Indian Geography by Pmfias.

com East-West Extent of 68° 7' east to 97° 25'

Main Land India east longitude
India As A Geographical Unit .................................................... 1 (Including Pak
occupied Kashmir-
Rock System Based on Geological History Of India ........ 3 POK):
Major Physical Divisions of India ............................................ 6
South-North Extent of 8° 4' north to 37° 6' Page
Himalayan Ranges ......................................................................... 7 Main Land India: north latitude |1
Major Passes in India and Indian Sub-continent .......... 17
Locational Extent: 8° 4' N to 37° 6' N
Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain ............................... 20 latitude and 68° 7' E
Peninsular Plateau...................................................................... 25 to 97° 25' East
longitude.
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau ............................... 29
Coastline of India – Indian Coastline .................................. 32
Indian Islands ................................................................................ 35
Drainage patterns ....................................................................... 37
Indus River System ...................................................................... 45
Ganga River System .................................................................... 49
Brahmaputra River System .................................................... 53
Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage ........ 54
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers ............................................ 56
West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular India ................ 65
Indian Monsoons .......................................................................... 73
Indian Climate............................................................................... 90
Natural Vegetation of India..................................................111
Soil ....................................................................................................117
Major Soil Groups of India .....................................................121
Soil Degradation ........................................................................127
Soil Conservation .......................................................................133

India As A Geographical Unit

 The southernmost point of the country is

the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is
located at 6° 45' N latitude.
 North-south extent from Indira Col in
Kashmir to Kanniyakumari is 3,214 km.
 East-west width from the Rann of
Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933
km.
 With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is
the seventh largest country of the world.
 India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of
the total surface area of the world.
 The Tropic of Cancer passes through the  Settlements, diseases, agricultural and
middle of the country dividing it into two primary economic activities are all tropical
latitudinal halves. in nature.
 The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is  It is primarily because of Himalayas that
nearly twice the area which lies to the India is a tropical country.
south of it.
India's Frontiers
Page
 Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs | 2
(Department Of Border Management)
 India has 15106.7 Km of land border
running through 92 districts in 17 States
and a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km
of mainland coastline + coastline of
1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States
and Union Territories (UTs).
 Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other
States in the country have one or more
 South of 22° north latitude, the country international borders or a coastline and
tapers off over 800 km into the Indian can be regarded as frontline States from
Ocean as a peninsula. the point of view of border management.
 East-West time difference is nearly 2 hrs.  India's longest border is with
 The earth moves [rotation and revolution] BANGLADESH while the shortest border is
around its axis through 360° in 24 hours. with Afghanistan.
Thus, a difference of 1° longitude will make  The length of India’s land borders with
a difference of 4 minutes in time. neighboring countries is as under
 Therefore the difference of local time
between western-most point and eastern-
most point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2
hours.
 India, Tropical or Temperate Country?
 The temperate part (north of Tropic of
Cancer) is twice the area of tropical part.
 But India has always been treated as a
tropical country for two different reasons –
Border with China
physical and cultural.  This is the second longest border of India,
Physical Geographical Reasons next only to its border with Bangladesh.
 Five Indian states, namely Jammu and
 The country is separated from the rest of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Asia by Himalayas. Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch the
 Its climate is dominated by the tropical Indian boundary with China.
monsoons and the temperate air masses  The Sino-Indian border is generally divided
are blocked by Himalayas. into three sectors namely : (i) the Western
 Entire area south of the Himalayas is sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and (iii) the
essentially tropical from climatic point of Eastern sector.
view: Although the night temperatures in
Winter at several places in North India may The Western Sector
come down to the level of those prevailing  Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of
in temperate lands, yet clear skies and India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province
intense insolation raise the day of China.
temperatures to a tropical level.  The western sector boundary is largely the
Cultural Geographical Reasons outcome of the British policy towards the
state of Jammu and Kashmir.
 China claims the Aksai Chin district, the
Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the
Sponggar Tso area of north-east Ladakh
as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq km
down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
 China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit
area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 Page
by Pakistan). |3
The Middle Sector
 Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh
and Uttarakhand touch this border.
The Eastern Sector
 The 1,140 km long boundary between
India and China runs from the eastern
limit of Bhutan to a point near Talu-Pass
at the trijunction of India, Tibet and
Myanmar.
 This line is usually referred to as the Mc The India-Bangladesh Border
Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon,  India's 4,096 km long border with
then foreign secretary of British India, who Bangladesh is the longest.
negotiated the boundary agreement  This boundary has been determined under
between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla the Radcliffe Award which divided the
accord in 1913-14. erstwhile province of Bengal into two parts.
The India-Nepal Boundary India-Myanmar Boundary
 Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand,  This boundary runs roughly along the
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and watershed between the Brahmaputra and
Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy].
India. The border is a porous one with
 It passes through thickly forested regions,
unrestricted movement of goods and
with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on
people between Indian and Nepal.
the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills
 Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.
in the east-west direction almost along the
foothill of the Shiwalik Range. India-Sri Lanka Boundary
The India-Bhutan Boundary  India and Sri Lanka are separated from
each other by a narrow and shallow sea
 Quite peaceful border and there is no called Palk Strait.
boundary dispute between the two
 Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in
countries.
India is only 32 km away from Talaimanar
The Indo-Pakistan Boundary in Jaffna peninsula in Sri Lanka. These
two points are joined by a group of islets
 The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result forming Adam's Bridge.
of partition of the country in 1947 under
the Radcliffe award of which Sir Cyril Rock System Based on Geological
Radcliffe was the chairman. History Of India
 Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the
major disputed regions.
 Page
|4

1. The Archaean Rock System. Schists == mostly crystalline, include mica,

2. The Purana Rock System. talc, hornblende, chlorite, etc.
3. The Dravidian Rock System.
These rocks are:
4. The Aryan Rock System.
 Oldest rocks [pre-Cambrian era] [formed
Archaean Rock System (Pre-Cambrian about 4 billion years ago].
Rocks)  Rocks formed due to solidification of
 Rocks formed prior to the Cambrian molten magma – the earth’s surface was
system. very hot then.
 The Archaean rock system includes:  Known as the ‘Basement Complex’ [They
are the oldest and forms the base for new
Archaean Gneisses and Schists [4 layers]
Billion Years]  Azoic or unfossiliferous,
 Foliated (consisting of thin sheets),
Gneiss == Mineral composition varies from
granite to gabbro.  Thoroughly crystalline (because they are
volcanic in origin),
 Plutonic intrusions (volcanic rocks found  These rocks contain ores of iron,
deep inside). manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
 They contain large deposits of cement
grade limestones.
Vindhyan System (1300-600 million years)
 This system derives its name from the Page
great Vindhyan mountains. |5
 The system comprises of ancient
sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick)
superimposed on the Archaean base.
 Mostly Unfossiliferous.
 Large area of this belt is covered by the
Deccan trap.
 The Vindhayan system have diamond
bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
 It is devoid of metalliferous minerals but
provides large quantities of durable stones,
ornamental stones, limestone, pure glass
making sand etc..
Dravidian Rock System (Palaeozoic)
 Formed about 600 – 300 million years ago.
 Found in the Extra Peninsular region
Dharwar System [4 – 1 Billion Years] (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very
rare in Peninsular India. [The name
 Formation period ranges from 4 billion ‘Dravidian’ doesn’t mean they are found in
years ago to – 1 billion years ago. South India]
 Highly metamorphosed sedimentary  Abundant fossils.
rock-system. [formed due to  The rocks of Cambrian, Ordovician,
metamorphosis of sediments of Archaean Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous
gneisses and schists]. periods are fall under Dravidian system.
 They are the oldest metamorphosed rocks. (All these are not important, only
 Found in abundance in the Dharwar Carboniferous is important)
district of Karnataka.
Carboniferous rocks (350 million
 Economically the most important rocks
because they possess valuable minerals years)
like high grade iron-ore, manganese,  The Carboniferous rocks (350 million
copper, lead, gold, etc. years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale
Purana Rock System (1400 – 600 and quartzite.
Million Years)  Mount Everest is composed of Upper
Carboniferous limestones.
 Includes two divisions: the Cuddapah  Coal formation started in the
System and the Vindhyan System. Carboniferous age.
Cuddapah System  Carboniferous in geology means coal
bearing. [most of the coal found in India is
 Unfossiliferous clay, slates, sandstones not of Carboniferous period; High quality
and limestones was deposited in synclinal coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and
basins [depression between two folds {Fold Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal].
mountain}].
 Outcrops best observed in Cuddapah Aryan Rock System
district of Andhra Pradesh.  Upper Carboniferous to the Recent.
 Gondwana System Saurashtra, Maharashtra, the Malwa
plateau and northern Karnataka.
 The Gondwana System [derives its name  Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000
Gonds, the most primitive people of metres along the west which is reduced to
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh] 600-800 metres towards the south, 800
 They are deposits laid down in synclinal metres in Kuchchh and only 150 metres at
troughs on ancient plateau surface. the eastern limit. Page
 As the sediments accumulated, the loaded  The weathering of these rocks for a long | 6
troughs subsided. time has given birth to black cotton soil
 Fresh water and sediments accumulated in known as ‘regur’.
these trough and terrestrial plants and
animals thrived. The Deccan Trap has been divided into three
 This happened since Permian period (250 groups:
million years ago).
Group Found in Inter- Layers of
Gondwana Coal trappean volcanic
beds ash
 Gondwana rocks contain nearly 98 per
cent of India’s coal reserves.
 Gondwana coal is much younger than the The Maharashtra Present Present
Carboniferous coal and hence it’s carbon Upper and
content is low. Trap Saurashtra
 They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper,
The Central India Very rare Present
uranium and antimony also.
Middle and Malwa to absent
 Sandstones, slates and conglomerates are Trap
used as building materials.
Jurassic System The Present Very
Lower rare to
 The marine transgression in the latter part Trap absent
of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series of
shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and Tertiary System
in Kuchchh.
 Coral limestone, sandstone, conglomerates  Eocene to Pliocene about 60 to 7 million
and shales occur in Kuchchh. years ago.
 Another transgression on the east coast of  The tertiary is the most significant period
the Peninsula is found between Guntur in India's geological history because the
and Rajahmundry. Himalayas were born and India's present
form came into being in this period.
Deccan Trap
Major Physical Divisions of India
 Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the
Peninsular India from the end of the 1. The Himalayas (young fold mountains),
Cretaceous till the beginning of the 2. Indo-Gangetic Plain (monotonous
Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps. topography – featureless topography),
 Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures 3. The Peninsular Plateau (one of the most
covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq stable landmasses; one of the oldest
km. plateaus of the world),
 These volcanic deposits have flat top and 4. Coastal Plains (Sediments due to fluvial
steep sides and therefore called ‘trap’ action).
meaning a ‘stair’ or ‘step’ in Swedish. 5. The Indian Islands [Coral Islands == coral
 The process of weathering and erosion reef built up on atolls – Lakshadweep.
(denudation) since millions of years has Tectonic == Andaman and Nicobar Islands
reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of – Interaction between Indian Plate and
its original size. Eurasian plate] and
 Present Deccan Trap covers about 5 lakh
sq km mainly in parts of Kuchchh,
  Two major groups – Lakshadweep and,
Andaman and Nicobar islands.
 Lakshadweep [Hotspot] are group of atolls
occupied by coral reefs. No significant
volcanism or tectonic activity in recent
past. Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise.
 Andaman and Nicobar islands – Page
Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active | 7
volcanoes and is tectonically active.

Type of Topography Extent in %

Mountainous (more than 10.7

2135 m above sea level)

Hilly area (305 – 2135 m 18.6

above sea level)

Plateau (305 – 915 m 27.7

above sea level)

Peninsular Plateau Plains 43

 Includes the entire south India, central
India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya
Himalayan Ranges
plateau, Kuchchh-Kathiawar region Formation of Himalayas explained in
(Gujarat) etc.. Continent – Continent Convergence.
 It is the oldest and the most stable
landmass of India. Division of the Himalayas

Himalayas 1. Shiwaliks or outer Himalayas

2. Lesser or Middle Himalayas
 Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and 3. The Greater Himalayas
their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar) 4. The Trans-Himalayas – Tibetan Himalayas.
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (but we 5. The Eastern Hills – Purvanchal: A chain of
will consider these as islands only). hills in North-East India.
 It is the youngest and highly unstable  Series of several parallel or converging
landmass of India. [Continent – Continent ranges.
Convergence]  The ranges are separated by deep valleys
 Tectonic movements are very common. creating a highly dissected topography
[(of a plateau or upland) divided by a
Indo-Gangetic Plain number of deep valleys].
 Between Peninsular and Himalayan region.  The southern slopes have steep
 Most youthful, monotonous [lack of change gradients and northern slopes have
or variety] region prone to tectonic forces. comparatively gentler slopes. [Scaling
Mount Everest is less hectic from the
Coastal Plains northern side. But China puts restrictions
so climbers take the steeper southern
 Eastern Coastal Plains and Western slopes from Nepal]
Coastal Plains.
 Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India,
 Formed due to consolidation of sediments Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slopes are
brought by rivers (fluvial deposits). partly situated in Tibet (trans-Himalayas)
 Highly stable just like peninsular plateau. while the western extremity lies in
Indian Islands Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
 Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain
is a succession of three parallel ranges.
Shiwalik Range The Shiwaliks are known by different
names in different areas
 Also known as Outer Himalayas.
 Located in between the Great Plains and
Region Name of Shiwaliks
Lesser Himalayas.
 The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 Jammu Region Jammu Hills
metres. Page
 Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Dafla, Miri, Abor Arunachal Pradesh |8
Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra and Mishmi Hills
valley.
 The southern slopes are steep while the The Dhang Range, Uttarakhand
northern slopes are gentle. Dundwa Range
 The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50
km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 Churia Ghat Hills Nepal
km in Arunachal Pradesh.
 They are almost unbroken chain of low Explain the formation of Duns (Duras)
hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is
occupied by the valley of the Tista River  Shiwalik Hills were formed by the
and Raidak River. accumulation of conglomerates (sand,
 Shiwalik range from North-East India up to stone, silt, gravel, debris etc.).
Nepal are covered with thick forests but  These conglomerates, in the initial stages
the forest cover decreases towards west of deposition, obstructed the courses of the
from Nepal (The quantum of rainfall rivers draining from the higher reaches of
decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks the Himalayas and formed temporary
and Ganga Plains). lakes.
 The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in  With passage of time, these temporary
Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost lakes accumulated more and more
devoid of forest cover. These slopes are conglomerates. The conglomerates were
highly dissected by seasonal streams called well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
Chos.  When the rivers were able to cut their
 Valleys are part of synclines and hills are courses through the lakes filled with
part of anticlines or antisynclines. conglomerate deposits, the lakes were
drained away leaving behind plains called
‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the west and ‘duars’
in the east.
 Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best
example [75 km long and 15-20 km wide]
 Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda,
Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are
other important duns.
Middle or the Lesser Himalaya
Formation (Formation of Himalayas  In between the Shiwaliks in the south and
already explained) the Greater Himalayas in the north.
 Runs almost parallel to both the ranges.
 Shiwaliks were formed last of all the
 It is also called the Himachal or Lower
ranges (2-20 million years ago).
Himalaya.
 The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands,
 Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km
gravels and conglomerate deposits [Alluvial
wide and about 2400 km in length.
fans] which were brought by the rivers
flowing from the higher ranges.  Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m
above sea level.
 These deposits were folded and hardened
due to compression offered by the  Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above
northward movement of Indian plate. sea level and are snow covered throughout
the year.
 Lower Himalayas have steep, bare  Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal
southern slopes [steep slopes prevents soil continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
formation] and more gentle, forest covered through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and
northern slopes. Shimla.
 In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are
Important Valleys
marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag
Tibba ranges.  Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Page
 The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal Range of the main Himalayas, lies the | 9
is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range valley of Kashmir. (average elevation is
 East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, 1,585 m above mean sea level)
Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi  The synclinal basin of the valley is floored
hills represent the lower Himalayas. with alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits],
 The Middle Himalayan ranges are more fluvial [river action] and glacial deposits.
friendly to human contact. {Fluvial Landforms, Glacial Landforms}
Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like  Jehlum River meanders through these
Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir
and Darjeeling, etc. are located here. Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir is
like a basin with very few outlets)
Important ranges of Region  In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra
Lesser Himalayas Valley. It is a strike valley and extends
from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to
The Pir Panjal Range Jammu and Kashmir the south of Beas.
(They are to the  On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the
south of Kashmir upper course of the Ravi is transverse
Valley) valley.

The Dhaola Dhar Himachal Pradesh Strike valley vs. Transverse valley
Range
 A valley perpendicular to the slope or
parallel to the ridge [also called as
The Mussoorie Range Uttarakhand
longitudinal valley]
and The Nag Tiba
Range  In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys
parallel to the slope (along the dip).
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal

The Pir Panjal range

 The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the
longest and the most important range.
 It extends from the Jhelum river to the
upper Beas river for over 300 km.
 It rises to 5,000 metres and contains
mostly volcanic rocks.
Passes in Pir Panjal
 Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270
m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal
Pass (2,835 m).
 The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-
Srinagar highway and Jammu-Baramula
railway.
 The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the The Great Himalaya
Chenab cut through the range.
 Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central
Himalaya or Himadri.
 Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea
Himachal 1. Bara Lacha La
level and an average width of about 25 km.
Pradesh 2. Shipki La [The
 It is mainly formed of the central Hindustan-Tibet Road
crystallines (granites and gneisses) overlain connecting Shimla with
by metamorphosed sediments [limestone]. Gartok in Western Tibet]
{Rock System}
 The folds in this range are asymmetrical Uttarakhand 1. Thaga La Page
with steep south slope and gentle north 2. Niti Pass | 10
slope giving 'hog back (a long, steep hill or 3. Lipu Lekh
mountain ridge)' topography.
 This mountain arc convexes to the south Sikkim 1. Nathu La
just like the other two. 2. Jelep La [important
 Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial trade route connecting
bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north- Kalimpong (near
west and the other in the Namcha Barwa Darjeeling) with Lhasa in
in the north-east. Tibet, passes through
 This mountain range boasts of the tallest Jelep La (4,386 m)]
peaks of the world, most of which remain
under perpetual snow. The Trans Himalayas
 The Himalayan ranges immediately north
of the Great Himalayan range.
 Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because
most of it lies in Tibet.
 The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and
the Karakoram are the main ranges.
 It stretches for a distance of about 1,000
km in east-west direction.
 Average elevation is 3000 m above mean
Regional name of Mount Region sea level.
Everest  The average width of this region is 40 km
at the extremities and about 225 km in the
Sagarmatha (The Goddess of Nepal central part.
the Sky)  The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an
important range which is in The Zaskar
Chomlungma (Mother of the China (Tibet)
Range.
World)
 North of the Zaskar Range and running
parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a
 Mount Everest was first located by George
few peaks of this range attain heights of
Everest, the then Surveyor General of India
over 6000 metres.
in 1841 and in 1852 it was established as
 The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in
the highest peak of the world by the Great
western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh
Trigonometrical Survey of India.
Range. The highest peak is Mount Kailas
Passes in the Greater Himalayas (6714 m). River Indus originates from
the northern slopes of the Kailas range.
 The passes because they are generally  The northern most range of the Trans-
higher than 4,570 m above sea level and Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great
are snowbound for most of the year. Karakoram Range also known as the
Krishnagiri range.
State Passes of Greater
 Karakoram Range extends eastwards from
Himalayas
the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range
with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m and
Jammu and 1. Burzil Pass above]. It is the abode of some of the
Kashmir 2. Zoji La [La means pass] greatest glaciers of the world outside the
polar regions.
 Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 highest peak in the world and the highest
metre above sea level. K2 (8,611 peak in the Indian Union.
m)[Godwin Austen or Qogir] is the second

Page
| 11

 The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east Purvanchal or Eastern Hills

of the Karakoram Range. It has been
dissected into a number of plains and  Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the
mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi southward extension of Himalayas running
Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang Chenmo] along the north-eastern edge of India.
 At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a of comparatively low hills which are
sudden southward bend and form a series collectively called as the Purvanchal.
 Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.

Page
| 12

 They run along the India-Myanmar Border to 3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills where
extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.
north to Mizoram in the south.  Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the
 Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong watershed between India and Myanmar.
sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m
 South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills Pradesh. Hence they are also called the
which are generally less than 2,500 metres Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
in elevation.  Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar
 The Barail range separates Naga Hills from and Dhaola Dhar are the major ranges in
Manipur Hills. this section.
 Further south the Barail Range swings to  The general elevation falls westwards.
west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills Page
Assam Himalayas
which are an eastward continuation of the | 13
Indian peninsular block. They are  Spreads over Sikkim, Assam and
separated from the main block by Ganga Arunachal Pradesh.
and Brahmaputra rivers.  Elevation here is much lesser than that of
 South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo the Nepal Himalayas.
Hills (previously known as the Lushai  The southern slopes are very steep but the
hills) which have an elevation of less than northern slopes are gentle.
1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue  The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow and
Mountain (2,157 m) in the south. are very close to the Great Himalayas.
Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas Western Himalayas
 Himalayas extend in the east-west  Between the Indus in the west and the Kali
direction from the Indus gorge in the west river in the east (880 km).
to the Brahmaputra gorge in the east.  Spread across three states of Jammu and
 Himalayan ranges take sharp southward Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
bends at these gorges. These bends are Uttarakhand.
called syntaxial bends of the Himalayas.  It encompasses three physiographic
 The western syntaxial bend occurs near provinces namely Kashmir Himalaya,
the Naga Parbat (Karakoram range) where Himachal Himalaya and Kumaon Himalaya
the Indus river has cut a deep gorge. (Uttarakhand Himalayas).
 The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near the  The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir
Namche Barwa. valley are two important areas of the
Himalayas – Regional Divisions Kashmir Himalayan region.
 In Himachal Himalayas, The Greater
Punjab Himalayas Himalaya is represented by the Zaskar
range, lesser Himalaya by Pir Panjal and
Dhauladhar ranges and the Outer
Himalaya by the Shiwalik range.
 The southern slopes are rugged, steep and
forested while the northern slopes are
bare, gentle and show plains with lakes.
 The Kumaon Himalayas lie in Uttarakhand
and extend from the Satluj to the Kali
river.
 The Lesser Himalayas in Kumaon
Himalaya is represented by the Mussoorie
and Nag Tiba ranges.
 The Shiwalik in this region runs south of
the Mussoori range between the Ganga
and the Yamuna rivers.
 The flat valleys between the Lesser
 Between the Indus and the Satluj rivers Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are
[560 km long]. called ‘doons’ or ‘Duns’ of which Dehra
 All the major rivers of Indus river system Dun is the most famous.
flow through Punjab Himalayas.
Central Himalayas
 A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal
 800 km between river Kali in the west and Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a few
river Tista in the east. kilometres from the plains and are clearly
 The Great Himalaya range attains visible from there.
maximum height in this portion.  In contrast, the western Himalayas rise
 Some of the world famous peaks Mt. gradually from the plains through a series
Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, of ranges. Their peaks of perpetual snow
Annapurna, Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri are 150 to 200 km away from the plain Page
are located here. areas. | 14
 The Lesser Himalaya is known as Important Valleys in Himalayas
Mahabharat Lekh in this region.
 The range is crossed by rivers like The most important valleys in the Himalayan
Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, etc. region are
 In between the Great and the Lesser
 the valley of Kashmir and the Karewas (),
Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and
 the Kangra and Kulu valley in Himachal
Pokhra lacustrine valleys (previously, they
Pradesh;
were lakes).
 the Dun valley (Doon valley, Dehradun
 The Shiwalik range come very close to the
valley); the Bhagirathi valley (near
lesser Himalaya towards the east and is
Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley (near
almost non-existent beyond Narayani
Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
(Gandak).
 the Kathmandu valley in Nepal.
Eastern Himalayas
Karewas
 This part of the Himalayas lies between the
 Karewas are lacustrine deposits [deposits
Tista river in the west and the
in lake] in the Valley of Kashmir and in
Brahmaputra river in the east and
Bhadarwah Valley of the Jammu Division.
stretches for a distance of about 720 km.
 Also known as the Assam Himalayas, the  These are the flat topped mounds that
Eastern Himalayas occupy mainly the border the Kashmir Valley on all sides.
areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.  They are characterized with fossils of
 The Assam Himalayas show a marked mammals and at places by peat.
dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy Formation
rainfall.
 During the Pleistocene Period (1 million
 The Himalayas take a sudden southward
years ago), the entire Valley of Kashmir
turn after the Dihang gorge and the hill
was under water.
ranges running in more or less north-
 Subsequently, due to endogenetic forces,
south direction along India's border with
the Baramullah Gorge was created and the
Myanmar are collectively known as the
lake was drained through this gorge.
Purvanchal.
 The deposits left in the process are known
These are known by various local names such as karewas.
as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Kohima hills,  The thickness of karewas is about 1400 m.
Manipur hills, Mizo hills (previously known as  In fact, the karewas have been elevated,
the Lushai hills), Tripura hills and Barail dissected and removed by subaerial
range. denudation as well as by the Jhelum river
 The extension of the Purvanchal Himalaya giving them the present position.
continues southwards upto Andaman and Economic Significance
Nicobar Islands through the Myanmar
range (Arakan Yoma) and even upto the  The karewas are mainly devoted to the
Indonesian archipelago. cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut,
 In the eastern section the Himalayas rise apple and orchards.
abruptly from the plains of Bengal and  The karewas, devoted to saffron
Oudh and suddenly attain great elevations cultivation are fetching good income to
within a short distance from the foot of the the growers.
mountains. Thus the peaks of Snow in Himalayas - Snowline
 In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon compared to those of the Karakoram
Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m Range.
above sea level whereas in western  The longest Sonapani Glacier in the
Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region is
sea level. only 15 km long.
 This difference in snowline is partly due to Glaciers of the Kumaon-Garhwal Region
the increase in latitude from 28° N in Page
Kanchenjunga to 36° N in the Karakoram.  In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the | 15
 But the major factor is precipitation. Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km long
Precipitation in western Himalayas is Gangotri Glacier which is the source of the
comparatively low and occurs mostly as holy Ganga.
snowfall where as in eastern Himalayas the
precipitation is greater and occurs mostly Garhwal Region
in the form of rain.  Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on
 In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snow the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon
line is at lower elevation on the region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh
southern slopes than on the northern state, and on the northwest by Himachal
slopes because the southern slopes are Pradesh state.
steeper and receive more precipitation as  It includes the districts of Chamoli,
compared to the northern slopes. Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri
Glaciers in Himalayas Garhwal, Rudraprayag, Tehri Garhwal,
and Uttarkashi.
 There are about 15,000 glaciers in the
Himalayas.
 Total area of Himalayas is about five lakh
square kilometres (Area of India is nearly
32 lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq km area
is covered by snow.
 The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual
snow) varies in different parts of the
Himalayas depending upon latitude,
amount of precipitation and local
topography.
Glaciers of the Karakoram Range
 Maximum development of glaciers occurs
in the Karakoram range.
 Some of the largest glaciers outside the
polar and sub-polar regions are found in
Glaciers of Central Nepal
this range. The southern side of this range
has many gigantic glaciers.  Zemu and the Kanchenjunga glaciers are
 The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in Nubra the major ones.
valley has the distinction of being the
Significance of the Himalayas
largest glacier outside the polar and the
sub-polar regions. Influence on Indian Climate
 The second largest is the 74 km long
Fedchenko Glacier (Pamirs)  They intercept the summer monsoons
coming from the Bay of Bengal and
 Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62
Arabian Sea causing precipitation in the
km long and occupies a tributary of the
entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern Hills.
Hunza River.
 They direct the monsoon winds towards
Glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range north-western India (Punjab, Haryana
 The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are etc.. But these regions receive most of the
less numerous and smaller in size as rainfall due to Western Disturbances
coming from the Mediterranean regions).
 They protect northern-plains from the cold  Several patches are covered with grass
continental air masses of central Asia. offering rich pastures for grazing animals.
 The Himalayas influence the path of Sub- Agriculture
tropical Jet stream flowing in the region.
They split the jet stream and this split jet  Due to rugged and sloped terrain, the
stream plays an important role in bring Himalayas are not potential agricultural
monsoons to India. sites. Page
 Had there been no Himalayas, the whole of  Some slopes are terraced for cultivation. | 16
India would have been a desert and its Rice is the main crop on the terraced
winters would have been very severe. slopes. The other crops are wheat, maize,
[Mechanism of monsoons will be explained potatoes, etc.
in detail later]  Tea is a unique crop which can be grown
only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in the
Defense
region.
 The Himalayas are a natural defense  Fruit cultivation is a major occupation. A
barrier. wide variety of fruits such as apples, pears,
 But the Chinese aggression on India in grapes, mulberry, walnut, cherries,
1962 has reduced the defense significance peaches, apricot, etc. are also grown in the
of the Himalayas. Himalayan region.
Source of Rivers Tourism
 Rivers that feed nearly half a billion  Himalayan ranges have a large number of
population of India originate in Himalayas. tourist spots.
[we will study this in detail later in  The hilly areas in the Himalayas are not
drainage system] affected by hot winds like loo. Hence they
 All the rivers are perennial supplying water offer cool and comfortable climate.
year round.  The increasing popularity of winter sports
Fertile Soil has increased the rush of tourists in
winters.
 The swift flowing rivers from Himalayas  Srinagar, Dalhousie, Dharamshala,
bring enormous amount of silt (alluvium) Chamba, Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Mussoorie,
which constantly enrich the Ganaga and Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, Darjeeling,
Bramhaputra plains. Mirik, Gangtok, etc. are important tourist
Hydroelectricity centres in the Himalayas.

