in their mouth. The patches can also be painful,
making eating and drinking difficult.

Oral thrush is more likely to occur after the use of

antibiotics by disturbing the balance of natural bacteria in
the mouth. Other causes may include:

 Patients who wear dentures, particularly if they

don't fit properly
 People with poor oral hygiene
 People with diabetes, dry mouth or patients taking
inhaled steroids for asthma or lung disease
 Smoking
  Patients with a weakened immune system as a result
of having chemotherapy or radiotherapy treatment
for cancer

Oral thrush is normally treated with anti-fungal medicine,

in the form of a gel or liquid that is applied directly
inside of your mouth. The treatment usually takes 7 to 14
days.

 Leukoplakia

Leukoplakia is a condition that causes cells in the mouth

to grow excessively. This leads to the formation of white
patches inside the mouth and on the surface of the tongue.
As opposed to oral thrush, the white patches cannot be
scraped off.

The causes of leukoplakia are not always known, but

tobacco use is considered the most common factor that
contributes to leukoplakia. In addition, leukoplakia can
develop when the tongue has been irritated in the near
past.

Leukoplakia is usually benign and not dangerous on its

own. Nevertheless, leukoplakia can be a precursor to
cancer. Therefore, it is important for your dentist to
determine the cause of white patches on your tongue.

Sensory Receptors

The organ for the human sense of touch is the skin. It is

the largest sense organ because unlike the others, it is not
located at any specific place, but the entire body. Our
sense of touch uses many different receptors that help us
to respond to different stimuli such as pain, pressure,
tension, temperature, texture, shape, weight, contours
and vibrations. It helps us move away when the brain
perceives that there is danger.

Types of sensory receptors

Those that respond to heat and cold are known as
Thermo-receptors. Nociceptors respond to painful stimuli.
Mechanoreceptors are those that respond to mechanical
stimuli such as tension, pressure or vibration. The entire
network of sensory receptors does not only exist in the
skin. It is distributed all over the inside of the body such
as muscle, bones and joints, hearts and blood vessels. All
together, it is known as the somato-sensory system. A
few places without sensory receptors are our hairs and
fingernails. This is why we feel no pain when we cut or
trim them. For the purposes of this lesson, we shall take a
look at the receptors under our skin.
Diagram of the skin and what is just under its surface.

Receptors that receive very fine signals (stimuli) are

located very close to the surface of the skin such as the
epidermis and dermis. A little deeper, there are receptors
that respond to stretching of the skin, vibrations and
pressure.
Like the other senses, the brain is the master organ that
determines the meaning of the signals it receives from
each receptor. It decides if an object is cold or hot, rough
or smooth, heavy or light, wet or dry, sharp or blunt.
Diseases that Affect the Skin:
 Rosacea
Rosacea is a common disorder that mainly affects skin on
the face. It causes redness on the nose, chin, cheeks, and
forehead. Over time, the redness can become more intense,
taking on a ruddy appearance. Blood vessels may become
visible.
In some cases, rosacea appears on the chest, back, or neck.
It can affect the eyes, causing them to feel irritated and to
appear bloodshot or watery. People with rosacea can also
develop red solid bumps and pus-filled pimples. The
disorder can cause the nose to take on a bulbous, swollen
appearance called rhinophyma.
The cause of rosacea is not known; however, different
theories exist. One theory is that rosacea may be a
component of a more generalized disorder of
the blood vessels. Other theories suggest that the condition
is caused by microscopic skin mites, fungus,
psychological factors, or a malfunction of the connective
tissue under the skin. Although no one knows for sure
what causes rosacea, some circumstances and conditions
can trigger it.
Rosacea's appearance can vary greatly from one individual
to another. Most of the time, not all of the potential signs
and symptoms appear.
Rosacea always includes at least one of the primary signs
listed below. Various secondary signs and symptoms may
also develop.
Primary signs of rosacea include:

 Flushing: Many people who have rosacea have a

history of frequent blushing or flushing. The facial
redness, which may come and go, often is the earliest
sign of the disorder.
 Persistent redness: Persistent facial redness may
resemble a blush or sunburn that does not go away.
 Bumps and pimples: Small red solid bumps or
pus-filled pimples often develop in rosacea.
Sometimes the bumps may resemble acne, but
blackheads are absent. Burning or stinging may also
be present.
 Visible blood vessels: Small blood vessels become
visible on the skin of many people who have rosacea.

 Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common skin disorder that forms thick, red,

bumpy patches covered with silvery scales. They can pop
up anywhere, but most appear on the scalp, elbows, knees,
and lower back.
Psoriasis can't be passed from person to person. It does
sometimes happen in members of the same family.
It usually appears in early adulthood. For most people, it
affects just a few areas. In severe cases, it can cover large
parts of the body. The rashes can heal and then come
back throughout a person's life.
Psoriasis starts as small, red bumps, which grow bigger
and form scales. The skin appears thick but may bleed
easily if you pick or rub off the scales.
Rashes may itch and skin may become cracked and
painful . Nails may form pits, thicken, crack and become
loose.

No one knows the exact cause of psoriasis, but experts

believe that it’s a combination of things. Something
wrong with the immune system causes inflammation,
triggering new skin cells to form too quickly. Normally,
skin cells are replaced every 10 to 30 days. With
psoriasis, new cells grow every 3 to 4 days. The buildup
of old cells being replaced by new ones creates those
silver scales.
Some things that can trigger outbreaks are:

 Cuts, scrapes, or surgery

 Emotional stress
 Strep infections

Luckily, there are many treatments. Some slow the

growth of new skin cells, and others
relieve itching and dry skin. Your doctor will select a
treatment plan that is right for you based on the size of
your rash, where it is on your body, your age, your
overall health, and other things. Common treatments
include:

 Steroid creams.
 Moisturizers for dry skin.
 Coal tar (a common treatment for scalp psoriasis;
available in lotions, creams, foams, shampoos, and
bath solutions)
 Vitamin D cream (a strong kind ordered by your
doctor; vitamin D in foods and pills has no effect)
 Retinoid creams

Treatments for moderate to severe cases of psoriasis

include:

 Light therapy. A doctor uses ultraviolet light to

slow the growth of skin cells. PUVA is a treatment
 that combines a medicine called psoralen with a
special form of ultraviolet light.
 Methotrexate. This drug can cause liver disease
and lung problems, so it’s only for serious cases.
Doctors closely watch patients. You may have to
get lab work, a chest X-ray and possibly a liver
biopsy.
 Retinoids. These pills, creams, foams, and gels are
a class of drugs related to Vitamin A. Retinoids can
cause serious side effects, including birth defects, so
they’re not recommended for women who
are pregnant or planning to have children.
 Cyclosporine: This drug, made to suppress the
immune system, may be taken for serious cases that
do not respond to other treatments. It can damage
the kidneys and raise blood pressure though, so your
doctor will closely watch your heath while you take
it.

 Eczema

Eczema is a term for a group of medical conditions that

cause the skin to become inflamed or irritated. The most
common type of eczema is known as atopic dermatitis, or
atopic eczema. Atopic refers to a group of diseases with
an often inherited tendency to develop other allergic
conditions, such as asthma and hey fever.
No matter which part of the skin is affected, eczema is
almost always itchy. Sometimes the itching will start
before the rash appears, but when it does, the rash most
commonly appears on the face, back of the knees, wrists,
hands, or feet. It may also affect other areas as well.
Affected areas usually appear very dry, thickened, or
scaly. In fair-skinned people, these areas may initially
appear reddish and then turn brown. Among
darker-skinned people, eczema can affect pigmentation,
making the affected area lighter or darker.

In infants, the itchy rash can produce an oozing, crusting

condition that happens mainly on the face and scalp, but
patches may appear anywhere.
The exact cause of eczema is unknown, but it's thought
to be linked to an overactive response by the body's
immune system to an irritant. It is this response that
causes the symptoms of eczema.
In addition, eczema is commonly found in families with
a history of other allergies or asthma. Also, defects in the
skin barrier could allow moisture out and germs in.
Although there is no cure most people are able to manage
this condition easily by using medications and avoiding
irritants. This disease is not contagious and can not
spread from person to person.
Since many people with eczema also have allergies, your
doctor may perform allergy tests to determine possible
irritants or triggers. Children with eczema are especially
likely to be tested for allergies.
The goal of treatment for eczema is to relieve and
prevent itching, which can lead to infection. Since the
disease makes skin dry and itchy, lotions and creams are
recommended to keep the skin moist. These products are
usually applied when the skin is damp, such as after
bathing, to help the skin retain moisture. Cold
compresses may also be used to relieve itching.
Other treatments include antihistamines to lessen severe
itching, tar treatments (chemicals designed to reduce
itching), phototherapy (therapy using ultraviolet light
applied to the skin), and the drug cyclo for people whose
condition doesn't respond to other treatments.
The FDA has approved two drugs known as topical
immunomodulators (TIMs) for the treatment of
mild-to-moderate eczema. The drugs, Elidel and Protopic,
are skin creams that work by altering the immune system
response to prevent flare-ups.
Eczema outbreaks can sometimes be avoided or the
severity lessened by following these simple tips.