 Due to its natural topography and swift Cultural Tourism

flowing perennial rivers, the Himalayan  Himalayas host many Hindu and Buddist
region offers several natural sites with shrines.
great hydroelectric power generation  Kailas, Amarnath, Badrinath, Kedarnath,
potential. Vaishnu Devi, Jwalaji, Uttarkashi,
 Many hydroelectric power plants have Gangotri, Yamunotri, etc. are important
already been constructed. places of pilgrimage.
 But all this comes at a great environmental
costs. Mineral Resources in Himalayas
Forest Wealth  Geosynclinical deposits in tertiary rocks
are regions of potential coal and oil
 The Himalayan host rich coniferous and reserves.
evergreen forests. Lower levels have  Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper, lead,
tropical evergreen forests and higher levels zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious
have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous). and precious stones occur at some places
 The Himalayan forests provide fuel wood in the Himalayas.
and a large variety of timber for industries.  But the exploitation of these resources
 Himalayan forests host wide variety of require advanced technologies which are
medicinal plants. not yet available.
 Also, disturbing such a fragile environment Major Passes in India and Indian
leads to more pain than gain (present
Sub-continent
hydroelectric power projects have already
proved this).

Page
| 17

Main Passes of the Himalayas  Most of the passes remain closed in winter
(Nov – Apr) due to heavy snow fall.
Passes of the Western Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir

Name Significance (connects) Comments

Mintaka Pass Kashmir and China  Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan border

Parpik Pass Kashmir and China  East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China border Page
| 18
Khunjerab Pass Kashmir and China  Indo-China border

Aghil Pass Ladakh region of India  5000 m above sea level.

with the Xinjiang  north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India and
(Sinkiang) Province of the second highest peak in the world)
China

Banihal Pass Jammu and Srinigar  2832 m

 across the Pir-Panjal Range
 remains snow covered during winter season

 The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956 when
Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road now passes
through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for road
transport.
 Another 11 km long tunnel provides railway link between Banihal and
Kazigund. It was thrown open to railway transport in July, 2013

Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet  altitude of 5360 m

 This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La Baba
after whom the temple has been named

Khardung La near Leh in the Ladakh  5602 m

range
The world's highest motorable road passes through
this pass
 remains closed in winter due to heavy snowfall

Lanak La India and China  this pass provides passage between Ladak and
(Akasai-Chin area of Lhasa. A road to connect Xinjiang Province with
Jammu and Kashmir) Tibet has been constructed by the Chinese

Pir-Panjal pass across the Pir Panjal provides the shortest and the easiest metal road
range between Jammu and Kashmir Valley. But this route
had to be closed down as a result of partition of the
subcontinent

Qara Tag La Indo-China borer across  located at an elevation of over six thousand
the Karakoram Range metres

Imis La Ladakh region of India

and Tibet in China

Pensi La vital link between the  remains closed to traffic from November to mid-
Kashmir Valley and May due to heavy snowfall
Kargil
Zoji La important road link  The road passing through this pass has been
between Srinagar on designated at the National Highway (NH-1D)
one side and Kargil and  Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible
Leh on the other side for maintaining the road and cleaning it off snow
during winter. In spite of all these efforts, the road
through this pass remains closed from December
to mid-May Page
| 19
Himachal Pradesh

Bara Lacha La Himachal Pradesh and  Elevation: 4,890 m

Jammu and Kashmir  National highway connecting Mandi in Himachal
Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes
through this pass. Being situated at high altitude,
it remains snow covered in winter and is not used
as a transport route.

Debsa Pass link between Kullu and  elevation of 5270 m above sea level
Spiti districts  It offers a much easier and shorter alternative
route to traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route
between Kullu and Spiti

Rohtang Pass road link between Kullu,  Elevation: 3979 m

Lahul and Spiti Valleys  Border Road Organisation (BRO) is responsible for
constructing and maintaining roads in this area.
Rohtang pass is a great tourist attraction and
traffic jams are very common because this route
is widely used by military, public and private
vehicles.

Shipki La Himachal Pradesh and  Elevation: 6000 m

Tibet  Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)

Uttarakhand

Lipu Lekh trijunction of This pass is used by pilgrims to Kailash-Mansarowar.

Uttarakhand (India),
Tibet (China) and Nepal
borders

Mana Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet  elevation of 5610

 Situated a little north of the holy place of
Badhrinath
 Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)

Mangsha Dhura Uttarakhand with Tibet It is used by pilgrims going to Kailash-Mansarowar

Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet  Remains closed in winter season (Nov - Apr)

Muling La Uttarakhand and Tibet  situated in the north of Gangotri at an elevation

of 5669 m in the Great Himalayas

Passes of the Eastern Himalayas

Sikkim

Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet  altitude of 4310 m

 it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk
Route
 an important trade route between India and China
 It was closed after the Chinese aggression on Page
India in 1962 but was reopened in 2006 as the | 20
governments of the two countries decided to
enhance their trade through land routes

Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border  altitude of 4538 m

 passes through Chumbi Valley
 important link between Sikkim and Lhasa

Arunachal Pradesh

Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh with  altitude of 4331 m

Bhutan  Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the
western boundary of Bhutan in the Greater
Himalayas, this pass connects Arunachal Pradesh
with Lhasa

Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh and  elevation of more than 4000 m it provides passage
Myanmar.

Yonggyap Pass Arunachal Pradesh with 

Tibet

Dipher Pass trijunction of India,  easy access between Arunachal Pradesh and
China and Myanmar Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important land
trade route between India and Myanmar and
remains open throughout the year.

Kumjawng Pass Arunachal Pradesh with

Myanmar

Hpungan Pass Arunachal Pradesh with

Myanmar

Chankan Pass Arunachal Pradesh with

Myanmar

Indo – Gangetic – Brahmaputra  The rivers which were previously flowing

into Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate
Plain
collided with Eurasian Plate – continental
 The formation of Indo-Gangetic plain is drift, plate tectonics) deposited huge
closely related to the formation of amount of sediments in the Tethys
Himalayas. Geosyncline. [Geosyncline – a huge
depression]
Formation of Indo – Gangetic –  Himalayas are formed out of these
Brahmaputra trough sediments which were uplifted, folded and
 compressed due to northern movement of plain is a monotonous aggradational plain
Indian Plate. formed due to fluvial depositions].
 Northern movement of Indian Plate also  Upper peninsular rivers have also
created a trough to the south of contributed to the formation of plains, but
Himalayas. to a very small extent.
 During the recent times (since few million
Depositional Activity
years), depositional work of three major Page
 During the initial stages of upliftment of river systems viz., the Indus, the Ganga | 21
sediments, the already existing rivers and the Brahmaputra have become
changed their course several times and predominant.
they were rejuvenated each time  Hence this arcuate (curved) plain is also
(perpetual youth stage of rivers {Fluvial known as Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra
Landforms}). Plain.
 The rejuvenation is associated with intense Features of Indo – Gangetic –
headward and vertical downcutting of Brahmaputra Plain
the soft strata overlying the harder rock
stratum.  Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the
 Headward erosion and vertical erosion of largest alluvial tract of the world.
the river valley in the initial stages, lateral  It stretches for about 3,200 km from the
erosion in later stages contributed huge mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the
amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts
debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried for 2,400 km.
downslope.  The northern boundary is well marked by
 [Head ward erosion == Erosion at the the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary
origin of a stream channel, which causes is a wavy irregular line along the northern
the origin to move back away from the edge of the Peninsular India.
direction of the stream flow, and so causes
the stream channel to lengthen]
 These conglomerates were deposited in the
depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or
Indo-Gangetic syncline) (the base of the
geosyncline is a hard crystalline rock)
between peninsular India and the
convergent boundary (the region of present
day Himalayas).
New rivers and more alluvium  The western boarder is marked by
Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the
 The raising of Himalayas and subsequent
eastern side, the plains are bordered by
formation of glaciers gave rise to many new
Purvanchal hills.
rivers. These rivers along with glacial
erosion {Glacial Landforms}, supplied more  The width of the plain varies from region to
alluvium which intensified the filling of the region. It is widest in the west where it
depression. stretches for about 500 km. Its width
decreases in the east.
 With the accumulation of more and more
sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea  The thickness of the alluvium deposits also
started receding. vary from place to place. The maximum
depth of the alluvium up to the basement
 With passage of the time, the depression
rocks is about 6,100 m (not uniform and
was completely filled with alluvium, gravel,
varies greatly from place to place).
rock debris (conglomerates) and the Tethys
completely disappeared leaving behind a  The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the
monotonous aggradational plain. north and those of Son in the south exhibit
greater alluvial thickness while the intra-
 [monotonous == featureless topography;
cone areas have relatively shallower
aggradational plain == plain formed due
deposits.
to depositional activity. Indo-Gangetic
 Page
| 22

 Extreme horizontality of this monotonous  Its average gradient from Saharanpur to

plain is its chief characteristic. Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it
 Its average elevation is about 200 m above decreases to 15 cm per km from Varanasi
mean sea level, highest elevation being 291 to the Ganga delta.
m above mean sea level near Ambala (This
Geomorphological features of Indo –
elevation forms the drainage divide or
watershed between Indus system and Gangetic – Brahmaputra Plain
Ganga system).
 The Bhabar  Most of the Terai land, especially in
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand,
 It is a narrow, porous, northern most has been turned into agricultural land
stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain. which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice
 It is about 8-16 km wide running in east- and wheat.
west direction along the foothills (alluvial
fans) of the Shiwaliks. The Bhangar
Page
 They show a remarkable continuity from  The Bhangar is the older alluvium along | 23
the Indus to the Tista. the river beds forming terraces higher than
 Rivers descending from the Himalayas the flood plain.
deposit their load along the foothills in the  The terraces are often impregnated with
form of alluvial fans. calcareous concretions known as
 These alluvial fans have merged together to ‘KANKAR’.
build up the bhabar belt.  ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of
 The porosity of bhabar is the most unique Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the
feature. middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
 The porosity is due to deposition of huge regional variations of Bhangar.
number of pebbles and rock debris across
the alluvial fans. [Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land
 The streams disappear once they reach the situated along the banks of the Ganga river
bhabar region because of this porosity. especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
 Therefore, the area is marked by dry river This has been formed due to accumulation of
courses except in the rainy season. wind-blown sands during the hot dry months
 The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow of the year]
in the east and extensive in the western  Bhangar contains fossils of animals like
and north-western hilly region. rhinoceros, hippopotamus, elephants, etc.
The area is not suitable for agriculture and The Khadar
only big trees with large roots thrive in this
belt.  The Khadar is composed of newer
alluvium and forms the flood plains along
The Terai the river banks.
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and  A new layer of alluvium is deposited by
thickly forested narrow tract to the south river flood almost every year.
of Bhabar running parallel to it.  This makes them the most fertile soils of
 The Terai is about15-30 km wide. Ganges.
 The underground streams of the Bhabar Reh or Kollar
belt re-emerge in this belt.
 Reh or Kollar comprises saline
This thickly forested region provides shelter to efflorescences of drier areas in Haryana.
a variety of wild life. [Jim Corbett National
 Reh areas have spread in recent times with
Park in Uttarakhand and Kaziranga National
increase in irrigation (capillary action
Park in Assam lie in terai region]
brings salts to the surface).
Regional Divisions of the Great Plains
1. Sindh Plain
2. Rajasthan Plain.
3. Punjab Plain.
4. Ganga Plain.
5. Brahmaputra Plain.
 The Terai is more marked in the eastern 6. Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta
part than in the west because the eastern
parts receive comparatively higher amount Sindh Plain [Pakistan]
of rainfall.  Mainly formed of Bhangar Plains.
 Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej,
the remnants of the course of former and Beas.
rivers.  The total area of this plain is about 1.75
 Dhand: Alkaline lakes on some dhors. lakh sq km.
 The average elevation of the plain is about
Rajasthan Plain 250 m above mean sea level.
 Occupied by Thar or the Great Indian  The eastern boundary of Punjab Haryana Page
Desert. plain is marked by subsurface Delhi- | 24
 This plain is an undulating plain [wave Aravali ridge.
like] whose average elevation is about 325  The northern part of this plain [Shiwalik
m above mean sea level. hills] has been intensively eroded by
 The desert region is called Marusthali and numerous streams called Chos. This has
forms a greater part of the Marwar plain. led to enormous gullying [Arid Landforms].
 It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists  To the south of the Satluj river there is
and granites which proves that geologically Malwa plain of Punjab.
it is a part of the Peninsular Plateau. It is  The area between the Ghaggar and the
only at the surface that it looks like an Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often
aggradational plain. termed as ‘Haryana Tract’. It acts as
 In general, the eastern part of the water-divide between the Yamuna and the
Marusthali is rocky while its western part Satluj rivers.
is covered by shifting sand dunes locally  The only river between the Yamuna and
known as dhrian. the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is
 The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to considered to be the present day Successor
the Aravali Range is a semi-arid plain of the legendary Saraswati River
known as Rajasthan Bagar. Ganga Plain
 It is drained by a number of short
seasonal streams originating from the  This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of
Aravali and supports agriculture in some India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata
patches of fertile tracts. (about 3.75 lakh sq km).
 Luni is an important seasonal stream  The Ganga along with its large number of
which flows into Rann of Kuchchh. The tributaries originating in the Himalayans
tract north of the Luni is known as thali or have brought large quantities of alluvium
sandy plain. from the mountains and deposited it here
to build this extensive plain.
Saline Lakes
 The peninsular rivers such as Chambal,
 North of the Luni, there is inland drainage Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga
having several saline lakes. They are a river system have also contributed to the
source of common salt and many other formation of this plain.
salts.  The general slope of the entire plain is to
 Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman, the east and south east.
etc. are some of the important lakes. The  Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections
largest is the Sambhar lake near Jaipur. of Ganges as a result of which the area is
marked by local prominences such as
Punjab Plain
levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
 This plain is formed by five important ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid
rivers of Indus system. Landfroms}
 The plain is primarily made up of ‘doabs’  Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their
—the land between two rivers. courses making this area prone to frequent
 The depositional process by the rivers has floods. The Kosi river is very notorious in
united these doabs giving an homogenous this respect. It has long been called the
appearance. ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
 Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Regional divisions of Ganga plains
Waters" referring to the following rivers:
 Rohilkhand plains
 Avadh Plains  The extensive use of irrigation has made
 Mithila Plain Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar
 Magadh Plain. Pradesh the granary of India (Prairies are
called the granaries of the world).
Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta  The entire plain except the Thar Desert,
 This is the largest delta in the world. has a close network of roads and railways
 The Ganga river divides itself into several which has led to large scale Page
channels in the delta area. The slope of the industrialization and urbanization. | 25
land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two  Cultural tourism: There are many religious
thirds of the area is below 30 m above places along the banks of the sacred rivers
mean sea level. [Highly vulnerable to sea like the Ganga and the Yamuna which are
level changes] very dear to Hindus. Here flourished the
 The seaward face of the delta is studded religions of Budha and Mahavira and the
with a large number of estuaries, mud movements of Bhakti and Sufism.
flats, mangrove swamps, sandbanks, Peninsular Plateau
islands and forelands.
 Large part of the coastal delta is covered Features of the Peninsular Plateau
tidal forests. These are called the
Sunderbans because of the predominance  Roughly triangular in shape with its base
of Sundri tree here. coinciding with the southern edge of the
great plain of North India. Apex of the
Brahmaputra Plain triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
 This is also known as the Brahmaputra  It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq
valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq km).
most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated  The average height of the plateau is 600-
in Assam. 900 m above sea level (varies from region
 Its western boundary is formed by the to region).
Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the  Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to
boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its east indicating it’s general slope.
eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal  Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which
hills. flow from east to west in a rift (rift is
 It is an aggradational plain built up by caused by divergent boundary (Go back to
the depositional work of the Brahmaputra Interaction of plates).
and its tributaries.  The Peninsular Plateau is a one of the
 The innumerable tributaries of the oldest landforms of earth.
Brahmaputra river coming from the north  It is a highly stable block composed mostly
form a number of alluvial fans. of the Archaean gneisses and schists
Consequently, the tributaries branch out {Rock System}.
in many channels giving birth to river  It has been a stable shield which has gone
meandering leading to formation of bill and through little structural changes since its
ox-bow lakes. formation.
 There are large marshy tracts in this area.  Since few hundred million years,
The alluvial fans formed by the coarse Peninsular block has been a land area and
alluvial debris have led to the formation of has never been submerged beneath the sea
terai or semi-terai conditions. except in a few places.
 Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of
Significance of the Plain several smaller plateaus, hill ranges
 This one fourth of the land of the country interspersed with river basins and valleys.
hosts half of the Indian population. Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular
 Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow Plateau
moving perennial rivers and favorable
climate facilitate intense agricultural Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau
activity.
 Page
| 26

 It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan. the Aravali Range and flow towards
[Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis northwest into Chambal river. The
whereas Marwar plateau is to the east]. erosional activity of these rives make the
 The average elevation is 250-500 m above plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
sea level and it slopes down eastwards. [Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not
 It is made up of sandstone, shales and completely flat: there are slight rises and fall
limestones of the Vindhayan period. in the land form. Ex: Prairies of USA]
 The Banas river, along with its tributaries
[Berach river, Khari rivers] originate in Central Highland
 Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or  In the north it is drained by the Chambal
Madhya Bharat Plateau. and many of its right bank tributaries like
 It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also
Upland. includes the upper courses of the Sindh,
 Most of plateau comprises the basin of the the Ken and the Betwa.
Chambal river which flows in a rift valley.  It is composed of extensive lava flow and is
 The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana covered with black soils. Page
Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing through  The general slope is towards the north | 27
Mewar plateau and The Parwan and the [decreases from 600 m in the south to less
Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh are than 500 m in the north]
its main tributaries.  This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers.
 It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills In the north, the plateau is marked by the
composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow Chambal ravines.
here.
Baghelkhand
 To the north are the ravines or badlands
of the Chambal river [They are typical to  North of the Maikal Range is the
Chambal river basin]{ Arid landforms}. Baghelkhand.
Bundelkhand Upland  Made of limestones and sandstones on the
west and granite in the east.
 Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat  It is bounded by the Son river on the
Pathar to the west, Vindhyan Scarplands north.
to the east and south-east and Malwa  The central part of the plateau acts as a
Plateau to the south. water divide between the Son drainage
 It is the old dissected (divided by a number of system in the north and the Mahanadi
deep valleys) upland of the ‘Bundelkhand river system in the south.
gneiss’ comprising of granite and gneiss.  The region is uneven with general elevation
 Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
and four districts of Madhya Pradesh.  The Bhanrer and Kaimur are located close
 Average elevation of 300-600 m above sea to the trough-axis.
level, this area slopes down from the  The general horizontality of the strata
Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River. shows that this area has not undergone
 The area is marked by a chain of hillocks any major disturbance.
(small hill) made of granite and sandstone.
Chotanagpur Plateau
 The erosional work of the rivers flowing
here have converted it into an undulating  Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-
(wave like surface) area and rendered it eastern projection of the Indian Peninsula.
unfit for cultivation.  Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of
 The region is characterized by senile Chhatisgarh and Purulia district of West
(characteristic of or caused by old age) Bengal.
topography.  The Son river flows in the north-west of
 Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow the plateau and joins the Ganga.
through the plateau.  The average elevation of the plateau is 700
Malwa Plateau m above sea level.
 This plateau is composed mainly of
 The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a Gondwana rocks.
triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,  The plateau is drained by numerous rivers
bounded by the Aravali Range in the west and streams in different directions and
and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north presents a radial drainage pattern.
and Bundelkhand to the east. {Drainage Pattern}
 This plateau has two systems of drainage;  Rivers like the Damodar, the
one towards the Arabian sea (The Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi), and the Koel and the Barkar have developed
other towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal extensive drainage basins.
and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
 The Damodar river flows through the  It covers an area of about five lakh sq km.
middle of this region in a rift valley from  It is triangular in shape and is bounded
west to east. Here are found the by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the
Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk north-west, the Mahadev and the Maikal
of coal in India. in the north, the Western Ghats in the
 North of the Damodar river is the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
Hazaribagh plateau with an average  Its average elevation is 600 m. Page
elevation of 600 m above mean sea level.  It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to | 28
This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like 500 m in the north.
a peneplain due to large scale erosion.  Its general slope is from west to east which
 The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the is indicated by the flow of its major rivers.
Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m  Rivers have further subdivided this plateau
above mean sea level. Most of the surface into a number of smaller plateaus.
is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m)
is located. Maharashtra Plateau
 At places it is interruped by monadnocks  The Maharashtra Plateau lies in
(an isolated hill or ridge of erosion- Maharashtra.
resistant rock rising above a peneplain. Ex:  It forms the northern part of the Deccan
Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical hills. Plateau.
 The Rajmahal Hills forming the north  Much of the region is underlain by basaltic
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau rocks of lava origin [Most of the Deccan
are mostly made of basalt and are covered Traps lies in this region].
by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
 The area looks like a rolling plain due to
 They run in north-south direction and rise weathering.
to average elevation of 400 m (highest
 The horizontal lava sheets have led to the
mount is 567 m). These hills have been
formation of typical Deccan Trap
dissected into separate plateaus.
topography [step like].
Meghalaya Plateau  The broad and shallow valleys of the
Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are
 The peninsular plateau extends further flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by
east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges.
Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.  The entire area is covered by black cotton
 Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau soil known as regur.
from the main block.
 This gap was formed by down-faulting Karnataka Plateau
(normal fault: a block of earth slides
 The Karnataka Plateau is also known as
downwards). It was later filled by
the Mysore plateau.
sediments deposited by the Ganga and
 Lies to the south of the Maharashtra
Brahmaputa.
plateau.
 The plateau is formed by Archaean
 The area looks like a rolling plateau with
quartzites, shales and schists.
an average elevation of 600-900 m.
 The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra
 It is highly dissected by numerous rivers
valley in the north and the Surma and
rising from the Western Ghats.
Meghna valleys in the south.
 The general trend of the hills is either
 Its western boundary more or less
parallel to the Western Ghats or across it.
coincides with the Bangladesh border.
 The highest peak (1913 m) is at Mulangiri
 The western, central and the eastern parts
in Baba Budan Hills in Chikmaglur
of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills
district.
(900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m)
 The plateau is divided into two parts called
and the Mikir Hills (700 m).
Malnad and Maidan.
 Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of
 The Malnad in Kannada means hill
the plateau.
country. It is dissected into deep valleys
Deccan Plateau covered with dense forests.
 The Maidan on the other hand is formed of  They are one of the oldest (very old) fold
rolling plain with low granite hills. mountains of the world and the oldest in
 The plateau tapers between the Western India. {Fold Mountains – Block Mountains}
Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south  After its formation in Archaean Era (several
and merges with the Niligiri hills there. 100 million years ago), its summits were
nourishing glaciers and several summits
Telangana plateau were probably higher than the present day Page
 The Telangana plateau consists of Himalayas. | 29
Archaean gneisses.  Now they are relict (remnants after severe
 It’s average elevation is 500-600 m. weathering and erosion since millions of
 The southern part is higher than its years) of the world's oldest mountain
northern counterpart. formed as a result of folding (Archaean
 The region is drained by three river Era).
systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and  They continue up to Hariddwar buried
the Penneru. under the alluvium of Ganga Plains.
 The entire plateau is divided into Ghats  The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan
and the Peneplains (a vast featureless, (continuous range south of Ajmer where it
undulating plain which the last stage of rises to 900 m.) but becomes less distinct
deposition process). in Haryana and Delhi (characterized by a
chain of detached and discontinuous
Chhattisgarh Plain ridges beyond Ajmer).
 According to some geographers, one
 The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain
Branch of the Aravalis extends to the
worth the name in the Peninsular plateau.
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the Gulf
 It is a saucer shaped depression drained
of Khambhat and the other into Andhra
by the upper Mahanadi.
Pradesh and Karnataka.
 The whole basin lies between the Maikala
 It’s general elevation is only 400-600 m,
Range and the Odisha hills.
with few hills well above 1,000 m.
 The region was once ruled by
 At the south-west extremity the range rises
Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty
to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu (1,158 m),
six forts (Chhattisgarh) it derives its name.
a small hilly block, is separated from the
 The basin is laid with nearly horizontal main range by the valley of the Banas.
beds of limestone and shales.
Guru Sikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak,
 The general elevation of the plain ranges is situated in Mt. Abu.
from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
 Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes
west.
allow movement by roads and railways.
Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Vindhyan Range
Plateau
 The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a
 Most of the hills in the peninsular region view of from above) the Narmada valley, rises
are of the relict type (residual hills). as an escarpment (a long, steep slope at the
 They are the remnants of the hills and edge of a plateau or separating areas of land at
horsts formed many million years ago different heights) flanking (neighboring on one
(horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided side) the northern edge of the Narmada-
block). Son Trough (the rift through which the
 The plateaus of the Peninsular region are Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of
separated from one another by these hill ridge. It is a narrow depression).
ranges and various river valleys.  It runs more or less parallel to the
Narmada Valley in an east-west direction
Aravali Range from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar
for a distance of over 1,200 km.
 They are aligned in north-east to south-
 The general elevation of the Vindhyan
west direction.
Range is 300 to 650 m.
 They run for about 800 km between Delhi
and Palanpur in Gujarat.
 Page
| 30

 Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are  The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise
composed of horizontally bedded within 30 km of the Narmada.
sedimentary rocks of ancient age. {Rock
System}
Satpura Range
 The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as  Satpura range is a series of seven
the Bharner and Kaimur hills. mountains (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ =
 This range acts as a watershed between mountains)
the Ganga system and the river systems of  It runs in an east-west direction south of
south India. the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada
 and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka
rivers. coast]
 It stretches for a distance of about 900 km.
The Middle Sahyadri
 Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and
upheaved. They are regarded as structural  The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N
uplift or ‘horst’. latitude upto Nilgiri hills.
 Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on  This part is made of granites and gneisses. Page
Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.  This area is covered with dense forests. | 31
 Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another  The western scarp is considerably
important peak. dissected by headward erosion of the west
Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris) flowing streams.
 The average height is 1200 m but many
 They form the western edge of the Deccan peaks exceed 1500 m.
tableland.  The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh
 Run from the Tapi valley (21° N latitude) to (1,892 m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 m) are
a little north of Kanniyakumari (11° N important peaks.
latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km.  The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris
 The Western Ghats are steep-sided, near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala
terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a and TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000 m.
stepped topography facing the Arabian Sea  They mark the junction of the Western
coast. Ghats with Eastern Ghats.
 This is due to the horizontally bedded  Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554
lavas, which on weathering, have given a m) are important peaks of this area.
characteristic ‘landing stair aspect’ to the
relief of this mountain chain.The Western
The southern section
Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an  The southern part of the Western Ghats is
average elevation of 1,000 m from the separated from the main Sahyadri range
Western Coastal Plain. by Pal ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap].
 But they slope gently on their eastern flank  The high ranges terminate abruptly on
and hardly appear to be a mountain when either side of this gap.
viewed from the Deccan tableland.  Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is
 South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai, used by a number of roads and railway
etc. present quite different landscape due lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu
to the difference in geological structure. with the coastal plain of Kerala.
The northern section  It is through this gap that moist-bearing
clouds of the south-west monsoon can
 The northern section of the Ghats from penetrate some distance inland, bringing
Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made rain to Mysore region.
of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas  South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an
(Deccan Traps). intricate system of steep and rugged slopes
 The average height of this section of the on both the eastern and western sides of
Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level, the Ghats.
but some peaks attain more heights.  Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak
 Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher in the whole of southern India.
(1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik,  Three ranges radiate in different directions
Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the
Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the north,
important peaks. the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north-
 Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important east and the Cardamom Hills or the
passes which provide passage by road and Ealaimalai to the south.
rail between the Konkan Plains in the
west and the Deccan Plateau in the east. Eastern Ghats
[Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and Goa
coast;
 Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the  98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits
east coast of India leaving broad plains of India are found in the Peninsular
between their base and the coast. Plateau.
 It is a chain of highly broken and detached  Besides there are large reserves of slate,
hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost  A large part of north-west plateau is
disappear between the Godavari and the covered with fertile black lava soil which is Page
Krishna. extremely useful for growing cotton. | 32
 They neither have structural unity nor  Some hilly regions in south India are
physiographic continuity. Therefore these suitable for the cultivation of plantation
hill groups are generally treated as crops like tea, coffee, rubber, etc..
independent units.  Some low lying areas of the plateau are
 It is only in the northern part, between the suitable for growing rice.
Mahanadi and the Godavari that the  The highlands of the plateau are covered
Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain with different types of forests which
character. This part comprises the Maliya provide a large variety of forest products.
and the Madugula Konda ranges.  The rivers originating in the Western Ghats
 The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range offer great opportunity for developing
have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m hydroelectricity and providing irrigation
and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest facilities to the agricultural crops.
peak here.  The plateau is also known for its hill
 The Madugula Konda range has higher resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty),
elevations ranging from 1,100 m and 1,400 Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar,
m with several peaks exceeding 1,600 m. Khandala, Matheron, Mount Abu, etc.
Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Araku
Valley Arma Konda (1,680 m), Gali Coastline of India – Indian
Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram Gutta Coastline
(1,620 m) are important peaks.
 Between the Godavari and the Krishna  India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100
rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly km of mainland coastline + coastline of
character and are occupied by Gondwana 1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States
formations (KG Basin is here). and Union Territories (UTs).
 The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or  The straight and regular coastline of India
less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah is the result of faulting of the
and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous
where they are called as Nallamalai Range period. {Continental Drift}
[Naxalite hideout in AP] with general  As such the coast of India does not offer
elevation of 600-850 m. many sites for good natural harbours.
 The southern part of this range is called
the Palkodna range.
 To the south, the hills and plateaus attain
very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two
distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
 The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Coimbatore
district attain a height of 1,279 m.
 Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge
with the Western Ghats.
Significance of the Peninsular Plateau
 There are huge deposits of iron,
manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium,
mica, gold, etc.
[Indented coastlines of Europe provide good  The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some
natural harbours whereas African and Indian lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the largest
coastlines are not indented]. being the Vembanad Lake.
 The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea Regional Names of The West Coast of
came into being during the Cretaceous or India
early Tertiary period after the
disintegration of Gondwanaland.  Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and Page
Goa coast; | 33
East Coast of India  Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka
 Lies between the Eastern Ghats and the coast.
Bay of Bengal. Coastlines
 It extends from the Ganga delta to
Kanniyakumari. Already explained in Marine Landforms. I am
 It is marked by deltas of rivers like the discussing here for continuity.
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and 1. Coastline of Emergence
the Cauvery. 2. Coastline of Submergence
 Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon)
are the important geographical features of Coastlines of Emergence and
east coast. Submergence
Regional Names of The East Coast of  Coastline of emergence is formed either by
India an uplift of the land or by the lowering of
the sea level. Coastline of submergence is
 In Orissa (Odisha) it is known as Utkal an exact opposite case.
coast.  Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
 From the southern limit of the Utkal plain, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
stretch the Andhra coast. typical features of emergence. {Marine
 In the south of the Andhra plain is the Landforms}
Tamil Nadu coast.  The east coast of India, especially its
 The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
coast together are known as Coramandal appears to be a coast of emergence.
Coast or Payan Ghat [False Divi Point in  The west coast of India, on the other hand,
AP (Krishna River Delta) in the north to is both emergent and submergent.
Kanyakumari in the south.].  The northern portion of the coast is
West Coast of India submerged as a result of faulting and the
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast,
 The west coast strip extends from the Gulf is an example of an emergent coast.
of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the 1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) ==>
north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari). Coastline of emergence
 Starting from north to south, it is divided 2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==>
into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii) the Coastline of emergence
Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala cost. 3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa
 It is made up of alluvium brought down by Coast) ==> Coastline of submergence.
the short streams originating from the Western Coastal Plains of India
Western Ghats.
 It is dotted with a large number of coves (a  Rann of Kachchh in the north to
very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered Kanniyakumari in the South.
waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel  These are narrow plains with an average
in a marsh) and a few estuaries. {Marine width of about 65 km.
Landforms}
 The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Kutch and Kathiawar region
Tapi are the major ones.  Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension
of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar
is made of the Deccan Lava and there are
 tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are  Goa to Mangalore.
still treated as integral part of the Western  It is a narrow plain with an average width
Coastal Plains as they are now levelled of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km
down. near Mangalore.
 The Kutch Peninsula was an island  At some places the streams originating in
surrounded by seas and lagoons. These the Western Ghats descend along steep
seas and lagoons were later filled by slopes and make waterfalls. Page
sediment brought by the Indus River which  The Sharavati while descending over such | 34
used to flow through this area. Lack of a steep slope makes an impressive
rains in recent times has turned it into waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls
arid and semi-arid landscape. which is 271 m high. [Angel falls (979 m)
 Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is in Venezuela is the highest waterfall on
the Great Rann. Its southern earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in
continuation, known as the Little Rann Drakensberg mountains in South Africa is
lies on the coast and south-east of the second highest.]
Kachchh.  Marine topography is quite marked on the
 The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south coast.
of the Kachchh. The central part is a
highland of Mandav Hills from which Kerala Plain
small streams radiate in all directions  The Kerala Plain also known as the
(Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) Malabar Plain.
is the highest point and is of volcanic  Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari.
origin.
 This is much wider than the Karnataka
 The Gir Range is located in the southern plain. It is a low lying plain.
part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is
 The existence of lakes, lagoons,
covered with dense forests and is famous
backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant
as home of the Gir lion.
characteristic of the Kerala coast.
Gujarat Plain  The backwaters, locally known as kayals
are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the
 The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and sea, lying parallel to the coastline.
Kathiawar and slopes towards the west  The largest among these is the Vembanad
and south west. Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10
 Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi km wide and gives rise to a 55 km long spit
and Sabarmati, the plain includes the {Marine Landforms}.
southern part of Gujarat and the coastal
areas of the Gulf of Khambhat. Eastern Coastal Plains of India
 The eastern part of this plain is fertile
 Extending from the Subarnarekha river
enough to support agriculture, but the
along the West Bengal-Odisha border to
greater part near the coast is covered by
Kanniyakumari.
windblown loess (heaps of sand).
 A major part of the plains is formed as a
Konkan Plain result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral
zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a
 The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat lake) by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari,
plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80 Krishna and Cauvery comprising some of
km wide). the largest deltas.
 It has some features of marine erosion  In contrast to the West Coastal Plains,
including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in these are extensive plains with an average
the Arabian Sea. width of 120 km.
 The Thane creek around Mumbai is an  This plain is known as the Northern
important embayment (a recess in a coastline Circars between the Mahanadi and the
forming a bay) which provides an excellent Krishna rivers and Carnatic between the
natural harbour. Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
Karnataka Coastal Plain Utkal Plain
 The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of  The sedimentary rocks of these plains are
Odisha. said to contain large deposits of mineral oil
 It includes the Mahanadi delta. (KG Basin).
 The most prominent physiographic feature  The sands of Kerala coast have large
of this plain is the Chilka Lake. quantity of MONAZITE which is used for
 It is the biggest lake in the country and its nuclear power.
area varies between 780 sq km in winter to  Fishing is an important occupation of the Page
1,144 sq km in the monsoon months. people living in the coastal areas. | 35
 South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the  Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for
plain. producing salt.
 Kerala backwaters are important tourist
Andhra Plain destinations.
 South of the Utkal Plain and extends upto  Goa provides good beaches. This is also an
Pulicat Lake. This lake has been barred important tourist destination.
by a long sand spit known as Sriharikota
Island (ISRO launch facility).
Indian Islands
 The most significant feature of this plain is  The major islands groups of India are
the delta formation by the rivers Godavari Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A
and Krishna. chain of islands similar in origin) in Bay of
 The two deltas have merged with each Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in
other and formed a single physiographic Arabian Sea.
unit.  Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed
 The combined delta has advanced by about due to collision between Indian Plate and
35 km towards the sea during the recent Burma Minor Plate [part of Eurasian
years. This is clear from the present Plate][Similar to formation of Himalayas].
location of the Kolleru Lake which was  Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far southward extension of Arakan Yoma
inland {Coastline of Emergence}. range [Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself is
 This part of the plain has a straight coast an extension of Purvanchal Hills].
and badly lacks good harbours with the  Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands.
exception of Vishakhapatnam and These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot
Machilipatnam. volcanism. [Both these concepts are
Tamil Nadu Plain explained in previous posts]
Island Groups of Reunion Hotspot
 The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km
from Pulicat lake to Kanniyakumari along
the coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average width
is 100 km.
 The most important feature of this plain is
the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130
km wide.
 The fertile soil and large scale irrigation
facilities have made the Cauvery delta the
granary of South India.
Significance of the Coastal Plains
 Large parts of the coastal plains of India
are covered by fertile soils on which
different crops are grown. Rice is the main
crop of these areas.
 Coconut trees grow all along the coast.
 The entire length of the coast is dotted with
big and small ports which help in carrying
out trade.
 Other than these two groups there are  Some of the islands are fringed with coral
islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they are reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
more a part of delta than islands] and forests. Most of the islands are
between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of mountainous.
Adams Bridge; formed due to  Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is
submergence]. the highest peak.
Page
| 36

Andaman and Nicobar islands

 This archipelago is composed of 265 big
and small islands [203 Andaman islands +
62 Nicobar Islands][Numbers are just for
understanding. You need not remember Lakshadweep Islands
trivial facts].  In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of
 The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend islands.
from 6° 45' N to 13° 45' N and from 92° 10' (1) Amindivi Islands (consisting of six
E to 94° 15' E for a distance of about 590 main islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat,
km. Kadmat, Bitra and Perumul Par). [don’t
 The Andaman islands are divided into have to remember all these names]
three main islands i.e. North, Middle and (2) Laccadive Islands (consisting of five
South. major islands of Androth, Kalpeni,
 Duncan passage separates Little Andaman Kavaratti, Pitti and Suheli Par) and
from South Andaman. (3) Minicoy.
 The Great Andaman group of islands in the
north is separated by the Ten Degree
Channel from the Nicobar group in the
south [Prelims 2014].
 Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar
Islands lies in the South Andaman.
 Among the Nicobar islands, the Great
Nicobar is the largest. It is the
southernmost island and is very close to
Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car
Nicobar is the northernmost.
 Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on
basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to
Himalayas].
 THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM
ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
islands [these are the only active volcanoes
in India][There are no active volcanoes in
main land India].
 At present these islands are collectively Drainage patterns
known as Lakshadweep.
 The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of  Based on the shape and formation of river
25 small islands. patters, there are different drainage
 They are widely scattered about 200-500 patterns.
km south-west of the Kerala coast. Basics
 Amendivi Islands are the northern most Page
while the Minicoy island is the Drainage basin | 37
southernmost.
 All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll}
 Other terms that are used to describe
drainage basins are catchment, catchment
and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
area, catchment basin, drainage area, river
 The largest and the most advanced is the
basin, and water basin.
Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq
km.  The drainage basin includes both the
 Most of the islands have low elevation and streams and rivers and the land surface.
do not rise more than five metre above sea  The drainage basin acts as a funnel by
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level collecting all the water within the area
change). covered by the basin and channeling it to a
 Their topography is flat and relief features
such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are
absent.
New Moore Island

single point.
 In closed ("endorheic") drainage basins
the water converges to a single point inside
the basin, known as a sink, which may be
a permanent lake [Lake Aral], dry lake
 It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar [some desert lakes], or a point where
landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of surface water is lost underground [sink
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges- holes in Karst landforms]. Other Examples:
Brahmaputra Delta region. Lake Chad [Africa], Dead Sea etc.
 It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the Drainage Divide
aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It
keeps on emerging and disappearing.
 Although the island was uninhabited and
there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and
Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the existence
of oil and natural gas in the region.
 The issue of sovereignty was also a part of
the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the
maritime boundary between the two
nations
 Adjacent drainage basins are separated region though which South Indian rivers
from one another by a drainage divide. flow].
Drainage divide is usually a ridge or a high
Some important drainage basins
platform.
across the world
 Drainage divide is conspicuous in case of
youthful topography [Himalayas] and it This is Wiki stuff. So can’t guarantee
is not well marked in plains [Ganga plains] accuracy.. Page
and senile topography [old featureless | 38
landforms – Rolling plateaus of Peninsular
Basin Type Continent Drains to Basin Area
km2

Amazon River Primary River South America Atlantic Ocean 6,144,727

Hudson Bay Mediterranean North America Atlantic Ocean 3,861,400

sea

Congo River Primary River Africa Atlantic Ocean 3,730,474

Caspian Sea Lake Asia/Europe (endorheic basin 3,626,000

== not outlet)

Nile River Primary River Africa Mediterranean Sea 3,254,555

Mississippi- Primary River North America Gulf of Mexico 3,202,230

Missouri River

Lake Chad Lake Africa n/a (endorheic 2,497,918

basin)

Black Sea Mediterranean multiple Mediterranean Sea 2,400,000

sea

Niger River Primary River Africa Atlantic Ocean 2,261,763

Yangtze Primary River Asia Pacific Ocean 1,722,155

River (Chang
Jiang)

Baltic Sea Mediterranean Europe Atlantic Ocean[4] 1,700,000

sea

Ganges– Primary River Asia Bay of Bengal 1,621,000

Brahmaputra

Indus River Primary River Asia Arabian Sea 1,081,733

Difference between a River Basin and a  In a river basin, all the water drains to a
Watershed large river. The term watershed is used to
describe a smaller area of land that drains
 Both river basins and watersheds are areas to a smaller stream, lake or wetland. There
of land that drain to a particular water are many smaller watersheds within a river
body, such as a lake, stream, river or basin.
estuary.
 Example: watershed of Yamuna + water  You get a situation, then, where the
shed of Chambal + watershed of Gandak + drainage pattern does not correspond to
…. = Drainage basin of Ganga. the hardness or softness of the bedrock or
to the locations of faults and fractures.
Discordant drainage patterns
 In other words, it is a drainage pattern
 A drainage pattern is described as which exhibits discordance with the
discordant if it does not correlate to the underlying rock structure because it Page
topology [surface relief features] and originally developed on a cover of rocks | 39
geology [geological features based on both that has now disappeared due to
Endogenetic movements and exogenetic denudation.
movements] of the area.  Consequently, river directions relate to the
 In simple words: In a discordant drainage former cover rocks and, as the latter were
pattern, the river follows its initial path being eroded, the rivers have been able to
irrespective of the changes in topography. retain their courses unaffected by the
 Discordant drainage patterns are classified newly exposed structures.
into two main types: antecedent The stream pattern is thus superposed on, or
and superimposed. placed on structural features that were
Antecedent Drainage or Inconsequent previously buried.
Drainage  The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the
Chambal, the Banas and the rivers flowing
 A part of a river slope and the surrounding at the Rewa Plateau present some good
area gets uplifted and the river sticks to examples of superimposed drainage.
its original slope, cutting through the
 Examples: The Damodar, the
uplifted portion like a saw [Vertical erosion
or Vertical down cutting], and forming deep Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the
gorges: this type of drainage is called Banas and the rivers flowing at the
Antecedent drainage. Rewa Plateau, rivers of eastern USA
and southern France.
Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and  [In simple words, the river flow becomes
other Himalayan rivers that are older independent of present Topography. It
than the Himalayas themselves. There flows in its initial paths without being
are usually called as antecedent rivers. influenced by changing topography].
Superimposed or Epigenetic Antecedent Drainage == Cut through the
(Discordant) or Superinduced Drainage newly formed landform and maintain the
same path == Himalayan Rivers.
 When a river flowing over a softer rock
stratum reaches the harder basal rocks Superimposed Drainage == Cut deeper
but continues to follow the initial slope, it through the existing landform and maintain
seems to have no relation with the harder the same path == Some medium scale rivers of
rock bed. This type of drainage is called the Northern and Eastern peninsular India.
superimposed drainage. Antecedent Drainage == The soil formed is
 Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic, weak and it is easily eroded by the rivers.
trellis, etc.) are strongly influenced by the Superimposed Drainage == The rivers have
hardness and softness of the rock and high erosive power so that they can cut
patterns of faults or fractures. through the underlying strata.
 Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly
relative to the base level of the stream. This Usually, rivers in both these drainage types
increases the gradient of the stream and flow through a highly sloping surface.
therefore, gives the stream more erosive Concordant Drainage Patterns
power.
 The stream has enough erosive power that  A drainage pattern is described as
it cuts its way through any kind of concordant if it correlates to the topology
bedrock, maintaining its former drainage and geology of the area.
pattern.
 In simple words: In a concordant drainage  A dendritic pattern develops in a terrain
pattern, the path of the river is highly which has uniform lithology, and where
dependent on the slope of the river and faulting and jointing are insignificant.
topography.  Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi,
 Concordant drainage patterns are the most Cauvery, Krishna.
commonly found drainage patterns and are
classified into many types. Trellis Drainage Pattern
Page
Consequent Rivers | 40

 The rivers which follow the general

direction of slope are known as the
consequent rivers.
 Most of the rivers of peninsular India are
consequent rivers.
 For example, rivers like Godavari,
Krishna and Cauvery, descending from
the Western Ghats and flowing into the
Bay of Bengal, are some of the consequent
rivers of Peninsular India.
Subsequent Rivers
 In this type of pattern the short
 A tributary stream that is eroded along an subsequent streams meet the main stream
underlying belt of non-resistant rock after at right angles, and differential erosion
the main drainage pattern (Consequent through soft rocks paves the way for
River) has been established is known as a tributaries.
subsequent river.
 Examples: The old folded mountains of the
 The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and
and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga
Seine and its tributaries in Paris
at right angles. They are the subsequent
drainage of the Ganga drainage system.
basin (France) have a drainage of trellis
pattern.
 These streams have generally developed
after the original stream. Angular Drainage Pattern
Dendritic or Pinnate Drainage Pattern  The tributaries join the
main stream at acute
angles.
 This pattern is common in
Himalayan foothill
regions.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern

 This is an irregular tree branch shaped

pattern.
 Drainage which is branching or ramifying
(branch out or cause to branch out) thereby
giving the appearance of a tree.
 The main stream bends at right angles  The tributaries seem to be running parallel
and the tributaries join at right angles to each other in a uniformly sloping region.
creating rectangular patterns.  Example: Rivers of
 This pattern has a subsequent origin. lesser Himalayas and
 Example: Colorado river (USA), streams The small and swift
found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India. rivers originating in
the Western Ghats Page
Radial Drainage Pattern | 41
that flow into Arabian Sea.
Centripetal Drainage Pattern

 The tributaries from a summit follow the  In a low lying basin the streams converge
slope downwards and drain down in all from all sides.
directions.  Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet,
 Examples: Streams of Saurashtra and the Baghmati and its tributaries in
region, Central French Plateau, Mt. Nepal.
Kilimanjaro. Deranged Drainage Pattern
 A good example of a radial drainage
pattern is provided by the rivers  This is an uncoordinated pattern of
originating from the Amarkantak drainage characteristic of a region recently
Mountain. vacated by an ice-sheet.
 Rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi  This type of drainage is found in the
originating from Amarkantak Hills flow in glaciated valleys of Karakoram.
different directions and are good examples Barbed Drainage Pattern
of radial pattern.
 Radial drainage patterns are also found/in  A pattern of drainage in which the
the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and confluence of a tributary with the main
Mikir Hills of Assam. river is characterized by a discordant
junction—as if the tributary intends to flow
Annular Drainage Pattern upstream and not downstream.
 When the upland has an outer soft  This pattern is the result of capture of the
stratum, the radial streams develop main river which completely reverses its
subsequent tributaries which try to follow direction of flow, while the tributaries
a circular drainage around the summit. continue to point in the direction of former
 Example: Black Hill streams of South flow.
Dakota.  The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the
 This is not a very common Kosi is an interesting example of barbed
drainage pattern in India. drainage pattern.
Some examples of this are Contribution of Water by Various Rivers
however found in Pithoragarh
(Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills River % Contribution of water
in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Parallel Drainage Pattern Brahmaputra ~ 40
  The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that
Ganga ~ 25
drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing
Godavari ~ 6.4 rivers)
 Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain
Mahanadi ~ 3.5 into Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
 The rivers Narmada (India’s holiest river)
Krishna ~ 3.4 and Tapti flow almost parallel to each other Page
but empty themselves in opposite | 42
Narmada ~ 2.9 directions (West flowing). The two rivers
make the valley rich in alluvial soil and
Rest ~ 20 teak forests cover much of the land.