 Moisturize frequently.
 Avoid sudden changes in temperature or humidity.
 Avoid sweating or overheating.
 Reduce stress.
 Avoid scratchy materials, such as wool.
 Avoid harsh soaps, detergents, and solvents.

 Skin Cancer

Most skin cancers are locally destructive cancerous

growth of the skin. They originate from the cells of
the epidermis, the superficial layer of the skin. Unlike
cutaneous maligant melanova, the vast majority of these
sorts of skin cancers rarely spread to other parts of the
body and become life-threatening.
There are three major types of skin cancer: (1) Basal cell
carsinoma (the most common), (2) Squamous cell
carsinoma (the second most common), which originate
from skin cells, and (3) Melanova, which originates from
the pigment-producing skin cells referred to as
melanocytes but is less common, though more dangerous,
than the first two varieties. Other rare forms of skin
cancer include lymphomas, Merkel cell cancers, and
cancers of other tissue in the skin, including sarcomas as
well as hair and sweat gland tumors. In this article, we
will only be reviewing the most common forms of
cancers, basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell
carcinoma.
Most basal cell carcinomas have few if any symptoms.
Squamous cell carcinomas may be painful. Both forms of
skin cancer may appear as a sore that bleeds, oozes,
crusts, or otherwise will not heal. They begin as a slowly
growing bump on the skin that may bleed after
minor trauma. Both kinds of skin cancers may have
raised edges and a central ulceration.
Signs and symptoms of basal cell carcinomas include:
 Appearance of a shiny pink, red, pearly, or
translucent bump
 Pink skin growths or lesions with raised borders that
are crusted in the center
 Raised reddish patch of skin that may crust or itch,
but is usually not painful
 A white, yellow, or waxy area with a poorly defined
border that may resemble a scar.

Signs and symptoms of squamous cell carcinomas

include:
 Persistent, scaly red patches with irregular borders
that may bleed easily
  Open sore that does not go away for weeks
 A raised growth with a rough surface that is
indented in the middle
 A wart-like growth
Basal cell carcinoma is the most common cancer in
humans. Over 1 million new cases of basal cell
carcinoma are diagnosed in the U.S. each year. There are
several different types of basal cell carcinoma, including
the superficial type, the least worrisome variety; the
nodular type, the most common; and the morpheaform,
the most challenging to treat because the tumors often
grow into the surrounding tissue (infiltrate) without a
well-defined border.
There are several effective means of treating skin cancer.
The choice of therapy depends on the location and size of
the tumor, the microscopic characteristics of the cancer,
and the general health of the patient.
 Topical medications: In the case of superficial basal
cell carcinomas, some creams, gels, and solutions
can be used, including imiquimod , which works by
stimulating the body's immune system causing it to
produce interferon which attacks the cancer. A
drawback of topical medications is that there is no
tissue available to examine to determine if a tumor
is removed completely.
 Mohs micrographic surgery: The site is locally
anesthetized and the surgeon removes the visible
tumor with a small margin of normal tissue, where
the tumor margins are poorly defined, in tumors that
have been previously treated and have recurred, and
in certain high-risk tumors.
 Radiation Therapy: Ten to fifteen treatment sessions
deliver a high dose of radiation to the tumor and a
small surrounding skin area. This form of treatment
is useful in those who are not candidates for any
surgical procedure. The advantage of radiation
therapy is that there is no cutting involved. The
disadvantages of this expensive alternative are that
the treated area cannot be tested to be sure the
whole tumor is gone and radiation scars look worse
over time. It is for this reason it is usually reserved
for elderly patients.

Conclusion
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