Classification of Drainage Systems of The Bay of Bengal Arabian Sea

India drainage drainage

Drainage Systems Based on the Size of Rivers that drain into Rivers that drain
the Catchment Area Bay of Bengal into Arabian sea

Division Size of catchment East flowing rivers West flowing rivers

area in sq km
~ 77 per cent of the ~ 23 per cent of the
Major river 20,000 drainage area of the drainage area of the
country is oriented country is oriented
Medium river 20,000 – 2,000 towards the Bay of towards the Arabian
Bengal sea
Minor river 2,000 and below
The Ganga, the The Indus, the
Drainage Systems Based on Origin Brahmaputra, the Narmada, the Tapi,
Mahanadi, the the Sabarmati, the
 The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Godavari, the Mahi and the large
Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and Krishna, the Cauvery, number of swift
their tributaries. the Penneru, the flowing western
 The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial Penneiyar, the Vaigai, coast rivers
rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the etc. descending from the
Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada and Sahyadris.
the Tapi and their tributaries.
 The area covered by The Bay of Bengal
Drainage Systems Based on the Type drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are not
of Drainage proportional to the amount of water that
The river systems of India can be classified drains trough them.
into four groups viz. Over 90 per cent of the water drains into the
Bay of Bengal; the rest is drained into the
 Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and
Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage.
Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
 Rivers of the inland drainage basin Lop sided distribution
(endorheic basin). Streams like the
Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly  The Arabian Sea drainage or Western
seasonal in character, draining into the drainage receive less rainfall [Rajasthan,
inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann Haryana and Punjab receive very low
of Kutch, the only river that flows through rainfall].
the salt desert is the Luni.  The Eastern drainage or the Bay of Bengal
drainage receives rainfall both from South-
Drainage Systems Based on west and North-east monsoons.
Orientation to the sea
Page
| 43
 Page
| 44

 Most of the Himalayan waters (perennial collision of Indian Plate with the
rivers) flow into eastern drainage (Ganges Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
and Brahmaputra).  They were flowing into the Tethys Sea.
 The Himalayan Rivers existed even before These rivers had their source in the now
the formation of Himalayas i.e. before the Tibetan region.
  Krishna River System
 Cauvery River System
 Mahanadi River System
West Flowing Peninsular River
Systems
 Narmada River System Page
 Tapti River System | 45

Indus River System

Sindhu Sanskrit

Sinthos Greek

Sindus Latin

Major Source Length

Rivers of
Indus
River
 The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, System
the Brahmaputra etc. clearly indicate that
these rivers are older than the Indus Glaciers of Kailas 2880 km
Himalayas. Range (Close to total.
 They continued to flow throughout the Manasarovar Lake)
building phase of the Himalayas; their 710 km
banks rising steeply while the beds went in India
lower and lower due to vertical erosion
(Vertical down cutting was significant and Jhelum Verinag 720 km
was occurring at a rate faster than the
Chenab Bara Lacha Pass 1180 km
rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep
gorges.
Ravi Near Rohtang Pass 725 km
 Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are
typical examples of antecedent drainage. Beas Near Rohtang Pass 460 km
 Indian Rivers that flow into Arabian Sea
are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni, Satluj Manasarovar-Rakas 1450 km
Narmada, etc.). Lakes total
 Occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall in the
eastern parts is another major reason. List of important 1050 km
passes given in in India
Major River System or Drainage previous posts
Systems in India
Indus River
Himalayan River systems
 India got her name from Indus.
1. Indus River System
 ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’ was born
2. Brahmaputra River System
around this river.
3. Ganga River System
 It flows in north-west direction from its
 The Indus, the Ganga and the
source (Glaciers of Kailas Range –
Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan
Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
river systems.
Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbhat
Peninsular River Systems Range.
 It’s length is about 2,900 km. Its total
 Godavari River System drainage area is about 1,165,000 square
 km [more than half of it lies in semiarid  Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives
plains of Pakistan]. It is joined by Dhar from Panjnad (Panchnad), the
River near Indo-China border. accumulated waters of the five eastern
 After entering J&K it flows between the tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab,
Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It flows the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
through the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan  The river empties into the Arabian Sea
and Gilgit. south of Karachi after forming a huge Page
 The gradient of the river in J&K is very delta. | 46
gentle (about 30 cm per km).
 Average elevation at which the Indus flows
through JK is about 4000 m above sea
level.
 It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh
(these kind of points are important for
prelims).

Major Tributaries of Indus River

Jhelum River
 The Jhelum has its source in a spring at
Verinag in the south-eastern part of the
Kashmir Valley.
 It flows northwards into Wular Lake
(north-western part of Kashmir Valley).
 Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at From Wular Lake, it changes its course
an elevation of about 2,700 m.
southwards. At Baramulla the river enters
 The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza a gorge in the hills.
are the other Himalayan tributaries of the
 The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge
Indus.
through Pir Panjal Range below
 It crosses the Himalayas (ends its Baramula.
mountainous journey) through a 5181 m
 At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp
deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the
hairpin bend southward.
Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly
 Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan
bend here (syntaxial bend).
boundary for 170 km and emerges at the
 Kabul river from Afghanistan joins Indus Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
near Attock. Thereafter it flows through
 After flowing through the spurs of the Salt
the Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt
Range it debouches (emerge from a
Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar
confined space into a wide, open area)
Plateau).
on the plains near the city of Jhelum.
 Some of the important tributaries below
 It joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the
 The river is navigable for about 160 km
Zhob-Gomal.
out of a total length of 724 km.
 Page
| 47

River Source

Bhagirathi (Ganga) Gangotri glacier

Yamuna Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak

Chambal Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range

Banas Aravali Range

Betwa Bhopal district

Ken Barner Range

Son Amarkantak Plateau

Damodar (‘Sorrow of Bengal’) Chotanagpur plateau

Ramganga River Garhwal district of Uttarakhand

Ghaghra River Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet

(river of the trans-Himalayan origin)

The Kali River (border between Nepal Glaciers of trans-Himalayas

and Uttarakhand)

Gandak River Tibet-Nepal border

Burhi Gandak Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border

Kosi (‘Sorrow of Bihar’) Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni north of the
Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
 Page
| 48

Chenab River Beas River

 The Chenab originates from near the Bara  The Beas originates near the Rohtang
Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea
Zaskar Range. level, on the southern end of the Pir Panjal
 Two small streams on opposite sides of the Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its  It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it
headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m. takes a south-westerly direction and meets
 The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in the Satluj river at Harike in Punjab.
the north-west direction through the Pangi  It is a comparatively small river which is
valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal range. only 460 km long but lies entirely within
 Near Kistwar, it cuts a deep gorge. the Indian territory.
 It enters the plain area near Akhnur in
Satluj River
Jammu and Kashmir.
 From here it through the plains of  The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-
Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height
it joins the Satluj after receiving the waters of 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of
of Jhelum and Ravi rivers. the Indus.
 Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly
Ravi River
course upto the Shipki La on the Tibet-
 The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near Himachal Pradesh boundary.
the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.  It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the
 It drains the area between the Pir Panjal Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan
and the Dhaola Dhar ranges. ranges.
 After crossing Chamba, it takes a south-  Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a
westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the
Dhaola Dhar range. famous Bhakra dam has been
 It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur constructed.
and later enters Pakistan below Amritsar.  After entering the plain at Rupnagar
 It debouches into the Chenab a little above (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined
Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab. by the Beas at Harike.
 From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms  According to this treaty, India can utilize
the boundary between India and Pakistan only 20 per cent of its total discharge of
for nearly 120 km. water.
 During its onward journey it receives the
collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab and Ganga River System
Jhelum rivers. It joins the Indus a few
Ganga River
kilometres above Mithankot. Page
 Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows  The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from | 49
for 1,050 km in Indian territory. the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi
Indus water treaty District of Uttarakhand at an elevation of
7,010 m.
 The waters of the Indus river system are  Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at
shared by India and Pakistan according to Devaprayag.
the Indus Water Treaty signed between the  From Devapryag the river is called as
two countries on 19th September, 1960. Ganga.
 The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007.
 Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered Ganges
river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).
 The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major
failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical expertise, poor environmental
planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.

Major tributaries of Alaknanda Major tributaries of Bhagirathi

 East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at Karan Prayag)  Bheling
 Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi)
 Mandakini or Kali Ganga (joins Alaknanda at Rudra
Prayag)
 Dhauliganga
 Bishenganga.
[Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum]
 Page
| 50

 Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined  The delta is made of a web of distributaries
space into a wide, open area] from the hills and islands and is covered by dense forests
into plain area at Haridwar. called the Sunderbans.
 It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.  A major part of the delta is a low-lying
 Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south- swamp which is flooded by marine water
east. during high tide.
 At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga
Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna
in Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as  Most of them except Yamuna originate in
the Ganga after Farraka). the peninsular region.
 Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is
known here) joins Padma-Meghna at Yamuna River
Goalundo.  Largest and the most important tributary.
 The total length of the Ganga river from its  It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on
source to its mouth (measured along the the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal
Hugli) is 2,525 km. region in Uttarakhand at an elevation of
Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta about 6,000 meters.
 It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the
 Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, forms  It emerges out of the hilly area and enters
the largest delta of the world between the plains near Tajewala.
Bhagirathi/Hugli and the  Its main affluent in the upper reaches is
Padma/Meghna covering an area of the Tons which also rises from the
58,752 sq km. Bandarpunch glacier.
 The coastline of delta is a highly indented  It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the
area. latter leaves the hills.
 At this site, the water carried by the Tons  The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the
is twice the water carried by the Yamuna. series of Chambal Valley Projects, located
about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in
Non – Peninsular Peninsular Rajasthan.
Tributaries Tributaries  Water released after power generation at
1. Rishiganga Most of the Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar
2. Uma Peninsular rivers dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted Page
3. Hanuman Ganga flow into the by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan | 51
and Yamuna between and in Madhya Pradesh through canals.
4. Tons join it in the Agra and
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with
mountains. Allahabad.
water from Chambal river irrigation project.
5. Hindon joins at
1. Chambal
Ghaziabad in the
2. Sind The Banas
plain area
3. Betwa
4. Ken.  The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.
 It originates in the southern part of the
 It unites with the Ganga near Triveni Aravali Range.
Sangam, Allahabad.  It join the Chambal on Rajasthan –
 The total length of the Yamuna from its Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai
origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km. Madhopur.
 It creates the highly fertile alluvial, The Sind
Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between
itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic
plain.  The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of
Chambal River Madhya Pradesh.
 It flows for a distance of 415 km before it
 The Chambal rises in the highlands of joins the Yamuna.
Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan
Range. The Betwa
 It flows through the Malwa Plateau.  The Betwa rises in Bhopal district
 It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna
Uttar Pradesh. near Hamirpur.
 The river flows much below its banks due  It has a total length of 590 km.
to severe erosion because of poor rainfall  The Dhasan is its important tributary.
and numerous deep ravines have been
formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise The Ken
to badland topography. {Arid Landforms}
 The Ken river rising from the Barner
 The total length of the river is 1,050 km.
Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the
Dams on the Chambal Yamuna near Chila.
 The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the The Son
four dams built on the Chambal River,
located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh  The Son River rises in the Amarkantak
border. Plateau.
 The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam  Its source is close to the origin of the
located 52 km downstream of Gandhi Narmada.
Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in  It passes along the Kaimur Range.
Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.  It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna
 The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam district of Bihar.
in the series of Chambal Valley Projects,  It flows for a distance of 784 km from its
located 29 km upstream of Kota city and source.
26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar  The important tributaries of the Son are
dam. the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the
 Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the  Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the
tributaries join it on its right bank. Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its bank) and
the Rapti.
Damodar river
 The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few
 The Damodar river rises in the hills of the kilometres downstream of Chhapra in
Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a Bihar.
rift valley.  After reaching the plain area, its stream Page
 Rich in mineral resources, the valley is gets divided into many branches of which, | 52
home to large-scale mining and industrial Koriyab and Garwa are important.
activity.  The river bed is sandy and sudden bends
 It has a number of tributaries and start occurring in the stream.
subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar,  The river has a high flood frequency and
Bokaro, Haharo, etc. has shifted its course several times.
 The Barakar is the most important Kali River
tributary of the Damodar.
 Several dams have been constructed in the  Rises in the high glaciers of trans-
valley, for the generation of hydroelectric Himalaya.
power. The valley is called “the Ruhr of  It forms the boundary between Nepal and
India”. Kumaon.
 The first dam was built across the Barakar  It is known as the Sarda after it reaches
River, a tributary of the Damodar river. the plains near Tanakpur.
 It used to cause devastating floods as a  It joins the Ghaghara.
result of which it earned the name
‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Now the river is Gandak River
tamed by constructing numerous dams.  Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a
 It joins the Hugli River 48 km below height of 7,620 m
Kolkata.  It receives a large number of tributaries in
 The total length of the river is 541 km. Nepal Himalaya.
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga  Its important tributaries are the Kali
River Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the
Trishuli.
 These rivers originate in the Himalayas.  It debouches into the plains at Tribeni.
 The major tributaries apart from the  It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati,
Burhi Gandak
the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi
Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.  Originates from the western slopes of
Ramganga River Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border.
 It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
 The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal
district of Uttarakhand.
Kosi River
 It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.  The Kosi river consists of seven streams
 It joins the Ganga at Kannauj. namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha,
 The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber
and the Deoha (Gorra) are important and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki.
tributaries of Ramganga.  These streams flow through eastern Nepal
Ghaghra River which is known as the Sapt Kaushik
region.
 Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak,  The sources of seven streams of the Kosi
south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the are located in snow covered areas which
trans-Himalayan origin). also receive heavy rainfall.
 It is known as the Karnaili in Western  Consequently, huge volume of water flows
Nepal. with tremendous speed.
 Seven streams mingle with each other to  Mariam La separates the source of the
form three streams named the Tumar, Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
Arun and Sun Kosi.  Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern
 They unite at Triveni north of the Tibet for about 1,800 km.
Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.  In Tibet it passes through the depression
 The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure
cutting a narrow gorge in the Mahabharata Zone between the Great Himalayas in the Page
Range. south and the Kailas Range in the north. | 53
 The joins the Ganga near Kursela.  Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude,
 Soon after debouching onto the plain the the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river
river becomes sluggish. is sluggish and has a wide navigable
 Large scale deposition of eroded material channel for about 640 km.
takes place in the plain region.  It receives a large number of tributaries in
 The river channel is braided and it shifts Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga
its course frequently. This has resulted in Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near
frequent devastating floods and has Lhatse Dzong.
converted large tracts of cultivable land  The river Ngangchu flows through the
into waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is trade centre of Gyantse in the south and
often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’. joins the main river.
 In order to tame this river, a barrage was  Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its
constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar course abruptly takes a south ward turn
in Nepal. around Namcha Barwa (7,756
 Embankments for flood control have been m)(Syntaxial Bend).
constructed as a joint venture of India and  Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya
Nepal. through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and
emerges from the mountains near Sadiya
Brahmaputra River System
in the Assam Valley.
 Here it first flows under the name of Siong
Region Name
and then as the Dihang.
 In the north-eastern parts of Assam Valley,
Tibet Tsangpo (meaning 'The
it is joined by two important tributaries viz,
Purifier')
the Dibang (or Sikang) from the north and
Lohit from the south.
China Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin
 From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this
Assam Valley Dihang or Siong, South of mighty river is known as the
Sadiya: Brahmaputra Brahmaputra.
 The main streams merging with the
Bangladesh Jamuna River Brahmaputra from the north are,
Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri (north),
Padma River: Combined Raidak, Tista etc..
Waters of Ganga and  The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga
Brahmaputra prior to the floods of 1787 after which it
diverted its course eastwards to join the
Meghana: From the Brahmaputra.
confluence of Padma and  The Brahmaputra has a braided channel
Meghna [View image above] (flow into shallow interconnected channels
divided by deposited earth) for most of its
 The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of passage through Assam where channels
Brahma). keep shifting. It carries a lot of silt and
 It is 2,900 km in length. there is excessive meandering.
 Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas  The river is nearly 16 km wide at
Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the
It’s source is very close to the sources of most important of which is MAJULI. It is
Indus and Satluj.
 90 km long and measures 20 km at its  Most of the major rivers of the peninsula
widest. such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
 With rainfall concentrated during the Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards
monsoon months only the river has to and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These
carry enormous quantities of water and silt rivers make deltas at their mouths.
which results in disastrous floods. The  But the west flowing rivers of Narmada and
Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of Tapi as well as those originating from the Page
Sorrow. Western Ghats and falling in the Arabian | 54
 The river is navigable for a distance of Sea form estuaries in place of deltas.
1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth  There are few places where rivers form
and serves as an excellent inland water superimposed and rejuvenated drainage
transport route. which are represented by waterfalls.
 Brahmaputra bends southwards and  Examples: The Jog on the Sharvati (289
enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. m), Yenna of Mahabaleshwar (183 m),
 It flows for a distance of 270 km in the Sivasamundram on the Cauvery (101 m),
name of Jamuna river and joins the Gokak on the Gokak (55 m), Kapildhara
Ganga at Goalundo. (23 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the
 The united stream of the Jamuna and the Narmada are the major waterfalls in the
Ganga flows further in the name of Padma. Peninsular India.
 About 105 km further downstream, the
Evolution of the Peninsular Drainage
Padma is joined on the left bank by the
Meghna, originating in the mountainous Theory 1
region of Assam.
 From the confluence of Padma and  Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-
Meghna, the combined river is known as Aravali axis was the main water divide in
the Meghna which makes a very broad the past.
estuary before pouring into the Bay of  According to one hypothesis, the existing
Bengal. peninsula is the remaining half of bigger
landmass.
Peninsular River System or  The Western Ghats were located in the
Peninsular Drainage middle of this landmass.
 So one drainage was towards east flowing
 Peninsula rivers are much older than the into Bay of Bengal and the other towards
Himalayan rivers {Discordant}. west draining into Arabian Sea.
 The peninsular drainage is mainly  The western part of the Peninsula cracked
Concordant except for few rivers in the and submerged in the Arabian Sea during
upper peninsular region. the early Tertiary period (coinciding with
 They are non-perennial rivers with a the formation of Himalayas).
maximum discharge in the rainy season.  During the collision of the Indian plate, the
 The peninsular rivers have reached Peninsular block was subjected to
mature stage {Fluvial Landforms} and subsidence in few regions creating a series
have almost reached their base level. of rifts (trough, faults).
[Vertical downcutting is negligible].
The now west flowing rivers of the Peninsula,
 The rivers are characterized by broad and
namely the Narmada and the Tapi flow
shallow valleys.
through these rifts.
 The river banks have gentle slopes except
for a limited tract where faulting forms  Straight coastline, steep western slope of
steep sides. the Western Ghats, and the absence of
 The main water divide in peninsular rivers delta formations on the western coast
is formed by the Western Ghats, which run makes this theory a possibility.
from north to south close to the western
Theory 2
coast.
 The velocity of water in the rivers and the  It is believed that the west flowing
load carrying capacity of the streams is peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys
low due to low gradient. formed by the rivers themselves.
 Rather they have occupied two fault rifts in  Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal: The
rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas. Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
 These faults are supposed to be caused by Cauvery and several smaller rivers drains
bend of the northern part of the Peninsula south-east into the Bay of Bengal.
at the time of upheaval of the Himalayas.  Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The
 Peninsular block, south of the cracks, Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi flowing west
tilted slightly eastwards during the event as well as several small streams originating Page
thus giving the orientation to the entire from the Western Ghats flow westwards | 55
drainage towards the Bay of Bengal. into the Arabian Sea.
 Criticism: Tilting should have increased  Rivers that drain into the Ganges:
the gradient of the river valleys and caused Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna
some rejuvenation of the rivers. This type such as the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken,
of phenomenon is absent in the Peninsula, the Son and the Damodar flow in the
barring a few exceptions such as north-easterly direction.
waterfalls.
Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular
Peninsular River Systems River System

The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System

These rivets originate from the lofty These rivers originate in the Peninsular
Himalayan ranges and are named as Plateau and are named as Peninsular
the Himalayan rivers. rivers.

Catchment These rivers have large basins and These rivers have small basins and
area catchment areas. The total basin area catchment areas. The Godavari has the
of the Indus, the Ganga and the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh square
Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 kilometres only which is less than one-
lakh square kilometres respectively. third the basin area of the Indus.

Valleys The Himalayan rivers flow through The Peninsular rivers flow in
deep V - shaped valleys called gorges. comparatively shallow valleys. These are
These gorges have been carved out by more or less completely graded valleys.
down cutting carried on side by side The rivers have little erosional activity to
with the uplift of the Himalayas. perform.

Drainage These are examples of antecedent These are examples of consequent

Type drainage. drainage.

Water Flow The Himalayan rivers are perennial in The Peninsular rivers receive water only
nature, i.e., water flows throughout the from rainfall and water flows in these
year in these rivers. These rivers rivers in rainy season only. Therefore,
receive water both from the monsoons these rivers are seasonal or non-
and snow-melt. The perennial nature of perennial. As such these rivers are much
these rivers makes them useful for less useful for irrigation.
irrigation.

Stage These rivers flow across the young fold These rivers have been flowing in one of
mountains and are still in a youthful the oldest plateaus of the world and have
stage. reached maturity.

Meanders The upper reaches of the Himalayan The hard rock surface and non-alluvial
rivers are highly tortuous. When they character of the plateau permits little
enter the plains, there is a sudden scope for the formation of meanders.
reduction in the speed of flow of water. As such, the rivers of the Peninsular
 Under these circumstances these rivers Plateau follow more or less straight
form meanders and often shift their courses.
beds.

Deltas and The Himalayan rivers form big deltas Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as the
Estuaries at their mouths. The Ganga- Narmada and the Tapi form estuaries.
Brahmaputra delta is the largest in the
Other rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Page
world.
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery | 56
form deltas.
Several small streams originating from the
Western Ghats and flowing towards the
west enter the Arabian Sea without
forming any delta.

East Flowing Peninsular Rivers  Other small streams between the

Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining
 Mahanadi River directly into the Chilka Lake also forms
 Godavari River the part of the basin.
 Krishna River  The major part of basin is covered with
 Kaveri (Cauvery) River agricultural land accounting to 54.27% of
 Pennar River the total area.
 Subarnarekha River  It is one of the most-active silt-depositing
 Brahamani River streams in the Indian subcontinent.
 Sarada River  After receiving the Seonath River, it turns
 Ponnaiyar River east and enters Odisha state.
 Vaigai River  At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of
the largest dams in India) on the river has
Mahanadi River formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km)
long.
 The Mahanadi basin extends over states of
 It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack
Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
and enters the Bay of Bengal at False Point
comparatively smaller portions of
by several channels.
Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh  Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous
Sq.km. pilgrimage site.
 It is bounded by the Central India hills on Tributaries of Mahanadi River
the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the
south and east and by the Maikala range  Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped
on the west. basin called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’.
 The Mahanadi (“Great River”) follows a  This basin is surrounded by hills on the
total course of 560 miles (900 km). north, west and south as a result of which
 It has its source in the northern foothills of a large number of tributaries join the main
Dandakaranya in Raipur District of river from these sides.
Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.  Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the
 The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
the peninsular rivers, in water potential  Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel
and flood producing capacity, it ranks and the Jonk.
second to the Godavari.
 Page
| 57

Projects on Mahanadi River Korba, paper mill near Cuttack and

cement factory at Sundargarh.
 Two important projects completed during  Other industries based primarily on
pre-plan period in the basin are the agricultural produce are sugar and textile
Mahanadi main canal and Tandula mills.
reservoir in Chhattisgarh.  Mining of coal, iron and manganese are
 During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, other industrial activities.
Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango,
Mahanadi Reservoir Project were Floods in Mahanadi River Basin
completed.
 The basin is subject to severe flooding
Industry in Mahanadi River Basin occasionally in the delta area due to
inadequate carrying capacity of the
 Three important urban centes in the basin channels.
are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.  The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides
 Mahanadi basin, because of its rich some amount of flood relief by storing part
mineral resource and adequate power of flood water.
resource, has a favorable industrial  However, the problem still persists and a
climate. lasting solution need to be evolved.
 The Important industries presently existing
in the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at Godavari River
Bhilai, aluminium factories at Hirakud and
 Page
| 58

 The Godavari is the largest river system of  The left bank tributaries are more in
the Peninsular India and is revered as number and larger in size than the right
Dakshina Ganga. bank tributaries.
 The Godavari basin extends over states of  The Manjra (724 km) is the only important
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari
Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh,  Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga,
Karnataka and Union territory of Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita [conveying
Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of the combined waters of Penganga, the
~ 3 lakh Sq.km. Wardha and Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan,
 The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, Sabari, Indravati etc.
the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills  Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula,
on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
south and the east and by the Western  Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself
Ghats on the west. into two main streams, the Gautami
 The Godavari River rises from Godavari on the east and the Vashishta
Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Godavari on the west and forms a large
Maharashtra about 80 km from the delta before it pours into the Bay of
Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m. Bengal.
 The total length of Godavari from its origin  The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type
to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 with a round bulge and many
km. distributaries.
Tributaries of Godavari River Mineral Resources in Godavari Basin
 The upper reaches of the Godavari Krishna River
drainage basin are occupied by the Deccan
Traps containing minerals like magnetite,  The Krishna is the second largest east
epidote, biotite, zircon, chlorite etc flowing river of the Peninsula.
(metallic minerals)..  The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra
 The middle part of the basin is principally Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka
composed of phyllites, quartzites, having a total area of ~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
Page
amphiboles and granites (rocks).  It is bounded by Balaghat range on the | 59
 The downstream part of the middle basin north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south
is occupied mainly by sediments and rocks and the east and by the Western Ghats on
of the Gondwana group. the west.
 The Gondwanas are principally detritals  The Krishna River rises from the Western
(waste or debris, in particular organic Ghats near Jor village of Satara district
matter produced by decomposition or loose of Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m
matter produced by erosion) with some just north of Mahabaleshwar.
thick coal seams. [Singareni Coal Seam]  The total length of river from origin to its
 The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower part outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km.
of the drainage basin and are formed  The major part of basin is covered with
mainly from the Khondalites. agricultural land accounting to 75.86% of
the total area.
Projects on Godavari River  The Krishna forms a large delta with a
 Important projects completed duing the shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna
plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari delta appears to merge with that formed by
barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper the Godavari and extends about 35 km
Wainganga, Upper Indravati, Upper into the sea.
Wardha. Tributaries of Krishna River
 Among the on-going projects, the
prominent ones are Prnahita-Chevala and
Polavaram.  Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the
Industry in Godavari Basin Malprabha and the Tungabhadra.
 Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and the
 The major urban Centers in the basin are Munneru.
Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik,  The Koyna is a small tributary but is
Rajhmundry. known for Koyna Dam. This dam was
 Nashik and Aurangabad have large perhaps the main cause of the devastating
number of industries especially earthquake (6.4 on richter scale) in 1967
automobile. that killed 150 people.
 Other than this, the industries in the basin  The Bhima originates from the Matheron
are mostly based on agricultural produce Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur
such as rice milling, cotton spinning and after for a distance of 861 km.
weaving, sugar and oil extraction.  The Tungabhadra is formed by the
 Cement and some small engineering unification of the Tunga and the Bhadra
industries also exist in the basin. originating from Gangamula in the
Central Sahyadri. Its total length is 531
Floods and Droughts in Godavari Basin
km.
 Godavari basin faces flooding problem in  At Wazirabad, it receives its last important
its lower reaches. tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the
 The coastal areas are cyclone-prone. city of Hyderabad is located.
 The delta areas face drainage congestion Projects on Krishna River
due to flat topography.
 A large portion of Maharashtra falling  Important ones are the Tungabhadra,
(Marathwada) in the basin is drought Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar,
prone. Malaprabha, Bhima, Bhadra and Telugu
Ganga.
 The major Hydro Power stations in the  Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States
basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri project in the basin. In order to operate the
Sailam, Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, project and to regulate the flows among the
Naryanpur, Bhadra. beneficiary States of Karnataka and
Andhara Pradesh.

Page
| 60

Resources in Krishna Basin  Pune in Maharashtra has number of

automobile and IT industry and is major
 The basin has rich mineral deposits and education centre.
there is good potential for industrial
development. Drought and Floods in Krishna Basin
 Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane
 Some parts of the basin, especially the
vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are
Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh,
important industrial activities at present in
Bellary, Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga,
the basin.
Belgaum and Bijapur districts of
 Recently oil has been struck in this basin Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur,
which is bound to have an effect on the Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of
future industrial scenario of this basin. Maharashtra are drought-prone.
Industry in Krishna Basin  The delta area of the basin is subject to
flooding. It has been observed that the
 The major Urban Centers in the Basin are river bed in delta area is continuously
Pune, Hyderabad. raised due to silt deposition resulting in
 Hyderabad is the state capital of Telangana
and is now a major IT hub.
 reduction in carrying capacity of the and is very useful for irrigation and
channel. hydroelectric power generation.
 The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high  Thus the Cauvery is one of the best
intensity and short duration makes the regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of
flood problem worse. its irrigation and power production
potential already stands harnessed.
Cauvery River
 The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. Page
 The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as the The major part of basin is covered with | 61
‘Dakshina Ganga’ or ‘the Ganga of the agricultural land accounting to 66.21% of
South’. the total area.
 The Cauvery River rises at an elevation of Tributaries of the Cauvery River
1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri
range near Cherangala village of Kodagu  Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the
(Coorg) district of Karnataka. Shimsha and the Arkavati.
 The total length of the river from origin to  Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the
outfall is 800 km. Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani,
 The Cauvery basin extends over states of the Noyil and the Amaravati joins from
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union right.
Territory of Puducherry draining an area of  The river descends from the South
81 thousand Sq.km. Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu
 It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the Plains through the Sivasamudram
west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and waterfalls (101 m high).
the south and by the ridges separating it  At Shivanasamudram, the river branches
from Krishna basin and Pennar basin on off into two parts and falls through a
the north. height of 91 m. in a series of falls and
 The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western ghats, rapids.
extend Eastwards to the Eastern ghats and  The falls at this point is utilized for power
divide the basin into two natural and generation by the power station at
political regions i.e., Karnataka plateau in Shivanasamudram.
the North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in  The two branches of the river join after the
the South. fall and flow through a wide gorge which is
 Physiographically, the basin can be divided known as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goats leap) and
into three parts – the Westen Ghats, the continues its journey to form the boundary
Plateau of Mysore and the Delta. between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu States
 The delta area is the most fertile tract in for a distance of 64 km.
the basin. The principal soil types found in  At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly
the basin are black soils, red soils, direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and  A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery
mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas on the Right bank about 45 Kms below
in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the
delta areas. plains of Tamil Nadu.
 The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall  Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi
mainly from the S-W Monsoon and join on the right bank and here the river
partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in widens with sandy bed and flows as
Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
North-East Monsoon.  Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli
 Its upper catchment area receives rainfall district, the river divides into two parts, the
during summer by the south-west Northern branch being called ‘The
monsoon and the lower catchment area Coleron’ and Southern branch remains as
during winter season by the retreating Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta
north-east monsoon. begins.
 It is, therefore almost a perennial river  After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two
with comparatively less fluctuations in flow branches join again to form ‘Srirangam
Island’.
 On the Cauvery branch lies the "Grand  These branches divide and sub-divide into
Anicut" said to have been constructed by a small branches and form a network all
Chola King in 1st Century A.D. over the delta.
 Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery
branch splits into two, Cauvery and
Vennar.
Page
| 62

Floods in Cauvery Basin Industry in Cauvery Basin

 The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in  The city of Bangalore is situated just
Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu. outside this basin.
The run-off does not drain off quickly  Important industries in the basin include
because of its shape and therefore no fast cotton textile industry in Coimbatore
raising floods occur in the basin. and Mysore, cement factories in
Coimbatore and Trichinapally and
Projects on Cauvery River
industries based on mineral and metals.
 During the pre-plan period many projects  The Salem steel plant and many
were completed in this basin which engineering industies in Coimbatore and
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Trichinapally are also situated in this
Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in basin.
Tamil Nadu. Pennar River
 Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi,
Kabini are important projects completed
duing the plan period.
 Page
| 63

 The Pennar (also known as Uttara [famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda
Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the ranges.
peninsula.  The major part of basin is covered with
 The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kasava agriculture accounting to 58.64% of the
hill of the Nandidurg range, in total area.
Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka
Tributaries of Pennar River
and flows towards east eventually draining
into the Bay of Bengal.  Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu
 The total length of the river from origin to and the Sagileru.
its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.  Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni
 Located in peninsular India, the Pennar and the Cheyyeru.
basin extends over states of Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka having an area of Projects on Pennar River
~55 thousand Sq.km  Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna
 The fan shaped basin is bounded by the basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin also.
Erramala range on the north, by the The only major project in the basin is the
Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Somasila project.
Eastern Ghats on the east, by the
Nandidurg hills on the south and by the Industry in Pennar Basin
narrow ridge separating it from the
 The only important town in the basin is
Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on the
Nellore.
west.
 With limited water and power potential and
 The other hill ranges in the basin to the
mineral resources, the scope for industrial
south of the river are the Seshachalam
development is limited in the basin.
 There are no major industries. The existing  The Subarnarekha originates from the
small industries are mostly based on Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the
agricultural produce such as cotton boundary between West Bengal and
weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills Odisha in its lower course.
etc.  It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary
between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas.
Subarnarekha
Its total length is 395 km. Page
| 64

Brahamani River  The river Sarada, an East flowing medium

sized river, lies in the district of
 The Brahmani river comes into existence Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh.
by the confluence of the Koel and the
Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total Ponnaiyar River
length of 800 km.
 The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is
 The basin is bounded in the North by
confined to the coastal area only.
Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and
 It covers a small area in the state of Tamil
South by the Mahanadi basin and in the
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
East by the Bay of Bengal.
 The Basin is bounded on the North -West
 The basin flows through Jharkhand,
and South by various ranges of the
Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains
Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range,
into Bay of Bengal.
the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the
Sarada River Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills and the
Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay
of Bengal.
Vaigai River
 South of the Cauvery delta, there are
several streams, of which the Vaigai is the
longest.
 The Vaigai basin is an important basin
among the 12 basins lying between the
Page
Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
| 65
 This basin is bounded by the Varushanadu
hills, the Andipatti hills, the Cardaman
hills and the Palani hills on the West and
by the Palk strait and Palk Bay on the
East.
 The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km,
which entirely lies in the state of Tamil
Nadu.
West Flowing Rivers of The
Peninsular India
 The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular  An estuary is a partially enclosed body of
India are fewer and smaller as compared to water along the coast where freshwater
their east flowing counterparts. from rivers and streams meets and mixes
 The two major west flowing rivers are the with salt water from the ocean. [Primary
Narmada and the Tapi. productivity in estuaries is very high.
Fishing is a dominant occupation around
 This exceptional behavior is because these
estuaries. Most of the estuaries are good
rivers didn’t form valleys and instead they
bird sanctuaries].
flow through faults (linear rift, rift valley,
trough) created due to the bending of the  Estuaries and the lands surrounding them
northern peninsula during the formation are places of transition from land to sea
process of Himalayas. and freshwater to salt water.
 These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas  Although influenced by the tides, they are
and the Satpuras. protected from the full force of ocean
waves, winds, and storms by such land
 The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other
forms as barrier islands or peninsulas.
rivers of the Peninsular India which flow
[You know why estuaries make good
westwards.
ports?]
 Hundreds of small streams originating in
 Estuarine environments are among the
the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards
most productive on earth, creating more
and join the Arabian Sea.
organic matter each year than comparably-
 It is interesting to note that the Peninsular
sized areas of forest, grassland, or
rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do
agricultural land.
not form deltas, but only estuaries.
 The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also
{Fluvial Depositional Landforms}
support unique communities of plants and
 This is due to the fact that the west flowing
animals especially adapted for life at the
rivers, especially the Narmada and the
margin of the sea.
Tapi flow through hard rocks and hence
 Estuaries have important commercial
do not carry any good amount of silt.
value and their resources provide economic
 Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are
benefits for tourism, fisheries, and
very small and hence they don’t contribute
recreational activities.
any silt.
 The protected coastal waters of estuaries
 Hence these rivers are not able to form
also support important public
distributaries or a delta before they enter
infrastructure, serving as harbors and
the sea.
ports vital for shipping and
Estuary transportation.
Page
| 66
 Estuaries also perform other valuable  Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine
services. Water draining from uplands plants also help prevent erosion and
carries sediments, nutrients, and other stabilize shorelines [Mangroves].
pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows
through wetlands such as swamps and
Narmada River
salt marshes, much of the sediments and
pollutants are filtered out. Page
| 67

 Narmada is the largest west flowing river of  It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at
the peninsular India. Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the
 Narmada flows westwards through a rift river again descends from another small
valley between the Vindhyan Range on the fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara
north and the Satpura Range on the south. Falls.
 It rises from Maikala range near  There are several islands in the estuary of
Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an the Narmada of which Aliabet is the
elevation of about 1057 m. largest.
 Narmada basin extends over states of  The Narmada is navigable upto 112 km
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra from its mouth.
and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh
Tributaries of Narmada River
Sq.km.
 It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the  Since the river flows through a narrow
north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras valley confined by precipitous (dangerously
on the south and by the Arabian Sea on high or steep) hills, it does not have many
the west. tributaries.
 Its total length from its source in  The absence of tributaries is especially
Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of noted on the right bank of the river where
Khambhat is 1,310 km. the Hiran is the only exception.
 The hilly regions are in the upper part of  The other right bank tributaries are the
the basin, and lower middle reaches are Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
broad and fertile areas well suited for  A few left bank tributaries drain the
cultivation. northern slopes of the Satpura Range and
 Jabalpur is the only important urban join the Narmada at different places.
centre in the basin.  The major Hydro Power Project in the
 The river slopes down near Jabalpur where basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
it cascades (a small waterfall, especially Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.
one in a series) 15 m into a gorge to form
the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of Mist) Falls. Tapti River
 Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is
popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
 Page
| 68

 The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the which forms the northwestern portion of
second largest west flowing river of the Maharashtra state) which are broad and
Peninsular India and is known as 'the twin' fertile suitable for cultivation primarily.
or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada.
Tributaries of Tapti River
 It originates near Multai reserve forest in
Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m.  Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the
 Flows for about 724 km before outfalling Arunavati and the Aner.
into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of  Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the
Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat]. Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna,
 The Tapti River along with its tributaries the Purna, the Mona and the Sipna.
flows over the plains of Vidharbha,
Khandesh and Gujarat and over large Projects on Tapti River
areas in the state of Maharashtra and a  Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project
small area in Madhya Pradesh and (Maharashtra)
Gujarat.  Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai
 The basin extends over states of Madhya Project (Gujarat)
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat having  Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna
an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km Project (Maharashtra)
 Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin
is bounded by the Satpura range on the Industry in the Tapti Basin
north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta
 Important industries in the basin are
Range and the Satmala hills on the south
textile factories in Surat and paper and
and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
news print factory at Nepanagar.
 The hilly region of the basin is well forested
while the plains are broad and fertile areas Sabarmati River
suitable for cultivation.
 There are two well defined physical  The Sabarmati is the name given to the
regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and combined streams the Sabar and
plains; the hilly regions comprising Hathmati.
Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta and  The Sabarmati basin extends over states of
Gawilgarh hills are well forested. Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of
 The plain covers the Khandesh areas 21,674 Sq km.
(Khandesh is a region of central India,
 The basin is bounded by Aravalli
hills on the north and north-east,
by Rann of Kutch on the west and
by Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
 The basin is roughly triangular in
shape with the Sabarmati River as
the base and the source of the Page
Vatrak River as the apex point. | 69
 Sabarmati originates from Aravalli
hills at an elevation of 762 m near
village Tepur, in Udaipur district
of Rajasthan.
 The total length of river from origin
to outfall into the Arabian Sea is
371 km.
 The major part of basin is covered
with agriculture accounting to
74.68% of the total area.
 Rainfall varies from a meager few
mm in Saurastra to over 1000 mm
in southern part.
 Left bank tributaries: the Wakal,
the Hathmati and the Vatrak.
 Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
 Projects: Sabarmati reservoir
(Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir and
Meshwo reservoir project are major
projects completed during the plan
period.
Industry in Sabarmati Basin
 Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are
the important urban centers in the
basin.
 Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated  It originates from the northern slopes of
on the banks of Sabarmati. Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar
 Important industries are textiles, leather district of Madhya Pradesh.
and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods,  The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
paper, newsprint, automobile, machine  It drains into the Arabian Sea through the
tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc. Gulf of Khambhat.
 The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses the  The major part of basin is covered with
danger of water pollution. agricultural land accounting to 63.63% of
the total area
Mahi River
 Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi
 The Mahi basin extends over states of Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat  Vadodara is the only important urban
having total area of 34,842 Sq km. centre in the basin. There are not many
 It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north industries in the basin.
and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on  Some of the industries are cotton textile,
the east, by the Vindhyas on the south paper, newsprint, drugs and
and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west. pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries
 Mahi is one of the major interstate west are located at Tatlam.
flowing rivers of India.
Luni River
 The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or  Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and
Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland
because its water is brackish below drainage.
Balotra.
 Luni is the only river basin of
any significance in Western
Rajasthan, which form the bulk Page
of arid zone. | 70
 Luni originates from western
slopes of the Aravalli ranges at
an elevation of 772 m near
Ajmer flowing in South West
direction and traversing a course
of 511 km in Rajasthan, it finally
flow into the Rann of Kachchh
(it gets lost in the marsh).
 Most of its tributaries drain the
steep north west of Aravalli hills
and join it on left side. Its total
catchment area falls in
Rajasthan.
 The peculiarity of this river is
that it tends to increase its
width rather than deepening the
bed because the banks are of
soils, which are easily erodible
whereas beds are of sand. The
floods develop and disappear so
rapidly that they have no time to
scour the bed.

West flowing Rivers of the

Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
 About six hundred small streams
originate from the Western Ghats
and flow westwards to fall into
the Arabian Sea.
 The western slopes of the Western Ghats  The Ghaggar is the most important river
receive heavy rainfall from the south-west of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream
monsoons and are able to feed such a large which rises on the lower slopes of the
number of streams. Himalayas and forms boundary between
 Although only about 3% of the areal extent Haryana and Punjab.
flow swiftly down the steep slope and some  It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan
of them make waterfalls. near Hanumangarh after traversing a
 The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made distance of 465 km.
by the Sharavati river is the most famous  Earlier, this river was an affluent of the
waterfall of India. Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is
still traceable.
Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage  Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the
Markanda, the Saraswati and the
 Some rivers of India are not able to reach
Chaitanya.
the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Page
| 71
Page
| 72
 It contains a lot more water in
rainy season when its bed
becomes 10 km wide at places.
 Most of the streams draining
western slopes of the Aravalli
Range dry up immediately after
they enter the sandy arid areas to Page
the west of this range. | 73
Usability of Rivers
 Source of fresh water, irrigation,
hydro-electric production,
navigation etc.
 The Himalayas, Vindhyas,
Satpuras, Aravalis, Maikala,
Chhotanagpur plateau,
Meghalaya plateau, Purvachal,
Western and the Eastern Ghats
offer possibilities of large scale
water power development.
 Sixty per cent of the total river
flow is concentrated in the
Himalayan rivers, 16 per cent in
the Central Indian rivers (the
Narmada, the Tapi, the
Mahanadi, etc.), and the rest in
the rivers of the Deccan plateau.
 The Ganga and the Brahmaputra
in the north and northeastern
part of the country, the Mahanadi
in Odisha, the Godavari and the
Krishna in Andhra and Telangana
the Narmada and the Tapi in
Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal
creeks in coastal states possess
some of the important and useful
waterways of the country.
 In the past they were of great
importance, which suffered a
great deal with the advent of rail
and roads.
 Withdrawal of large quantities of
water for irrigation resulted in dwindling
flow of many rivers.  The term monsoon has been derived from
the Arabic word mausin or from the
 The most important navigable risers are
Malayan word monsin meaning ‘season’.
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the
Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the  Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic
Narmada and the Tapi are navigable near wind movements)(Periodic Winds) which
their mouths only. reverse their direction with the change of
season.
 The monsoon is a double system of
seasonal winds – They flow from sea to
Indian Monsoons land during the summer and from land to
sea during winter.
 Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon  Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).
winds as land and sea breeze on a large  Somali Current (Findlater Current).
scale.  Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.
 Monsoons are peculiar to Indian  Indian Ocean Dipole.
Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of
Central Western Africa etc.. Factors responsible for north-east
 They are more pronounced in the Indian monsoon formation Page
Subcontinent compared to any other  Formation and strengthening of high | 74
region. pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and
 Indian Monsoons are Convection cells on Siberian Plateau in winter.
a very large scale.  Westward migration and subsequent
 They are periodic or secondary winds weakening of high pressure cell in the
which seasonal reversal in wind direction. Southern Indian Ocean.
 India receives south-west monsoon winds  Migration of ITCZ to the south of India.
in summer and north-east monsoon winds
in winter. All these will be discussed in detail.
 South-west monsoons are formed due to Mechanism of Indian Monsoons
intense low pressure system formed over
the Tibetan plateau.  The origin of monsoons is not fully
 North-east monsoons are associated with understood.
high pressure cells over Tibetan and  There are several theories that tried to
Siberian plateaus. explain the mechanism of monsoons.
 South-west monsoons bring intense Classical Theory
rainfall to most of the regions in India and
north-east monsoons bring rainfall to  Monsoons are mentioned in scriptures like
mainly south-eastern coast of India the Rig Veda. But these scriptures didn’t
(Southern coast of Seemandhra and the make any mention of the monsoon
coast of Tamil Nadu.). mechanism.
 Countries like India, Indonesia,  The first scientific study of the monsoon
Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of winds was done by Arab traders.
the annual rainfall during south-west  Arab traders used the sea route to carry
monsoon season where as South East out trade with India and monsoon patterns
China, Japan etc., during north-east were of prime importance for them.
rainfall season.  In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab
explorer, gave an account of the reversal
Factors responsible for south-west
of ocean currents and the monsoon
monsoon formation winds over the north Indian Ocean.
 Intense heating of Tibetan plateau during  In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley
summer months. explained the monsoon as resulting from
 Permanent high pressure cell in the South thermal contrasts between continents
Indian Ocean (east to north-east of and oceans due to their differential
Madagascar in summer). heating.

Factors that influence the onset of Modern Theories

south-west monsoons  Besides differential heating, the
development of monsoon is influenced by
 Above points + the shape of the continents, orography
 Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ). (mountains), and the conditions of air
 Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet). circulation in the upper troposphere {jet
 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone. streams}.
Factors that influence the intensity of  Therefore, Halley's theory has lost much of
south-west monsoons its significance and modern theories based
on air masses and jet stream are becoming
 Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and more relevant.
high pressure over southern Indian Ocean.
Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir
Edmund Halley’s Theory
Summer Monsoon
 In summer the sun’s apparent path is
vertically over the Tropic of Cancer
resulting in high temperature and low Page
pressure in Central Asia. | 75
 The pressure is sufficiently high over
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence
winds flowed from Oceans flow towards
landmass in summer.
 This air flow from sea to land bring heavy
rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.
Winter Monsoon
 In winter the sun’s apparent path is
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
 The north western part of India grows
colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal
and the flow of the monsoon is reversed.
 The basic idea behind Classical theory is
similar to land and sea breeze formation
except that in the case of monsoons the
day and night are replaced by summer and
winter.
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not develop
equally everywhere on earth and the thermal
concept of Halley fails to explain the
intricacies of the monsoons such as the
sudden burst of monsoons, delay in on set of
monsoons sometimes, etc..
Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air
Mass Theory
 According to this theory, the monsoon is
simply a modification of the planetary
winds of the tropics.
 The theory is based on the migration of
ITCZ based on seasons.
Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ [Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone]
 The southeast trade winds in the southern
hemisphere and the northeast trade winds
in the northern hemisphere meet each
other near the equator.
 The meeting place of these winds is known  This is the region of ascending air,
as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone maximum clouds and heavy rainfall.
(ITCZ).  The location of ITCZ shifts north and
south of equator with the change of
season.
 In the summer season, the sun shines  This condition occurs due to weakening of
vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the jet stream due to lesser temperature
ITCZ shifts northwards. contrast between sub-tropics and
 The southeast trade winds of the southern temperate region (Our concern is STJ
hemisphere cross the equator and start only).
blowing in southwest to northeast direction  Usually the trough region [the region
under the influence of Coriolis force. exactly below the jet stream trough] Page
 These displaced trade winds are called creates cyclonic condition (low pressure) at | 76
south-west monsoons when they blow over the surface of earth whereas the ridge
the Indian sub-continent. regions creates anticyclonic condition.
 The front where the south-west monsoons  Troughs create upper level divergence
meet the north-east trade winds is known which is associated with convergence at
as the Monsoon Front (ITCZ). Rainfall the surface (low pressure – cyclonic
occurs along this front. conditions) and ridges create upper level
 In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to 20°- convergence which is associated with
25° N latitude and is located in the Indo- divergence at the surface (high pressure –
Gangetic Plain and the south-west cyclonic conditions).
monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and  These ridges and troughs give rise to jet
the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this streaks which are also responsible for
position is often called the Monsoon cyclonic and anticyclonic weather
Trough [maximum rainfall]. conditions at the surface.
 The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given
the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (NITCZ) in summer
(July – rainy season) and Southern Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in
winter (Jan – dry season).
 NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy
rainfall that effect India.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Jet
Stream Theory
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Modern Theory:
Jet Stream Theory.
 Jet stream Theory is the latest theory
regarding the origin of the monsoons and
has earned worldwide acceptance from the
meteorologists.
 To understand how Jet streams affect
Indian monsoons, we need to know the
basic mechanism of Jet Stream induced
weather conditions.
 The winds leaving the jet streak are rapidly
How Jet Streams Affect Weather? diverging, creating a lower pressure at the
 Jet streams have distinct peaks (ridges) upper level (Tropopause) in the
and troughs. atmosphere. The air below rapidly replaces
 Ridges occur where the warm air mass the upper outflowing winds. This in turn
pushes against the cold air mass. Troughs creates the low pressure at the surface.
occur where cold air mass drops into warm This surface low pressure creates
air. conditions where the surrounding surface
 The region on earth below the trough is at winds rush inwards. The Coriolis effect
low pressure and the region below ridge is creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic
at high pressure. vortex) that is associated with depressions
[low pressure cells].
 The winds entering the jet streak are  Northward movement of the subtropical jet
rapidly converging because of the high is the first indication of the onset of the
pressure at the upper level (Tropopause) in monsoon over India.
the atmosphere. This convergence at upper
troposphere leads to divergence (high
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in
pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic Winter
condition).  Westerly jet stream blows at a very high Page
 The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic speed during winter over the sub-tropical | 77
rotation that is associated with clear zone.
weather.  This jet stream is bifurcated by the
But how does this mechanism of jet streams Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau.
influence Indian Monsoons?  The two branches reunite off the east coast
of China.
Indian Monsoon Mechanism – Role of  The northern branch of this jet stream
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ) blows along the northern edge of the
 Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a significant Tibetan Plateau.
role in both hindering the monsoon winds  The southern branch blows to the south of
as well as in quick onset of monsoons. the Himalayan ranges along 25° north
latitude.
STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet Stream  A strong latitudinal thermal gradient
(differences in temperature), along with
 Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band
other factors, is responsible for the
of fast moving air flowing from west to
development of southerly jet.
east [Westerlies].
 STJ in northern hemisphere flows between
Western Disturbances
25° to 35° N in the upper troposphere at a
height of about 12-14 km (all this already  Meteorologists believe that southern
discussed in previous posts on Jet branch of jet stream exercises a significant
Streams). (Here we will consider STJ only. influence on the winter weather conditions
Polar Jet has no influence on Indian in India.
monsoons).  The upper jet is responsible for steering of
 The wind speeds in a westerly jet stream the western depressions [Western
are commonly 150 to 300 km p.h. with Disturbances] from the Mediterranean
extreme values reaching 400 km p.h. Sea.
The burst of monsoons depends upon the  Some of the depressions continue
upper air circulation which is dominated by eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of jet
STJ. stream confluence about 30° N, 105° E
(near east coast of China).
Seasonal Migration of Sub-Tropical Jet  Winter rain and heat storms in north-
Stream – STJ western plains and occasional heavy
snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
 In winter STJ flows along the southern
these disturbances.
slopes of the Himalayas but in summer it
 These are generally followed by cold waves
shifts northwards, rather dramatically, and
in the whole of northern plains.
flows along the northern edge of Himalayas
in early June and in late summer (July-
 The southern branch is stronger, with an
August) along the northern edge of the
average speed of about 240 km compared
Tibetan Plateau.
with 70 to 90 km p.h. of the northern
 The periodic movement of the Jet stream is branch.
often the indicator of the onset (STJ shits
 Air subsiding beneath this upper westerly
to the north of Himalayas in a matter of
current gives dry out blowing northerly
days) and subsequent withdrawal (STJ
winds from the subtropical anticyclone
returns back to its position – south of
over northwestern India and Pakistan.
Himalayas) of the monsoon.
 Why no south-west monsoons during pressure system]. The easterly winds
winter? become very active in the upper
troposphere and they are associated with
 Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the winds westerly winds in the lower troposphere
that blow over India are mostly offshore –– (south-west monsoon winds).
land to land or land to ocean –– so they  Western and eastern jets flow to the north
carry no moisture). and south of the Himalayas respectively. Page
 Reason 2: During winter, the southern The eastern jet becomes powerful and is | 78
branch of STJ is strong and is to the south stationed at 15° N latitude.
of Himalayas. The ridge of the jet lies over  This results in more active south-west
north-western India and is associated with monsoon and heavy rainfall is caused.
strong divergence of winds and creates a
high pressure region (sub-tropical high Why no south-west monsoons in
pressure belt) over entire north India. [This March – May (summer)?
is how the mechanism of jet streams
 There is good sun’s insolation from March
influence Indian Monsoons in winter
– May but still there is no s-w monsoons.
season]
 Reason 3: There is already a strong high Reason: The ridge region of Southern branch
pressure over Tibet. [High Pressure due to of STJ creates strong divergence (high
STJ + High Pressure over Tibet = strong pressure) in north-west India. The diverging
divergence = no rainfall] air blocks incoming winds and prevents strong
convergence of winds along ITCZ.
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream – STJ in
Summer  During the summer season in the Northern
Hemisphere, low pressure areas develop at
 With the beginning of summer in the the ground surface near Peshawar
month of March, the STJ [upper westerlies] (Pakistan) and north-west India due to
start their northward march. intense heating of ground surface during
 The southerly branch of STJ remains April, May, and June.
positioned south of Tibet, although  As long as the position of the upper air jet
weakening in intensity. stream is maintained above the surface low
 The weather over northern India becomes pressure (to the south of Himalayas), the
hot, dry and squally due to larger incoming dynamic anti-cyclonic conditions persist
solar radiation and hot winds like loo. over north-west India.
 Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ)  The winds descending from the upper air
pushes northwards with the weakening of high pressure [because of the trough of
the STJ [upper westerlies] south of Tibet, STJ] obstructs the ascent of winds from
but the burst of the monsoon does not take the surface low pressure areas, with the
place until the upper-air circulation has result that the weather remains warm and
switched to its summer pattern. dry.
 By the end of May the southern jet breaks  This is why the months of April and May
and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet are generally dry and rainless in spite of
Plateau and there is sudden burst of high temperatures (low pressure on land)
monsoons (the ridge moves northwards and high evaporation.
into Central Asia = high pressure over
north-west India moves northwards into Indian Monsoons – Role of Tropical
Central Asia = makes way for south-west Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet]
monsoon winds). An Easterly jet emerges
 The establishment and maintenance of the
over peninsular India with the northward
TEJ is not fully understood but it is
migration of STJ.
believed that the jet may be caused by the
 The upper air circulations are reversed uniquely high temperatures and heights
with the emergence of Easterly jet over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.
[convergence in upper layers is replaced by  The TEJ plays an important role in kick
divergence == divergence in lower layers is
starting southwest monsoon.
replaced with convergence == high
pressure at lower layers is replaced by low
 This jet descends over the Indian Ocean
(near Madagascar) and intensifies its high
pressure cell so as to move as south-west
monsoon.
Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)
 There are major high velocity winds in the Page
lower troposphere called low-level jets | 79
(LLJs).
 In the tropics, the most prominent of these
are the Somali Jet and the African
Easterly Jet [Tropical Easterly Jet].
 The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature
of the northern hemispheric summer over
southern Asia and northern Africa. The
TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N. Indian Monsoons – Role of Tibet
 It is fairly persistent in its direction, and
 The Tibetan Plateau is an enormous block
intensity from June through the beginning
of highland acting as a formidable barrier.
of October. It’s position fluctuates between
 Due to its protruded height it receives 2-
5° and 20°N.
3°C more insolation than the neighboring
 TEJ comes into existence quickly after the
areas.
STJ has shifted to the north of the
 The plateau affects the atmosphere in two
Himalayas (Early June).
ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier, and (b)
 TEJ flows from east to west over
as a high- level heat sources.
peninsular India at 6 – 9 km and over the
 At the beginning of June the subtropical
Northern African region.
jet stream is completely withdrawn from
 The formation of TEJ results in the
India and occupies a position along 40° N
reversal of upper air circulation patterns
(to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
[High pressure switches to low pressure]
 The plateau accentuates the northward
and leads to the quick onset of monsoons.
displacement of the jet stream. Hence the
 Recent observations have revealed that the
burst of monsoon in June is prompted by
intensity and duration of heating of
the Himalayas and not by the thermally
Tibetan Plateau has a direct bearing on the
induced low pressure cell over Tibet.
amount of rainfall in India by the
(Tibetan plateau is responsible for
monsoons.
south-west monsoons. But it is the STJ
 When the summer temperature of air over that facilitates sudden outburst of
Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long monsoons with its sudden northward
time, it helps in strengthening the easterly migration)
jet and results in heavy rainfall in India.
 In the middle of October the plateau proves
 The easterly jet does not come into to be the most important factor in causing
existence if the snow over the Tibet Plateau the advance of the jet south of the
does not melt. This hampers the Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
occurrence of rainfall in India.
 The winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly
 Therefore, any year of thick and and produces a high pressure cell.
widespread snow over Tibet will be followed (Cyclonic condition over Tibet ceases and
by a year of weak monsoon and less an anticyclonic condition is established).
rainfall. The high pressure cell over Tibet
strengthens N-E monsoons.
 Tibet gets heated in summer and is 2°C to
3°C warmer than the air over the adjoining
regions.
 Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of
heat for the atmosphere, it generates an
 area of rising air (convergence)(intense low  These two jet streams play an important
pressure cell). role in the formation and progression of
 During its ascent the air spreads outwards Indian Monsoons.
in upper troposphere (divergence) and  The progress of the southwest monsoon
gradually sinks (subsidence) over the towards India is greatly aided by the onset
equatorial part of the Indian Ocean. of Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia
 It finally approaches the west coast of and Sahel. Page
India as a return current from a south-  It was observed to flow from Mauritius and | 80
westerly direction and is termed as the northern part of the island of
equatorial westerlies. Madagascar before reaching the coast of
 It picks up moisture from the Indian Ocean Kenya at about 3º S.
and causes rainfall in India and adjoining  It strengthens permanent high near
countries. Madagascar and also helps to drive S-W
monsoons towards India at a greater pace
and intensity.
 The importance of the low level jet arises
from the fact that its path around 9º N
coincides with a zone of coastal upwelling.
 As the strong winds drive away the surface
coastal waters towards the east, extremely
cold water from the depths of the sea rise
upwards to preserve the continuity of
mass.
 The peculiar feature of Somali Current is
reversal in direction with the onset of the
summer monsoon.
 In winter, this current is from north to the
south running southwards from the coast
of Arabia to the east African coastline; but
with the advent of the summer monsoon it
reverses its direction and flows from the
south to the north.

Indian Monsoons – Role of Somali Jet

 Polar and subtropical jet streams are the
permanent jet streams which greatly Indian Monsoons – Role of Indian Ocean
influence the weather of temperate regions. Dipole
 Temporary jet streams are narrow winds
with speeds more than 94 kph in the  Indian ocean Dipole is a recently
upper, middle and sometimes in lower discovered phenomena that has a
troposphere. They are few. Important ones significant influence on Indian monsoons.
are Somali Jet and The African Easterly jet  Indian ocean Dipole is a SST anomaly (Sea
or Tropical Easterly Jet. Surface Temperature Anomaly – different
from normal) that occurs occasionally in
 Northern or Equatorial Indian Ocean while such activity is suppressed near
Region (IOR). Sumatra.
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined  While EQUINOO and IOD go in step during
by the difference in sea surface strong positive IOD events, they do not
temperature between two areas (or poles, always do so.
hence a dipole) – a western pole in the
Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and
How Jet Streams affect the Monsoons
in the Indian Sub-Continent? Page
an eastern pole in the eastern Indian | 81
Ocean south of Indonesia. Summing up all the points above.
 IOD develops in the equatorial region of
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in  As the summer time approaches, there is
October. increased solar heating of the Indian
 With a positive IOD winds over the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.
Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of  In the peak summer months (25th of May –
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results 10th of Jun), with the apparent northward
in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean movement of the sun, the southern branch
near African Coast) being much warmer of the SJT, which flows to the south of the
and eastern Indian Ocean around Himalayas, shifts to the north of the
Indonesia becoming colder and dry. Himalayas.
 In the negative dipole year, reverse  When the sun’s position is about to reach
happens making Indonesia much warmer the Tropic of Cancer (June), the SJT shifts
and rainier. to the north of the Tibetan Plateau (1st of
Jun – 20th of June). The ITCZ is close to
its peak position over the Tibetan Plateau.
 The altitude of the mountains initially
disrupts the jet but once it has cleared the
summits it is able to reform over central
Asia.
 Its movement towards the north is one of
the main features associated with the
onset of the monsoon over India.
 With the northward shift of SJT, an
Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian
plains. It generally forms in the first week
of June and lasts till late October.
 It can be traced in the upper troposphere
right up to the west coast of Africa.
 The northward shift of SJT and ICTZ
moves the subtropical high pressure belt to
the north of the Tibetan Plateau and the
Easterly Jet creates a low pressure region
in the Indian plains (Easterly Jet creates
anticyclonic conditions in upper
 Positive IOD is good for Indian Monsoons troposphere).
as more evaporation occurs in warm water.  This low pressure in the northern plains
 Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric coupled with the intense low of the Tibetan
component of the IOD is named as Plateau leads to the sudden onset of
Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation south-west monsoons (1st of Jun – 20th of
(EQUINOO)(Oscillation of pressure cells June).
between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).  The monsoon cell is situated between the
 During the positive phase of the Indian Ocean (North of Madagascar)(High
‘Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation Pressure Cell) and Tibetan plateau (Low
(EQUINOO),’ there is enhanced cloud Pressure Cell).
formation and rainfall in western part of  In summer the sub-tropical easterly jet
the equatorial ocean near the African coast fluctuates between the plains region of
 India and peninsular India varying the brings with it air masses laden with
intensity of rainfall from location to moisture from the Indian Ocean.
location.  The end of the monsoon season is brought
 During March to May, the building up of about when the atmosphere over the
this cell is blocked by the STJ which tends Tibetan Plateau begins to cool (August –
to blow to the south of the Himalayas October), this enables the STJ to transition
(Northwest India and Plains region are back across the Himalayas. Page
occupied by Subtropical High Pressure  With the southward shift of ITCZ, | 82
Belt. This high pressure belt undermines subtropical high pressure belt returns
the influence of low pressure cell over back to the Indian plains and the rainfall
Tibet). ceases.
 As long as the STJ is in this position the  This leads to the formation of a
development of summer monsoons is anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified
inhibited (the high pressure belt stays over by sinking air masses over India and
north India). relatively moisture free winds that blow
 With the STJ out of the way (high pressure seaward.
belt migrates to the north of Tibet) the sub  This gives rise to relatively settled and dry
continental monsoon cell develops (Somali weather over India during the winter
Jet) very quickly indeed, often in a matter months.
of a few days.
 Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell
by a lower level tropical jet stream which
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Projects to understand monsoons  Details are not necessary. Remember the

names. They can be asked in prelims.
 First attempt was made during MONEX was asked in previous papers.
International India Ocean Expedition
(HOE) from 1962 to 1965.
 It was organized jointly by the Western Disturbances
International Council of Scientific Unions
(ICSU), Scientific Committee on Ocean  In the winter season, the sub-tropical jet
Research (SCOR) and UNESCO with World (STJ) is bifurcated into two branches due
Meteorological Organization (WMO) joining to physical obstruction of the Himalayas
the meteorology programme. and Tibetan Plateau.
 One branch is flows to the south of the
ISMEX Himalayas, while the second branch is
 Two more experiments were conducted, positioned to the north of the Tibetan
jointly, by India and the former USSR in Plateau.
1973 and 1977, with limited participation
from other countries.
 These experiments are known as the Indo-
Soviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX) and
Monsoon-77 respectively.
MONEX
 Data collection effort was made under the
aegis of MONEX-1979.
 It was organised jointly by many
researching organizations and the World
Meteorological Organisation (WMO) under
their World Weather Watch (WWW)
programme.
 It is so far the largest scientific effort made
to understand monsoons.
 The ridge of the jet stream creates standing rabi crops, (wheat, barley,
anticyclonic (with clockwise air circulation) mustard, gram, lentil, etc.).
conditions over North-West India.
 Consequently, the winds tend to descend
over the north-western parts of India,
resulting into the development of
atmospheric stability and dry conditions Page
(anticyclonic condition = no rainfall). | 89
 But the sub-tropical jet (STJ) causes
periodic changes in general weather
conditions.
 The STJ drives the temperate low
pressures over Mediterranean Sea towards
east across Afghanistan, Pakistan and
reach north-west India.
 These storms are residual frontal
cyclones which move at the height of 2000
metres from the mean sea level.
 On an average, 4 to 6 cyclonic waves reach
north-western India between October and
April each year.

Cloudburst in Jammu and Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand

Weather associated with Western

Disturbances
 A cloudburst is an intense torrential
 The arrival of these temperate storms rainfall brought by a thunderstorm that
[remnants of temperate cyclones] [western lasts for a relatively short duration (few
disturbances] causes precipitation leading minutes to few hours).
to an abrupt decrease in air temperature  Cloudburst leads to flash floods and
over North-West India. causes lot of damage to life and property.
 The weather becomes clear after the  Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst.
western disturbances passes away. Cloudburst specifically occurs when an air
 Western Disturbances also bring heavy mass with high humidity is struck at a
snowfall in the Himalayan Region and a place due to various reasons.
cold wave to north Indian plains.  In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia
(Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) saw higher
Importance of Western Disturbances than normal temperatures (highest in in
 The western disturbances affect weather the last 100 years) and there were
conditions during the winter season up to numerous cloudbursts in Jammu and
Patna (Bihar) and give occasional rainfall Kashmir.
which is highly beneficial for the
  The stalled system prevented weather
systems being drawn across Russia and
the obstacle acted as a barrier trapping
hot air to the south and cold air to the
north.
 The consequence of this static mass of hot
air was the heat wave that devastated Page
Russia. | 90
 With the jet stream stalled the Sub-
Tropical Jet was unable to transit across
the Himalayas as it would do ordinarily,
the monsoon cell to the south, fed by
warmer waters in the Indian Ocean, had
nowhere to go and as a consequence it
deposited vast amounts of rain over
Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu
and Kashmir and this led to extensive
 A strong upper-atmospheric high was flooding.
located over European Russia towards the
beginning of summer. Indian Climate
 It diverted the jet stream (meandering of
 India’s climate closely resembles the
Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its rain-
climate that of a tropical country although
giving train (trough) of summer storms
its northern part (north of tropic of cancer)
farther north than usual, giving much of
is situated in the temperate belt.
Southern European Russia drought
 Indian subcontinent is separated from the
conditions.
rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan ranges
 In addition, southern desert heat from
which block the cold air masses moving
central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and
southwards from Central Asia.
North Africa began to flow northward,
 As a result, during winters, the northern
which strengthened this ridge of STJ and
half of India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C than
tightened its hold over the region.
other areas located on same latitudes.
 During summer, due to over the head
position of the sun, the climate in the
southern parts resemble equatorial dry
climate.
 The north Indian plains are under the
influence of hot dry wind called ‘loo’
blowing from the Thar, Baloch and
Iranian Deserts, increasing the
temperatures to a level comparable to that
of the southern parts of the country.
 Thus the whole of India, south of the
Himalayas can be climatically treated as a
tropical country.
 The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian
Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical
tropical monsoon climate.
 So Indian climate, to be precise, is tropical
monsoon type (a distinct wet and dry
climate) rather than just a tropical or half
temperate climate.
Features of Indian Climate
 India has high Regional Climatic Diversity Page
because of its topographical diversity | 91
(location, altitude, distance from sea and
relief).
Rainfall
 The climate in most of the regions is
characterized by distinct wet and dry
seasons. Some places like Thar desert,  Distance from the Sea
Ladakh have no wet season.  The Himalayas
 Mean annual rainfall varies substantially  Physiography
from region to region. Mawsynram and  Monsoon Winds
Cherrapunji in Meghalaya receives around  Upper Air Circulation
1,000 cm of annual rainfall while at
 El Nino and La Nina
Jaisalmer the annual rainfall rarely
 Tropical Cyclones and Western
exceeds 12 cm.
Disturbances
 The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
Odisha see intense rainfall in July and Latitudinal location
August while the Coromandel Coast goes
dry during these months.  The mainland of India extends between
 Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna 8°N to 37°N.
receive south-west monsoon rains by the  Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in
first quarter of June while the rains are tropics and hence receive high solar
awaited till early July at places in insolation. The summer temperatures are
Northwest India. extreme and winters temperatures are
moderate in most of the regions.
Temperature  The northern parts on the other hand lie in
the warm temperate zone. They receive
 Diurnal and annual temperature ranges
comparatively less solar insolation. But
are substantial.
summer are equally hot in north India
 Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur
because of hot local wind called ‘loo’.
in the Thar desert and the highest annual
Winter are very cold due to cold waves
temperature ranges are recorded in the
brought by the western disturbances.
Himalayan regions.
 Some places in Himalayas record low
 Both diurnal and mean annual
temperatures particularly in winter.
temperature ranges are least in coastal
 Coastal regions see moderate climatic
regions.
conditions irrespective of latitudinal
 In December, the temperature may dip to –
position.
40°C at some places in J&K while in many
coastal regions average temperature is 20- Distance from the Sea
25°C.
 Winters are moderately cold in most of the  Coastal regions have moderate or equable
regions while the summers are extremely or maritime climate where as interior
hot. locations are deprived of the moderating
 Himalayan regions experience brutal influence of the sea and experience
winters while the summers are moderate. extreme or continental climate.
 The monsoon winds first reach the coastal
Factors Influencing Indian Climate regions and hence bring good amount of
rainfall.
 Latitudinal location
 Himalayas perpendicular at the Western Ghats and
cause copious rainfall in the Western
 The Himalayas act as a climatic divide Coastal plain and the western slopes of the
between India and Central Asia. Western Ghats.
 During winter, Himalayas protect India  On the contrary, vast areas of
from cold and dry air masses of Central Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana,
Asia. Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in Page
 During monsoon months these mountain rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western | 92
ranges act as an effective physical barrier Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.
for rain bearing south-west monsoon
winds. Why no significant rainfall in Gujarat and
 Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal branch Rajasthan? Explain the formation of Thar
of monsoon winds into two branches – one Desert?
branch flowing along the plain regions  Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and
towards north-west India and the other Gujarat are not obstructed by any
towards South-East Asia. orographic barrier and hence these
 If the Himalayas were not present, the regions receive no rainfall.
monsoon winds would simply move into  [Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to
China and most of the north India would Aravalis and hence there is no orographic
have been a desert. rainfall].
Why rainfall decreases form east to west in  [No convection cell or vertical wind
plains region (Indus-Ganga Plains)? movements arise in Rajasthan and
Gujarat: Monsoon winds blow towards low
 In summer, there are many minor low pressure cells in Tibet and hence only
pressure cells that exist all over the plain horizontal wind movements exist in
region. Gujarat and Rajasthan]
 As the monsoon winds move from east to  [Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In winter
west the moisture levels decrease due to the region experiences strong divergence
successive rainfall at each low pressure because of the STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet.]
regions.
 By the time winds reach western parts of How come Cherrapunji and Mawsynram
the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the receive abnormally high rainfall?
moisture in the monsoon winds in  Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are the
exhausted. wettest places on earth
Then how come Haryana and Punjab not with mean annual
deserts like Rajasthan? rainfall over 1000 cm.
 Copious rainfall in
 They receive rainfall due to Western these places is due to
Disturbances in winter. (In summer the funneling effect
rainfall is very low.) followed by orographic upliftment.
Physiography [Funneling effect = clouds are channeled
into a narrow region between mountains
 Physiography is the most important factor and hence the cloud density is
that determines the mean annual rainfall extraordinary]
received by a region.
Monsoon Winds
Why are some parts in peninsular India
semi-arid?  The most dominating factor of the Indian
climate is the 'monsoon winds'.
 Places on the windward side of an
orographic barrier receive great amount of Important features of Indian Monsoons are
rainfall where as those on the leeward side 1. Sudden onset (sudden burst)
remain arid to semi-arid due to rain- 2. Gradual progress
shadow effect. 3. Gradual retreat
 Example: The south-west monsoon winds 4. Seasonal reversal of winds
from the Arabian sea strike almost
 The complete reversal of the monsoon  Majority of the cyclones originate in the
winds brings about a sudden change in Bay of Bengal and influence the weather
the seasons. conditions during the south-west monsoon
 The harsh summer season suddenly giving season (low intensity cyclones).
way to monsoon or rainy season.  Some cyclones are born during the
 The south-west monsoons from the retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October
Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring and November (high intensity cyclones) Page
rainfall to the entire country. and influence the weather conditions along | 93
 The north-eastern winter monsoon do not the eastern coast of India.
cause much rainfall except along the  The western disturbances originate over
Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting the Mediterranean sea and travel eastward
moisture from the Bay of Bengal. under the influence of westerly jet stream.
 They influence the winter weather
Upper Air Circulation conditions over most of Northern-plains
 The changes in the upper air circulation and Western Himalayan region.
over Indian landmass is brought about by El-Nino, La Nina and ENSO
Jet streams. (Explained in detail in
Indian Monsoons) El Nino
Westerly Jet Stream  Adversely affects monsoon rainfall and
cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
 Westerly jet stream blows at a very high
 Good for cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
speed during winter over the sub-tropical
zone.  Droughts are common during El Nino
events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic
 Southern branch of the jet stream
rainfall.
exercises a significant influence on the
winter weather conditions in India. La Nina
 This jet stream is responsible for bringing
 Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in
western disturbances from the
Bay of Bengal.
Mediterranean region in to the Indian sub-
 Suppressed cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
continent.
 Floods are common.
 Winter rain and heat storms in north-
western plains and occasional heavy ENSO
snowfall in hilly regions are caused by
 Southern Oscillation is simply the
these disturbances.
oscillation or alternating positions of low
 These are generally followed by cold waves
pressure and high pressure cells over
in the whole of northern plains.
eastern and western Pacific.
Easterly Jet Stream  Southern Oscillation coinciding with El
Nino is called ENSO or El Nino Southern
 Reversal in upper air circulation takes
Oscillation. (SO usually coincides with EL
place in summer due to the apparent shift
Nino. This why El Nino is usually referred
of the sun's vertical rays in the northern
to as ENSO)
hemisphere.
 ENSO = [warm water in eastern Pacific +
 The westerly jet stream is replaced by the
low pressure over eastern Pacific] + [cool
easterly jet stream which owes its origin to
water in western Pacific + high pressure in
the heating of the Tibet plateau.
western Pacific]
 This helps in the sudden onset of the
 Climatic conditions same as El Nino.
south-west monsoons.
Indian Climate – Seasons
Tropical Cyclones and Western
Disturbances  The cold weather season or winter season,
 The hot weather season or summer
 Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of
season,
Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence
large parts of the peninsular India.  The south-west monsoon season or Rainy
season, and
 The season of the retreating monsoon or
cool season.

Page
| 94

 Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest place

in India. The minimum temperature
recorded at Dras was – 45°C in 1908.
Pressure in Winter Season

Winter Season in India  High air pressure prevails over large parts
of north-west India due to low
 November – March. January is the coldest temperatures coupled with divergence
month. induced by the ridge of the STJ.
 Sun’s apparent path is to the south of  Pressure is comparatively lower in south
equator. India.
 Clear sky, pleasant weather, low  The winds start blowing from high
temperature, low humidity, high range of pressure area of north-west to low
temperature, cool and slow north-east pressure area of south-east. The wind
trade winds. velocity is low due to low pressure
 The diurnal range of temperature, gradient.
especially in interior parts of the country,  The path of the winds depend on pressure
is very high. gradient and physiography.
Temperature in Winter Season Western Disturbances in Winter
Season
 The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel
to the Tropic of Cancer.  The spell of fine weather over north-
 To the south of this isotherm the western and northern India is often broken
temperatures are above 20°C. Here there is due to inflow of western disturbances.
no distinctly defined winter weather. Some  They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab, and
parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically Haryana.
experiences temperatures near 30°C.  They move eastwards across the sub-
 To the north mean temperatures are below Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh.
21°C and the winter weather is distinct.  They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga
 The mean minimum temperature is about plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
5°C over north-west India and 10°C over
the Gangetic plains.
Page
| 95
 Page
| 96

 After the passage of the disturbance, the minimum temperature by 5° to 10°C

widespread fog and cold waves lowering below normal are experienced.
 Fog lowers visibility and causes great whereas in June, north India has higher
inconvenience for transportation. temperatures.
 In March, the highest temperatures occur
Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season in the southern parts (40-45°C).
 This is the season of least tropical cyclone  In April the highest temperature of about
activity. 45°C is recorded in the northern parts of
 The frequency of tropical cyclones Madhya Pradesh. Page
decreases with the advancement of the  In May the highest temperature shifts to | 97
season. Rajasthan where temperatures as high as
 This is due to low sea surface temperature 48°C may be recorded.
and exit of ITCZ farthest south.  In June the maximum temperature is in
 The storms which are born in the Bay of Punjab and Haryana.
Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy  The highest temperatures recorded are
rainfall. 50.5°C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and
 Some of them cross the southern 50.6°C at Ganganagar on 14th June,
peninsula over to the Arabian Sea. 1935.
 Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea  The highest temperatures are recorded just
and move towards either north or west. before the onset of the southwest
monsoons (late May).
Precipitation in Winter Season  The diurnal range of temperature is also
 The retreating winter monsoons pick up very high. It may be as high as 18°C in
some moisture while crossing the Bay of some parts.
Bengal and cause winter rainfall in Tamil  The maximum summer temperatures are
Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-east comparatively lower in the costal and
Karnataka and south-east Kerala (Usually southern peninsular regions due to
in the first weeks of November). moderating effect of the sea.
 The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75  The temperatures along the west coast are
cm between October and December. comparatively lower than those prevailing
 Most of it occurs along the south-eastern on the east coast due to the prevailing
coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of westerly winds.
Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually  There is large contrast between land and
decreases. sea temperatures.
 The western disturbances also cause a  Northern and central parts of India
little rainfall in north-west India. experience heat waves in this season.
 The amount of rainfall gradually decreases [A heat wave is an abnormally high
from the north and north-west to east (it is temperature experienced by a regions.
opposite in rainy season). Temperature increase of the order of 6° to 7°C
 The northeastern part of India also gets above normal is termed as 'moderate' and 8°C
rainfall during the winter months. and more as 'severe' heat wave]
Summer Season in India  Most of the heat waves develop over
Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location
 March to June. far away from the sea). From here they
 High temperature and low humidity are the spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
chief characteristics.  The strong north westerly winds (caused
 Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon due to strong divergence in north-west
period. India) with a long land journey over hot
Temperature in Summer Season regions check the onward march of the sea
breeze over eastern coastal belt and create
 High sun’s insolation due to apparent heat wave conditions over Odisha and
movement of sun between the equator and Andhra Pradesh.
the Tropic of Cancer.  The heat waves strike by the end of April
 The southern parts of the country are and their maximum occurrence is in May.
distinctly warmer in March and April They last till the onset of southwest
monsoon.
 The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to  They normally originate over Chota Nagpur
5 days. However, heat waves are rare over plateau and are carried eastwards by
the peninsula south of 13°N latitude due to westerly winds.
maritime conditions prevailing there.  The areas with highest incidence of
thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal
Pressure in Summer Season
Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur,
 The atmospheric pressure is low all over Page
the country due to high temperature. | 98
 But strong dynamically induced divergence
over north-west India prevents the onset of
south-west monsoons.
Winds in Summer Season
 There is a marked change in the direction
and speed of the winds from winter.
 The winds are by and large light and
variable.
Loo
 Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch
and Thar deserts.
 In May and June, high temperature in
northwest India builds steep pressure
gradient.
 Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as
loo blows.
 Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M.,
increases gradually and reaches maximum
intensity in the afternoon.
 It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the
per hour and persists for days. adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand.
Andhis Norwesters and Thunderstorms in
 The strong dust storms resulting from the Summer Season
convective phenomena are locally known
as andhis (blinding storms). They move  In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of
like a solid wall of dust and sand. Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the
 The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 direction of squalls is mainly from the
kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few northwest, and they are called norwesters.
metres.  They are often very violent with squall
 Such dust storms are common in speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour.
Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu  Hailstones sometimes accompany showers
region, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and and occasionally attain the size of a golf
Madhya Pradesh. ball.
 They are short lived. The squall and  They cause heavy damage to standing
showers which follow these storms bring crops, trees, buildings, livestock and even
down the temperature sharply temporarily. lead to loss of human lives.
 However, they are, sometimes, useful for
Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam,
Season these storms are known as ‘Barodoli
Chheerha’.
 The strong convectional movements related  The period of maximum occurrence of
to the westerly jet stream lead to these storms is the month of Vaisakh (mid-
thunderstorms in eastern and north- March to mid-April) and hence, they are
eastern part of the country. locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the black
 storms or a mass of dark clouds of  Most of them move away from the Indian
Vaiasakha. coast in a north-westerly direction and
dissipate in the sea.
Convectional Thunderstorms in
 Few originate close to the Indian coast.
Summer Season They move towards the north-east and hit
 In the south the thunderstorms occur in somewhere along the west coast of India.
Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining Precipitation in Summer Season Page
parts of Karnataka (Blossom Showers) | 99
and Tamil Nadu, particularly during  This season is not totally rainless (only one
evenings and nights. per cent of the annual rainfall).
 In the northeastern parts of the country,
Western Disturbances in Summer
dust storms bring little rainfall.
Season
 The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in
 Their frequency and intensity gradually the form of snow caused by western
decrease with advancement of summer. disturbances.
 Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western  The norwesters bring some rainfall in
disturbances visit north-west India in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The
March, April and May respectively. intensity of rainfall is high.
 They cause snowfall in higher reaches of  The rainfall brought by the norwesters is
the Himalayas. known as the spring storm showers.
 This small amount of rainfall is very useful
Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and
 Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of is known as tea showers in Assam.
Bengal and Arabian Sea.  Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka
 A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of receive rainfall from thunderstorms.
Bengal in the month of March but they do  Such showers are called mango showers
not affect the mainland of India. in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh
 Their frequency rises steeply in April and because they are very beneficial to mango
the number of cyclones originating in May crop.
is more than double than those originating  In Karnataka they are called cherry
in April. blossoms due to their effect on the coffee
 About three-fourths of the tropical plantations.
cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and Rainy Season – South West Monsoon
the rest originate in the Arabian Sea. Season
 Most of the depressions in April originate
to the south of 10°N while those originating  South West Monsoon Season – June to
in May are born to the north of this mid-September.
latitude.  South West Monsoon Season is also known
 Most of the storms of this season initially as hot-wet season.
move west or north-west but later they  Sudden onset is the important feature of
recurve northeast and strike Bangladesh South West Monsoons.
and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar.  With the onset of monsoons, temperature
 Very few hit Indian coast while some falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
dissipate over the sea itself.
Temperature during South West
 The whole of the east coast of India, the
coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan Monsoon Season
Coast of Myanmar are liable to be hit by  Sudden onset of South West Monsoons
tropical storms in May. leads to significant fall in temperature [3°
 Many of them are quite severe and cause to 6°C].
heavy damage to life and property.  The temperature remains less uniform
 In the Arabian Sea, major storms are throughout the rainy season.
formed in May between 7° and 12° N  The temperature rises in September with
latitudes. the cease of south-west monsoons.
Page
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 Page
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 There is rise in temperature whenever  The diurnal range of temperature is small

there is break in the monsoons. due to clouds and rains.
 The highest temperatures are experienced  Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they
at places west of the Aravali [38° to 40°C]. come much earlier than normal.
This is due to lack of clouds and hot  Normally the onset occurs between 29th
continental air masses. May and 7th June.
 Other parts of Northwest India also have  The earliest onset was on 11th May in
temperatures above 30°C. 1918 and 1955, while the most delayed
 The temperatures are quite low over the onset was on 18th June in 1972. Page
Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
South West Monsoon – Arabian Sea | 102
 The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and
adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have branch and Bay of Bengal branch
temperatures above 30°C as they receive  Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala
little rainfall during this season. progress in the form of two branches viz.
Pressure and Winds During South West the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of
Monsoon Season Bengal branch.

 Low pressure conditions prevail over

northwest India due to high temperature.
 ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the
Ganga plain. There are frequent changes in
its location depending upon the weather
conditions.
 The atmospheric pressure increases
steadily southwards.
 Over the peninsular region, due to
pressure gradient between north and
south, winds blow in a southwest to
northeast direction from Arabian sea and
Bay of Bengal.
 Their direction undergoes a change in
Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from
east to west.
Rainfall During South West Monsoon
Season
 Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is
received during this season.
 The average rainfall over the plains of India  The Arabian Sea branch gradually
in this season is about 87 per cent. advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai
 Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon by 10th June.
is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar  The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather
Islands. rapidly over most of Assam. The normal
 The advance of the monsoon is much date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the  On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas
Arabian Sea. the Bay branch is deflected westward by
 The normal date of onset of the southwest the Himalayan barrier and it advances up
monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first place the Gangetic plain.
of entry in the mainland of India is 1st  The two branches merge with each other
June. mostly around Delhi to form a single
 The monsoons advance quickly current.
accompanied with a lot of thunder,  Both the branches reach Delhi more or
lightning and heavy downpour. This less at the same time.
sudden onset of rain is termed as  The combined current gradually extends to
monsoon burst. west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
 Rajasthan and finally to Himachal Pradesh  The first stream crosses the Ganga-
and Kashmir. Brahmaputra delta and reaches
 By the end of June the monsoon is usually Meghalaya. Here that the orographic effect
established over most parts of the country. results in intense rainfall. Cherrapunji
 By mid-July, the monsoon extends into receives an annual rainfall of 1,102 cm,
Kashmir and the remaining parts of the major portion of which occurs from June
country. to August. Page
 By this time it reaches Kashmir, it has  Mawsynram (present champion) located | 103
shed most of its moisture. at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to
 Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is the west of Cherrapunji (X champion)
much powerful than the Bay of Bengal records higher annual rainfall of 1,221 cm.
branch for reasons:  Both the stations are located on the
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the
of Bengal, and northern end of a deep valley running from
2. the entire Arabian Sea current south to north.
advances towards India, whereas only a  The second stream of the Bay of Bengal
part of the Bay of Bengal current enters branch moves along Himalayan foothills
India, the remainder proceeding to as they are deflected to the west by the
Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia. Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to
Ganga plain.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest
monsoons is divided into three distinct  The rainfall by this stream is characterized
streams on arriving in the mainland of India. by a steady decline as we move from east
to west up the plain. [Previous Prelims
 The first stream strikes the west coast of Question]
India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of  The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively
over 250 cm. It strike perpendicular to dry during the south-west monsoon period
Western Ghats causing plentiful because of
Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 cm annual 1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian
rainfall on the windward side]. Sea current and
 Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30- 2. Bay of Bengal current which flows
50 cm on the leeward side of the crest. parallel to the coast.
 There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on
the immediate leeward side of the Western
Break in the South West Monsoons
Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts  During the Monsoon season, there are
rising again and the amount of rainfall periods when the Monsoon trough shifts to
increases further east. the foothills of Himalayas, which leads to
 The second stream enters Narmada—Tapi sharp decrease in rainfall over most parts
troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches of the country but increase along the
central India. It does not cause much rain Himalayas and parts of Northeast India
near the coast due to the absence of major and Southern Peninsula.
orographic obstacle across the rift. Some  During July and August, there are certain
parts of central India receive rainfall from periods when the monsoons become weak.
this stream (Ex: Nagpur). Rainfall practically ceases over the country
 The third stream moves parallel to the outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
Aravali Range without causing much peninsula. This is known as break in the
rainfall. Consequently the whole of monsoon.
Rajasthan is a desert area.  Breaks are likely to occur during the
 However, some orographic effect is occurs second week of August and last for a week.
on the south-eastern edge of the Aravali  The breaks are believed to be brought
Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall about by the northward shifting of the
while the surrounding plains have only 60 monsoon trough (minimum low pressure
to 80 cm rainfall. cell in ITCZ). The axis of the trough lies at
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest the foothills of the Himalayas during the
monsoon is divided into two distinct streams. break period.
The monsoon trough is a portion of the  During the break period, heavy rainfall
Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted by occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions
a line on a weather map showing the locations and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
of minimum sea level pressure, and as such,  On an average one or two breaks do occur
is a convergence zone between the wind during the rainy season. 85 out of 100
patterns of the southern and northern years there is a break in the monsoons.
hemispheres.
Advance and Withdrawal of South Page
West Monsoons | 104

Depressions in South West Monsoon  Almost all of them are sucked inward
Season through the deltas of great rivers [They
need moisture to be alive], the Ganga, the
 A major part of the South West Monsoon Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and
rainfall is generated by depressions the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these
[intense low pressure] originating in the areas.
Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some  The location of depressions strongly
depressions develop over land also. coincide with the latitudinal position of
 About 3-4 depressions are formed per ITCZ.
month from June to September.
 Page
| 105

 Most of the depression originate to the  Major part of monsoon rains are received
west of 90⁰ E in Bay of Bengal and move in between June and September.
north-west direction.  Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by
 In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the relief and is orographic in its mode.
depressions move either in north-west or  The amount of rainfall decreases with
in northerly direction and may affect west increasing distance from the sea.
Gujarat or Maharashtra.  The rainless interval during south west
 Storms during August and September are monsoon season is known as ‘breaks’. The
rare and are formed close to Maharashtra- breaks in rainfall are related to tropical
Gujarat coast. cyclones which originate in the Bay of
 Most of the rainfall in central and northern Bengal.
parts of the country is caused by these  There are large scale spatial variations in
depressions. the distribution of rainfall.
 The absence of depressions or a change in  Monsoons often fail to keep date.
their tracks result in deficit or no rain. Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before
the scheduled time causing considerable
Chief Characteristics of South West
damage to the crops.
Monsoon Rainfall
North East Monsoon Season –  In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of
Retreating Monsoon Season Bengal originate between 8°N and 14°N.
 Initially they move in a west or
 Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal northwesterly direction, but many of them
of southwest monsoon [middle of later recurve and move towards the north-
September – November]. east.
 The monsoons withdraw from the extreme  Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross Page
north-west end of the country in or affect the Indian coast. | 106
September, from the peninsula by October  The area’s most vulnerable to these storms
and from the extreme south-eastern tip by include the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu,
December. Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal.
 In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach  Many of the cyclones which strike the
in the first week of July and withdraw from eastern coast of India, south of 15°N
there in the second week of September. latitude cross the southern Peninsula and
 The south-west monsoons reach enter Arabian Sea.
Coromandel coast in the first week of June  During this process, they may weaken, but
and withdraw from there only in the on re-entry over the Arabian sea they
middle of December. intensify into cyclonic storms.
 Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing  The storms of Arabian sea originate
monsoons, the withdrawal is rather between 12°N and 17°N latitudes in
gradual and takes about three months. October and between 8° N and 13° N
Temperature during Retreating latitudes in November.
Monsoon Season  Generally they move away from the coast
in a north-westerly direction. But about
 With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds 25% of them later recurve northeast and
disappear and the sky becomes clear. strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast.
 The day temperature starts falling steeply.  In north-west India the western
 The diurnal range of temperature increases disturbances produce clouding and light
due to lack of cloud cover. rainfall in the otherwise fine weather.
 The precipitation is in the form of snow in
Pressure and Winds during Retreating higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir,
Monsoon Season Himachal Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.
 As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon Precipitation during Retreating
trough weakens and gradually shifts Monsoon Season
southward. Consequently the pressure
gradient is low.  The humidity and cloud cover are much
 Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of reduced with the retreat of the south-west
the north monsoon is not clearly defined. monsoons and most parts of the country
 The direction of winds over large parts of remain without much rainfall.
the country is influenced by the local  October-November is the main rainy
pressure conditions. season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas
of Andhra Pradesh to the south of the
Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon Krishna delta as well as a secondary rainy
Season period for Kerala.
 Most severe and devastating tropical  The retreating monsoons absorb moisture
cyclones originate in the Indian seas while passing over the Bay of Bengal and
especially in the Bay of Bengal. cause this rainfall.
 The highest frequency of the cyclones is in Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons
the month of October and the first half of + Retreating Monsoons]
November.
More cyclones are born in October and then in
Areas of very high rainfall
November and more cyclones originate in the  Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200
Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. cm and above.
 Page
| 107

 These include western side of Western  The average annual rainfall in this belt is
Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in the south 200-400 cm.
to Mumbai in the north].
 Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram,  Stamp used 18°C isotherm of mean
Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of monthly temperature for January to divide
Manipur, Tripura and north-eastern tip of the country into two broad climatic
West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more, regions, viz., temperate or continental
with isolated pockets receiving over 400 zone in the north and tropical zone in the
cm. south.
Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the wettest  This line runs roughly across the root of Page
part of the country with Mawsynram and the peninsula, more or less along or | 108
Cherrapunji getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of parallel to the Tropic of Cancer.
annual rainfall respectively.  The two major climatic regions are further
divided into eleven regions depending upon
Areas of high rainfall the amount of rainfall and temperature.
 100-200 cm annual rainfall. Temperate or Continental India
 Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, 1. The Himalayan region (heavy rainfall)
major part of the northern plain, Odisha, 2. The north-western region (moderate
Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and rainfall)
Tamil Nadu. 3. The arid low land
Isohyet (the line joining places of equal 4. The region of moderate rainfall
rainfall). 5. The transitional zone

Areas of low rainfall Tropical India

1. Region of very heavy rainfall
 50-100 cm annual rainfall.
2. Region of heavy rainfall
 Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra.
3. Region of moderate rainfall
western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
4. The Konkan Coast
Karnataka, eastern Rajasthan, Punjab,
5. The Malabar Coast
Haryana and parts of Uttar Pradesh.
6. Tamil Nadu
Areas of very low rainfall
 These are desert and semi-desert areas
receiving less than 50 cm of annual
rainfall.
 They include large areas of western
Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh
region of Jammu and Kashmir.
Climatic Regions of India
 India has tropical monsoon climate with
large regional variations in terms of rainfall
and temperature.
 While classifying Indian climatic regions,
most geographers have given more
importance to rainfall than to temperature
as variations in rainfall are much more
marked than those of temperature.
Here we will see two classifications - Stamp's
and Koeppen’s. For GS this is more than
enough.
Stamp's Classification of Climatic
Regions of India

Temperate or Continental India

Region Avg Temperature Annual Rainfall

Himalayan Region Sumer = 4°-7°C East = Over 200 cm

Winter = 13°-18°C West = much less

North-western Region Summer = 16°C Below 200 cm Page

Northern parts of Punjab and southern parts Winter = 24°C | 109
of Jammu and Kashmir

Arid Lowland Winter = 16° to 24°C Below 40 cm

Thar desert of Rajasthan, south western part Summer = 48°C
of Haryana and Kachchh of Gujarat

Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 15°-18°C 40 - 80 cm

Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, Summer = 33°-35°C
Union Territory of Delhi, north-west Plateau
area of Madhya Pradesh and eastern
Rajasthan

Transitional Zone Winter = 15°-19°C 100 -150 cm

Summer = 30° - 35°C
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar

Tropical India

Region of very heavy rainfall Winter = 18°C in Over 200

Summer = 32°-35°C
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram and
Nagaland

Region of heavy rainfall Winter = 18°-24°C 100 - 200 cm

Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gangetic West Summer = 29°-35°C
Bengal, Odisha and coastal Andhra Pradesh

Region of moderate rainfall Winter = 18°-24°C 50 -100 cm

Summer = 32°C in
between Western and Eastern Ghats

Konkan Coast Annual = 24°-27°C. Over 200 cm

Mumbai in the north to Goa in the south

Malabar Coast Annual = 27°C Over 250 cm

Goa to Kanniyakumari

Tamil Nadu Annual = 24°C 100 to 150 cm

Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra (Retreating monsoon)
Pradesh
Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic mean monthly temperature and
Regions of India precipitation data.
 Koeppen identified a close relationship
 Koeppen’s Classification of Climatic between the distribution of vegetation and
Regions of India is an empirical climate.
classification based on mean annual and
 He selected certain values of temperature g: Ganges type of annual march of
and precipitation and related them to the temperature; hottest month comes before the
distribution of vegetation and used these solstice and the summer rainy season.
values for classifying the climates. h: average annual temperature under 18°C
 Koeppen recognized five major climatic
groups, four of them are based on m (monsoon): short dry season.
temperature and one on precipitation.  The capital letters S and W are employed Page
 The capital letters: to designate the two subdivisions of dry | 110
1. A, C, D and E delineate humid climates climate:
and 1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
2. B dry climates. 2. arid or desert (W).
[Don’t have to remember all these alphabets.  Capital letters T and F are similarly used
Only remember the climatic regions and their to designate the two subdivisions of polar
characteristics. That’s enough climate
1. tundra (T) and
Alphabet codes will help you to remember the 2. icecap (F).
concept in the long run. But if you found them
hard, just ignore them]

 The climatic groups are subdivided into

types, designated by small letters, based
on seasonality of precipitation and
temperature characteristics.
 The seasons of dryness are indicated by
the small letters : f, m, w and s, where
a) f - no dry season,
b) m - monsoon climate,
c) w - winter dry season and
d) s - summer dry season.
 The above mentioned major climatic types
are further subdivided depending upon the
seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree
of dryness or cold.
a: hot summer, average temperature of the
warmest month over 22°C
c: cool summer, average temperature of the
warmest month under 22°C
f: no dry season
w: dry season in winter
s: dry season in summer  Koeppen divided India into nine climatic
regions making use of the above scheme.
Koeppen’s Scheme – Climatic Regions of India

Climate type Region Annual rainfall

Amw Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
(Monsoon type with
short dry winter
season)

As Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and 75 - 100 cm Page

adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh | 111
(Monsoon type with [wet winters, dry
dry season in high sun summers]
period)

Aw Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring 75 cm

Coromandel and Malabar coastal strips
(Tropical Savanah
type)

BShw Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large 12 to 25 cm

part of Rajasthan and contiguous areas of
(Semi-arid Steppe
Haryana and Gujarat
type)

BWhw Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm

(Hot desert type)

Cwg Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern 100 - 200 cm

Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa Plateau
(Monsoon type with
dry winters)

Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam ~200 cm

(Cold, Humid winters
type with shorter
summer)

Et Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies from

year to year.
(Tundra Type) The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C

E Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Precipitation occurs in

Himachal Pradesh in which the temperature of the form of snow
(Polar Type)
the warmest month varies from 0° to 10°C

Source: Indian Geography KULLAR

Natural Vegetation of India 200 cm or more Evergreen Rain Forests

 Climate, soil and topography are the 100 to 200 cm Monsoon Deciduous
major factors that influence Natural Forests
Vegetation of a place.
 The main climatic factors are rainfall and 50 to 100 cm Drier Deciduous or
temperature. The amount of annual Tropical Savanna
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of
vegetation. 25 to 50 cm Dry Thorny Scrub (Semi-
arid)
Annual Rainfall Type of Vegetation
  Soil is an equally determining factor in few
Below 25 cm Desert (Arid)
regions. Mangrove forests, swamp forests
are some of the examples where soil is the
 Temperature is the major factor in
major factor.
Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 metres.  Topography is responsible for certain
minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal
 As the temperature falls with altitude in
forests, etc.. Page
the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
changes with altitude from tropical to Classification Of Natural Vegetation of | 112
sub-tropical, temperate and finally India
alpine.

 Classification of Natural Vegetation of A. Moist Tropical Forests

India is primarily based on spatial and 1. Tropical Wet Evergreen
annual variations in rainfall. Temperature, 2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen
soil and topography are also considered. 3. Tropical Moist Deciduous
 India's vegetation can be divided into 5 4. Littoral and Swamp
main types and 16 sub-types as given
below. B. Dry Tropical Forest
 1. Tropical Dry Evergreen  Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water
2. Tropical Dry Deciduous lily or pondweed, that grow in saturated
3. Tropical Thorn soil or water, or xerophytic plants, such
C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests as cactus, that grow in extremely dry soil,
mesophytes are ordinary plants that exist
1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill between the two extremes.
2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)  Mesophytic environments are marked by Page
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen average to hot temperatures and soil that | 113
D. Montane Temperate Forests is neither too dry nor too wet.
1. Montane Wet Temperate
 Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
in height.
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
 Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical
E. Alpine Forests rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
1. Sub-Alpine foliage, broken only where it is crossed by
2. Moist Alpine scrub large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
3. Dry Alpine scrub  All plants struggle upwards (most
ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a
Forest Type in India % of Total Area peculiar layer arrangement. The entire
morphology looks like a green carpet when
Tropical Moist 37 viewed from above.
Deciduous  Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot
reach the ground due to thick canopy. The
Tropical Dry Deciduous 28 undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos,
ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Tropical Wet Evergreen 8 Distribution

Sub-Tropical Moist Hill 6 1. Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to

1370 metres above sea level).
Tropical Semi- 4 2. Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
Evergreen 3. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Timber
Rest below 4 %
 Hardwood: The timber of these forests is
Moist Tropical Forests fine-grained, hard and durable.
 It has high commercial value but it is
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or highly challenging to exploit due to dense
Rain Forests undergrowth, absence of pure stands
and lack of transport facilities [Read
Climatic Conditions previous posts on Climatic regions to
1. Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm understand how lumbering industry works
2. The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C in Equatorial Rainforests (hardwood) and
3. The average annual humidity exceeds 77 Taiga Climatic (softwood) conditions].
per cent and  The important species of these forests are
4. The dry season is distinctly short. mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun,
canes, bamboo etc.
Characteristics
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
 Evergreen: Due to high heat and high
humidity, the trees of these forests do not  They are transitional forests between
shed their leaves together. tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
 Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither too deciduous forests.
dry nor too wet type climate.  They are comparatively drier areas
compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.
What are mesophytes?
Climatic Conditions
 Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm  Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
 Mean annual temperature varies from complete undergrowth.
24°C to 27°C  These forests occupy a much larger area
 The relative humidity is about 75 per cent than the evergreen forests but large tracts
 The dry season is not short like in tropical under these forests have been cleared for
evergreen forests. cultivation.
Distribution Distribution Page
| 114
 Western coast  Belt running along the Western Ghats
 Assam surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
 Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas  A strip along the Shiwalik range including
 Odisha and terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
 Andamans.  Manipur and Mizoram.
Characteristics
 The semi-evergreen forests are less dense.
 They are more gregarious [living in flocks
or colonies – more pure stands] than the
wet evergreen forests.
 These forests are characterized by many
species.
 Trees usually have buttressed trunks with
abundant epiphytes.
 The important species are laurel,
rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo –
Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian
chestnut, champa, mango, etc. –  Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and
Himalayan region. Chhattisgarh.
Timber  Chota Nagpur Plateau.
 Most of Odisha.
 Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical
 Parts of West Bengal and
evergreen forests except that these forests
are less dense with more pure stands  Andaman and Nicobar islands.
(timber industry here is better than in Timber
evergreen forests).
 These provide valuable timer like Teak.
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests  The main species found in these forests are
teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun,
Climatic Conditions bamboo, etc.
 Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.  It is comparatively easy to exploit these
 Mean annual temperature of about 27°C forests due to their high degree of
 The average annual relative humidity of 60 gregariousness (more pure stands).
to 75 per cent. Littoral and Swamp Forests
 Spring (between winter and summer) and
summer are dry.  They can survive and grow both in fresh as
well as brackish water (The mixture of
Characteristics
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is
 The trees drop their leaves during the called brackish water and its salinity can
spring and early summer when sufficient range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
moisture is not available.  Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries
 The general appearance is bare in extreme and creeks prone to tidal influences
summers (April-May). (delta or tidal forests).
 Tropical moist deciduous forests present  Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the
irregular top storey [25 to 60 m]. sea or a lake) forests occur at several
places along the coast.
 Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of height on an
the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, average.
the Krishna and the Cauvery. Distribution
 Dense mangroves occur all along the
coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal  Casuarina is the
creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and most popular
mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood. farm forestry in Page
 The most pronounced and the densest is the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, | 115
the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra,
the predominant species is Sundri Gujarat, and Karnataka.
(Heriteera). Benefits
Timber  Reduces damage in the event of natural
 It provides hard and durable timber which calamities.
is used for construction, building purposes  Line planting in the coastal areas helps in
and making boats. controlling the wind force.
 The important species found in these  It is also used for tourism promotion in
forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw view of its ornamental appearance.
pines, canes and palms, etc.  It provides top quality firewood.
 The wood is suitable for paper pulp and
Dry Tropical Forests useful raw material for the manufacture of
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
 It is got some serious medicinal values as
Distribution well.
 Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu. Wasteland development
Climatic Conditions  The characteristics which make it a
 Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the suitable species for wasteland development
north-east monsoon winds in October – include adaptability to wide range of
December]. habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought
resistant, ability to reclaim land and
 Mean annual temperature is about 28°C.
stabilize sand dunes.
 The mean humidity is about 75 per cent.
 Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber,
 The growth of evergreen forests in areas of
watermelons, sesamum, and pulses can
such low rainfall is a bit strange.
also be raised along with the plantation.
Characteristics
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
 Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with
complete canopy. Climatic Conditions
 Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous.
 Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
 The important species are jamun,
tamarind, neem, etc. Characteristics
 Most of the land under these forests has
 These are similar to moist deciduous
been cleared for agriculture or casuarina
forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
plantations.
 The major difference is that they can grow
in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
Casuarina plantation
 They represent a transitional type - moist
 It resembles feathery conifer in general deciduous on the wetter side and thorn
appearance. forests on the drier side.
 They are rapid-growing, carefree species  They have closed but uneven canopy.
for sites and climates as varied as coastal  The forests are composed of a mixture of a
sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot few species of deciduous trees rising up to
humid tropics, and semi-arid regions. a height of 20 metres.
 They have the ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in
 Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the  Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E
ground to permit the growth of grass and longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
climbers. 2000 m.
Distribution Characteristics
 They occur in an irregular wide strip  Forests of evergreen species.
running from the foot of the Himalayas to  Commonly found species are evergreen Page
Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and | 116
Western Ghats and West Bengal. pines.
 The important species are teak, axlewood,  Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows
rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders, non-parasitically on a tree or other plant]
laurel, satinwood, etc. are common.
 Large tracts of this forest have been  These forests are not so distinct in the
cleared for agricultural purposes. southern parts of the country. They occur
 These forests have suffer from over grazing, only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-
fire, etc. 1525 metres above sea level.
 It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not so
Tropical Thorn Forests
luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen.
Climatic Conditions  The higher parts of the Western Ghats
such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of
 Annual rainfall less than 75 cm. the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
 Humidity is less than 50 per cent. highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the
 Mean temperature is 25°-30°C. Aravali Range carry sub-types of these
Characteristics forests.
 The trees are low (6 to 10 metres Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
maximum) and widely scattered.
Distribution
 Acacias and Euphorbias are very
prominent.  Western Himalayas between 73°E and
 The Indian wild date is common. Some 88°E longitudes at elevations between
grasses also grow in the rainy season. 1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
 Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh,
Distribution
Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
 Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western
Timber
Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts
of Saurashtra.  Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree
 Here they degenerate into desert type in which forms pure stands.
the Thar desert.  It provides valuable timber for furniture,
 Such forests also grow on the leeside of the boxes and buildings.
Western Ghats covering large areas of  It is also used for producing resin and
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, turpentine.
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
 The important species are neem, babul,
cactii, etc. Distribution
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests  Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and
the western Himalayas up to about 1000
Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests metres above sea level.
Climatic conditions Climatic Conditions
 Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm.  Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm
 Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C. in December-March).
 Humidity is 80 per cent.  The summers are sufficiently hot and
Distribution winters are very cold.
Characteristics
 Low scrub forest with small evergreen Timber
stunted trees and shrubs.
 It provides fine wood which is of much use
 Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the for construction, timber and railway
most predominant species. sleepers.
Montane Temperate Forests Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
Montane Wet Temperate Forests Climatic Conditions Page
| 117
Climatic Conditions  Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly
 Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above in the form of snow.
sea level Characteristics
 Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm
 Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs
 Mean annual temperature is about 11°C to
in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are
14°C and the
the main trees.
 Average relative humidity is over 80 per
cent. Distribution
Distribution  Such forests are found in the inner dry
ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
 Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in
monsoon is very feeble.
the Eastern Himalayan region.
 Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba,
Characteristics Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
 These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks Alpine Forests
have large girth.
 Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns  Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500.
and other epiphytes.  These forests can be divided into: (1) sub-
 The trees rarely achieve a height of more alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry
than 6 metres. alpine scrub.
 Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch,  The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine
plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, scrub and grasslands.
magnolia, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are  It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-
important species. leaved trees in which the coniferous trees
attain a height of about 30 m while the
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
Climatic Conditions  Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are
important species.
 Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250  The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen
cm dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc.
Distribution which occurs from 3,000 metres and
extends upto snowline.
 Occurs in the temperate zone of the  The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost
Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres. limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs,
 Cover the entire length of this mountain over 3,500 metres above sea level and
range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle,
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim. artemesia etc. are important species.
Characteristics
Soil
 Mainly composed of coniferous species.
 Species occur in mostly pure strands.  Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s
 Trees are 30 to 50 m high. crust comprising rock particles mixed with
 Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are organic matter.
most important trees.  Pedology is the study of soils in their
 They form high but fairly open forest with natural environment. Pedogenesis is the
shrubby undergrowth including oaks, natural process of soil formation that
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
 includes a variety of processes such as  A vertical section through different layers
weathering, leaching, calcification etc.. of the soil is called the soil profile.
 The Soil formation is mainly related to the  Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour,
parent rock material, surface relief, climate depth and chemical composition. These
and natural vegetation. layers are referred to as horizons.
 The soil is formed by the breaking down of  A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel
rocks by the action of wind, water and to the soil surface, whose physical Page
climate. This process is called weathering. characteristics differ from the layers above | 118
and beneath.
Soil Types – Sandy-Clayey-Loamy
 Horizons are defined in most cases by
 The soil is classified on the basis of the obvious physical features, chiefly colour
proportion of particles of various sizes. and texture.
(a) If soil contains greater proportion of  The uppermost horizon is generally dark in
big particles it is called sandy soil. colour as it is rich in humus and minerals.
(b) If the proportion of fine particles is The humus makes the soil fertile and
relatively higher, then it is called provides nutrients to growing plants.
clayey soil.  This layer is generally soft, porous and can
(c) If the amount of large and fine retain more water. It is called the topsoil or
particles is about the same, then the the A-horizon.
soil is called loamy.  The next layer has a lesser amount of
1. Water can drain quickly through the humus but more of minerals. This layer is
spaces between the sand particles. So, generally harder and more compact and is
sandy soils tend to be light, well aerated called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
and dry.  The third layer is the C-horizon, which is
2. Clay particles, being much smaller, pack made up of small lumps of rocks with
tightly together, leaving little space for air. cracks.
Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the
tiny gaps between the particles of clay. So
clay soils have little air. But they are heavy
as they hold more water than the sandy
soils.
3. The best topsoil for growing plants is loam.
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and
another type of soil particle known as silt.
Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The
size of the silt particles is between those of
sand and clay. The loamy soil also has
humus in it. It has the right water holding
capacity for the growth of plants.
 Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable O Horizon
for growing cereals like wheat, and gram.
Such soils are good at retaining water.  Layers dominated by organic material.
 For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic  Some O layers consist of undecomposed or
matter and having a good capacity to partially decomposed litter (such as leaves,
retain water are ideal. needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
 For lentils (masoor) and other pulses,  They may be on top of either mineral or
loamy soils, which drain water easily, are organic soils.
required.
 For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which A Horizon or Surface soil
drain water easily and can hold plenty of  It is the part of top soil.
air, are more suitable.  In this layer, organic matter is mixed with
Soil Profile – Soil Horizon mineral matter.
 It is the layer of mineral soil with the most
organic matter accumulation and soil life.
 This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron,  Relief
clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and  Climate
other soluble constituents.  Natural Vegetation
 When depletion is pronounced, a lighter
colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is Parent Material
apparent at the base of the "A" horizon.  The rocks from which soils are formed are
E horizon called parent materials. Page
 In most of the cases, the parent material | 119
 "E" stands for eluviated layer. determines the colouration, mineral
 It is the horizon that has been significantly composition and texture of the soil.
leached of clay, iron, and aluminum  In some cases, the soil formed may or may
oxides, which leaves a concentration of not have the same physical properties of
resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the the parent rock.
sand and silt sizes.  Climatic factors induce chemical changes
 These are present only in older, well- which also affect physical properties of the
developed soils, and generally occur soil.
between the A and B horizons.  The surface rocks are exposed to the
B Horizon or Subsoil process of weathering. In this process, the
rocks are converted into fine grains and
 It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or provide a base for the soil formation.
physical alteration of parent material.  In Indian Conditions, parent material is
 This layer accumulates all the leached generally categorized into:
minerals from A and E horizon. 1. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic
 Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic rocks
compounds accumulate in this horizon 2. Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
[illuviation (opposite of eluviation)]. 3. Gondwana rocks
4. Deccan basalts
C Horizon or Parent rock 5. Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary
 Weathered parent material accumulates in rocks of extra peninsular India {Rock
this layer, i.e. the parent material in System}
sedimentary deposits. Ancient crystalline and metamorphic
 It is a layer of large unbroken rocks. rocks
 This layer may accumulate the more
soluble compounds (inorganic material).  They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-
Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification
R Horizon or Bedrock of molten magma about 4billion years
 This layer denotes the layer of partially ago)].
weathered bedrock at the base of the soil  They form the ‘Basement Complex’ of
profile. peninsular India.
 Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely  They are basically granites, gniesses and
comprise continuous masses of hard rock. schists.
 Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong  These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic
similarities to this bedrock layer. materials and give rise to red soils on
 These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of weathering.
the other profiles.
Soil formation in Indian Conditions – Factors
that influence soil formation: Parent Material –
Gondwana rocks & Deccan basalts, Relief,
Climate & Natural Vegetation.
Factors that influence soil formation in Indian
Conditions
 Parent Material
 The red colour of these soils is due to the  The relief is the most important factor for
presence of iron oxide. soil formation in places with steep slopes
like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
 Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant
 They are ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 and it hinders soil formation. Example:
m thick). Chambal ravines, higher reaches of
 On weathering they give calcareous Himalayas where there is minimal or no Page
[containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and forest cover (most on the steep southern | 120
argillaceous [consisting of or containing slopes) etc.
clay] soils.  The areas of low relief or gentle slope
 The soil is mostly devoid of metalliferous generally experience deposition and have
minerals. deep soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
 The exceptions in the plateau are river
Gondwana rocks basins where the soil layers are sufficiently
 These rocks are also sedimentary in nature deep.
and they are much younger. Climate
 On weathering they give rise to
comparatively less mature soils.  Temperature and rainfall are the most
 The soil is more or less of uniform important factors in soil formation.
character but of low fertility.  They determine the effectiveness of
weathering of the parent material, the
Deccan basalts quantity of water seeping through the soil
 Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the and the type of micro-organisms present
Peninsular India many hundred million therein.
years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.  Two different parent materials may develop
 Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures the same soil in the same type of climate.
covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq Similarly, the same parent material may
km. produce two different types of soils in two
different types of climates.
 Basalts are rich in titanium, magnetite,
aluminium and magnesium.  The crystalline granites produce laterite
soil in relatively moist parts of the
 Consequently the weathering of these
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in
rocks has given rise to soils of darker
drier areas.
colour.
 Hot summer and low rainfall develops
 The is fertile with high moisture holding
black soil as is found in some parts of
capacity and is popularly known as ‘regur’
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
or black cotton soil.
 In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone
Tertiary and Mesozoic sedimentary give birth to sandy soil under arid climate.
rocks  In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation
always exceeds precipitation. There is little
 Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and vegetation and the soils badly lack humus
Himalayas) India have given rise to soils content. Hence the soils are invariably of
with high porosity. light colour.
 These soils are generally immature recent  In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and
and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation
soils on weathering. makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the
 Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a
clay. These soils have little relation with subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a
the original rocks. class of soil which forms in semiarid and
 On the other hand, the soils of peninsular arid regions. It is rich in calcium
plateau are generally coarse-grained and carbonate and has low soil organic
are closely related to the parent rocks. The matter].
peninsular soils are generally less fertile.
Relief
 In cold climates of the Himalayan region, blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that
the process of vegetation decay is very it resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is
slow and the soils are acidic in nature. called lateritic which literally means
brick.
In areas of heavy rainfall and high
temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. Natural Vegetation
Why?
 Natural vegetation reflects the combined Page
 Torrential rainfall during the rainy season effects of relief and climate. | 121
washes the upper soil and leaches the  The formation and development of soil is
materials into deeper horizon. very much influenced by the growth of
 During the dry summer season the vegetation.
evaporation exceeds precipitation and  The decayed leaf material adds much
through capillary action iron and needed humus to soil thereby increasing
aluminium oxides are transported to the its fertility.
surface making the soil red.  The densely forested areas contain some of
 In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the best soils in India. There is a close
the leached material which goes deep down relationship between the vegetation types
in the horizon is brought up and the and soil types in India.

Major Soil Groups of India

 Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be Chemical properties of Alluvial Soils
divided into soils of peninsular India and
soils of extra-peninsular India.  The proportion of nitrogen is generally low.
 The soils of Peninsular India are formed by  The proportion of Potash, phosphoric acid
the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. and alkalies are adequate
directly from the underlying rocks.  The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary
 Soils of Peninsular India are transported within a wide range.
Page
and re-deposited to a limited extent and Distribution of Alluvial Soils in India | 122
are known as sedentary soils.
 The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed  They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-
due to the depositional work of rivers and Brahmaputra plains except in few places
wind. They are very deep. They are often where the top layer is covered by desert
referred to as transported or azonal soils. sand.
 Major groups:  They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi,
(1) Alluvial soils, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
(2) Black soils, Cauvery, where they are called deltaic
(3) Red soils, alluvium (coastal alluvium)
(4) Laterite and Lateritic soils,  Some alluvial soils are found in the
(5) Forest and Mountain soils, Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts
(6) Arid and Desert soils, of Gujarat.
(7) Saline and Alkaline soils and
(8) Peaty and Marshy soils. Crops in Alluvial Soils

Alluvial Soils  They are mostly flat and regular soils and
are best suited for agriculture.
 Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt  They are best suited to irrigation and
deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra respond well to canal and well/tube-well
rivers. In coastal regions some alluvial irrigation.
deposits are formed due to wave action.  They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat,
 Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
material. Thus the parent material of these oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
soils is of transported origin.
 They are the largest soil group covering Geological divisions of alluvial soils
about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per  Geologically, the alluvium of the Great
cent of the total area. plain of India is divided into newer or
 They support more than 40% of the India’s younger khadar and older bhangar soils.
population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands. Bhabar

Characteristics of Alluvial Soils  The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide

running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a
 They are immature and have weak porous, northern most stretch of Indo-
profiles due to their recent origin. Gangetic plain.
 Most of the soil is loamy. Sandy and  Rivers descending from the Himalayas
clayey soils are not uncommon. deposit their load along the foothills in the
 Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar form of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans
(calcareous concretions) beds are present (often pebbly soils) have merged together to
in some regions along the river terraces. build up the bhabar belt.
 The soil is porous because of its loamy  The porosity of bhabar is the most unique
(equal proportion of sand and clay) nature. feature. The porosity is due to deposition of
 Porosity and texture provide good drainage huge number of pebbles and rock debris
and other conditions favorable for across the alluvial fans.
agriculture.  The streams disappear once they reach the
 These soils are constantly replenished by bhabar region because of this porosity.
the recurrent floods. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river
courses except in the rainy season.
 The area is not suitable for agriculture and sufficiently deep while the later are
only big trees with large roots thrive in this generally shallow.
belt.  These are the region of high temperature
and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil
Terai
group typical to the dry and hot regions of
 Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) the Peninsula.
and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 Page
km wide) to the south of Bhabar running
Characteristics of Black Soils
| 123
parallel to it.  A typical black soil is highly argillaceous
 The underground streams of the Bhabar [Geology (of rocks or sediment) consisting of or
belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy containing clay] with a large clay factor, 62
lowland with silty soils. per cent or more.
 The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and  In general, black soils of uplands are of low
organic matter but are deficient in fertility while those in the valleys are very
phosphate. fertile.
 These soils are generally covered by tall  The black soil is highly retentive of
grasses and forests but are suitable for a moisture. It swells greatly on accumulating
number of crops such as wheat, rice, moisture. Strenuous effort is required to
sugarcane, jute etc.. work on such soil in rainy season as it gets
 This thickly forested region provides very sticky.
shelter to a variety of wild life.  In summer, the moisture evaporates, the
Bhangar soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and
deep cracks. The lower layers can still
 The Bhangar is the older alluvium along retain moisture. The cracks permits
the river beds forming terraces higher than oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths
the flood plain (about 30 metres above the and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
flood level).
 It is of a more clayey composition and is Colour of Black Soils
generally dark colored.  The black colour is due to the presence of
 A few metres below the terrace of the a small proportion of titaniferous
bhangar are beds of lime nodules known magnetite or iron and black constituents of
as kankar. the parent rock.
Khadar  In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra
Pradesh, the black colour is derived from
 The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
and forms the flood plains along the river
 Various tints of the black colour such as
banks.
deep black, medium black, shallow black ,
 The banks are flooded almost every year a mixture of red and black may be found in
and a new layer of alluvium is deposited this group of soils.
with every flood. This makes them the
most fertile soils of Ganges. Chemical Composition of Black Soils
 They are sandy clays and loams, more dry
and leached, less calcareous and  10 per cent of alumina,
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer  9-10 per cent of iron oxide,
of alluvium is deposited by river flood  6-8 per cent of lime and magnesium
almost every year. carbonates,
 Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent)
Black Soils and
 phosphates, nitrogen and humus are low.
 The parent material for most of the black
soil are the volcanic rocks that were Distribution of Black Soils
formed in the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and
the Rajmahal trap).  Spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 per
 In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form cent of the total area) across
the parent material. The former are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of
 Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,  The colour is more due to the wide
Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. diffusion rather than high percentage of
iron oxide content.
Crops in Black Soils
Distribution of Red Soils
 These soils are best suited for cotton crop.
Hence these soils are called as regur and  These soils mostly occur in the regions of
black cotton soils. low rainfall. Page
 Other major crops grown on the black soils  They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 | 124
include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia per cent) of the total area of the country.
tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets.  These soils are spread on almost the whole
 Rice and sugarcane are equally important of Tamil Nadu.
where irrigation facilities are available.  Other regions with red soil include parts of
 Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
also successfully grown on the black soils. Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
 This soil has been used for growing a Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota
variety of crops for centuries without Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar, West
adding fertilizers and manures, with little Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the
or no evidence of exhaustion. eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern
Red Soils states.
 Red soils along with its minor groups form Crops in Red Soils
the largest soil group of India.
 The main parent rocks are crystalline and  The red soils are mostly loamy and hence
metamorphic rocks like acid granites, cannot retain water like the black soils.
gneisses and quartzites.  The red soils, with the proper use of
fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give
Characteristics of Red Soils good yield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
 The texture of these soils can vary from millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and
sand to clay, the majority being loams. fruits.
 On the uplands, the red soils are poor, Laterite – Lateritic Soils
gravelly, and porous. But in the lower
areas they are rich, deep dark and fertile.  Laterite soils are mostly the end products
of weathering.
Chemical Composition of Red Soils  They are formed under conditions of high
 They are acidic mainly due to the nature temperature and heavy rainfall with
of the parent rocks. The alkali content is alternate wet and dry periods.
fair.  Heavy rainfall promotes leaching
 They are poor in lime, magnesia, (nutrients gets washed away by water) of
phosphates, nitrogen and humus. soil whereby lime and silica are leached
 They are fairly rich in potash and away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and
potassium. aluminium compounds is left behind.
 ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They
Color of Red Soils harden greatly on loosing moisture.
 The red colour is due to the presence of  Laterite soils are red in colour due to little
iron oxide. clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
 When limestone, granites, gneisses and Chemical composition of Laterite –
quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed Lateritic Soils
within the rocks remains intact with other
forms of non-soluble materials.  Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric
 In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide oxides.
develops in the clay, when the soil is  They are very poor in lime, magnesia,
present above the water table giving the potash and nitrogen.
soil a characteristic red colour.  Sometimes, the phosphate content may be
high in the form of iron phosphate.
 In wetter places, there may be higher  In the Himalayan region, such soils are
content of humus. mainly found in valleys, less steep and
north facing slopes. The south facing
Distribution of Laterite – Lateritic
slopes are very steep and exposed to
Soils denudation and hence do not support soil
 Laterite soils cover an area of 2.48 lakh sq formation.
km.  Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Page
 Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found Ghats also. | 125
on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 Chemical properties of Forest –
to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Mountain Soils
Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan,
Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.  The forest soils are very rich in humus.
 They also occur at lower levels and in  They are deficient in potash, phosphorus
valleys in several other parts of the and lime.
country.  They require good deal of fertilizers for high
 They are well developed in south yields.
Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and
are widely scattered in other regions.
Crops in Forest – Mountain Soils

Crops in Laterite – Lateritic Soils  They are suitable for plantations of tea,
coffee, spices and tropical fruits in
 Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive peninsular forest region.
leaching.  Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits
 When manured and irrigated, some are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
laterites are suitable for growing
plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
Arid – Desert Soils
cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.  The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand
 In some areas, these soils support grazing (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per
grounds and scrub forests. cent).
Economic value of Laterite – Lateritic  They cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km
Soils (4.32%).
 The presence of sand inhibits soil growth.
 Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable Desertification of neighboring soils is
building material. common due to intrusion of desert sand
 These soils can be easily cut into cakes but under the influence of wind [Aeolian sand].
hardens like iron when exposed to air.
Distribution of Arid – Desert Soils
 As it is the end-product of weathering, it
cannot be weathered much further and is  Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
durable. Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand
here is blown from the Indus basin and the
Forest – Mountain Soils
coast by the prevailing south-west
 These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km monsoon winds.
or 8.67% of the total land area of India.  Sandy soils without clay factor are also
 They are mainly heterogeneous soils common in coastal regions of Odisha,
found on the hill slopes covered by forests. Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
 The formation of these soils is mainly Chemical properties of Arid – Desert
governed by the characteristic deposition
Soils
of organic matter derived from forests and
their character changes with parent  They are usually poor in organic matter.
rocks, ground-configuration and climate.  Some desert soils are alkaline with varying
 Consequently, they differ greatly even if degree of soluble salts like calcium
they occur in close proximity to one carbonate.
another.  Calcium content increases downwards and
Distribution of Forest – Mountain Soils the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
 The phosphate content of these soils is as efflorescences (become covered with salt
high as in normal alluvial soils. particles).
 Nitrogen is originally low but some of it is  Undecomposed rock fragments, on
available in the form of nitrates. weathering, give rise to sodium,
magnesium and calcium salts and
Crops of Arid – Desert Soils sulphurous acid.
 Phosphates and nitrates make these soil  Some of the salts are transported in Page
fertile wherever moisture is available. solution by the rivers. | 126
 There is a possibility of reclaiming these  In regions with low water table, the salts
soils if proper irrigation facilities are percolate into sub soil and in regions with
available. good drainage, the salts are wasted away
 In large areas, only the drought resistant by flowing water.
and salt tolerant crops such as barley,  But in places where the drainage system is
cotton, millets, maize and pulses are poor, the water with high salt
grown. concentration becomes stagnant and
deposits all the salts in the top soil once
Saline – Alkaline Soils the water evaporates.
 In regions with high sub-soil water table,
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is
injurious salts are transferred from below
impregnated (soak or saturate with a
by the capillary action as a result of
substance) with saline and alkaline
evaporation in dry season.

Capillary action
 Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, and
in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
 The force behind capillary action is surface tension.
Surface tension
 Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids (a membrane like surface)
that makes them acquire the least surface area possible.
 Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than
water, to float and stride on the water surface.
 Surface tension offers the necessary buoyant force (buoyancy) required for
an object to float in water [Ships flots because of difference in density
as well surface tension].
What gives water droplet its shape?
 When a water droplet is freely falling, it acquires a spherical shape.
 When a water drop is on a surface, it acquires the shape of a hemisphere
(half a sphere).
 All this is due to surface tension.
This kind of trivial GK can help in many exams.
Distribution of Saline – Alkaline Soils irrigation), Rajasthan and Maharashtra
have this kind of soils.
 Saline and Alkaline Soils occupy 68,000 sq  The accumulation of these salts makes the
km of area. soil infertile and renders it unfit for
 These soils are found in canal irrigated agriculture.
areas and in areas of high sub-soil water  In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of
table. Khambhat are affected by the sea tides
 Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas
Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, comprising the estuaries of the Narmada,
Punjab (side effects of improper or excess
 the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have Problems Of Indian Soils
thus become infertile.
 Along the coastline, saline sea waters  Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal
infiltrate into coastal regions during storm Ravines etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red,
surges (when cyclones make landfall) and lateritic and other soils), desertification
makes the soil unfit for cultivation. The low (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions
lying regions of coastal Andhra Pradesh like parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.),
Page
and Tamil Nadu face this kind of soil waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain)
| 127
degradation. salinity and alkalinity (excessively irrigated
regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka
Peaty – Marshy Soils etc.), wasteland, over exploitation of soils
due to increase in population and rise in
 These are soils with large amount of
living standards and encroachment of
organic matter and considerable amount of
agricultural land due to urban
soluble salts.
 The most humid regions have this type of Soil Degradation
soil.
 They are black, heavy and highly acidic.  Soil degradation is the decline in soil
quality caused by its improper use, usually
Distribution of Peaty – Marshy Soils for agricultural, pastoral, industrial or
 Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of urban purposes.
Kerala where it is called kari.  Soil degradation is a serious global
 Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha environmental problem and may be
and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West exacerbated by climate change. It
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of encompasses physical (soil erosion),
Uttarakhand. chemical (salinity and alkalinity, pollution)
and biological deterioration (pollution and
Chemical Properties of Peaty – Marshy deterioration of vegetal cover).
Soils
We will see pollution and soil degradation
 They are deficient in potash and white studying environment.
phosphate. For now we will study about the rest.
Crops of Peaty – Marshy Soils Soil Erosion
 Most of the peaty soils are under water  Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by
during the rainy season but as soon the agents like wind and water.
rains cease, they are put under paddy  Top soil has most of the nutrients
cultivation. necessary for a plant’s growth. With depth,
Characteristics of Indian Soils the fertility of the soil decreases. Thus,
erosion results in reduction of fertility of
 Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the the soil by washing away the fertile top
peninsular plateau are much older than layer.
the soils of the great northern plain.  Erosion by wind and water is much
 Indian soils are largely deficient in quicker than the soil formation process. So
nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other once fertile soil layer is lost, it requires a
organic materials. lot of time and resources to restore it.
 Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils  Prevention is a more practical measure. It
while hilly and plateau areas depict thin is less time and resource consuming.
soil cover.  In India’s case, the problem of soil erosion
 Some soils like alluvial and black soils are is particularly severe due to over
fertile while some other soils such as dependence on agriculture and improper
laterite, desert and alkaline soils lack in land management.
fertility and do not yield good harvest.  Notable Quotable: “Soil erosion is
 Indian soils have been used for cultivation essentially a problem created by man and
for hundreds of years and have lost much also faced by man himself.”
of their fertility.
 Page
| 128

Water Erosion pattern resembles the shape of a tree. This

is called rill erosion.
 Water erosion leads to rilling, gullying,  With further erosion of the soil, the rills
sheet-wash and rain peeling. deepen and become enlarged and are
 If erosion continues unchecked for a long turned into gullies. Gullies formed over a
time, numerous finger-shaped grooves may large area gives rise to badland
develop in the silt laden soils. The whole topography (Chambal Ravines).
 When a gully bed is eroded further, the bed diameter. This kind of arid soil surface is
gradually deepens and flattens out and a known as desert pavement.
ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine
Extent Of Soil Erosion In India
may extend to 30 metres or more.
 Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to  80 million hectares or about one-fourth of
canyons. Canyons are few hundred meters our total area is exposed to wind and water
deep and wide. (Grand Canyon on erosion. Page
Colorado River).  One-eighth of land has undergone serious | 129
 When the entire top sheet of soil is washed erosion.
away by water or by wind, leaving behind  Wind erosion is a serious problem in arid
barren rock, it is called sheet erosion. and semi-arid parts of north west India.
Sheet erosion attacks a large area of top  About one-ninth of land is subject to
soil and renders the land almost unfit for severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and
cultivation. adjoining areas of Punjab, Haryana,
 In the coastal areas, waves dash along the Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
coast and cause heavy damage to soil.  It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of fertile
During the landfall of cyclones, storm soils is removed by wind every year.
surges destroy beaches and wash away the  The loss due to water erosion is 53.34
top layer. In estuaries, tidal bores cause million hectares annually.
extensive damage to the surrounding
banks. This is called sea erosion. Factors affecting Soil Erosion
 In the higher reaches of the Himalayan
 Intensity and duration of rainfall,
region, soil erosion is caused by sowing
 Wind speed,
moving glaciers. This is called glacial
 Nature of soil and the physiography,
erosion.
 Strong winds in dry areas,
Wind Erosion  Human density,
 Deforestation,
 Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is quite
 Overgrazing,
significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
 Faulty methods of agriculture,
 Winds usually blow at high speeds in
deserts due to absence of trees (physical  Diversion of natural drainage courses,
obstruction).  Wrong orientation of roads and railways,
 These winds remove the fertile, arable, embankments and bridges.
loose soils leaving behind a depression Effects of Soil Erosion
devoid of top soil (the depression formation
in deserts is the first step in Oasis  Fertile top soil is eroded.
formation. Oasis forms in depressions  Flooding and leaching result in loss of
when there is underground water that gets mineral nutrients.
accumulated above rocks).  Ground water level is lowered.
 Desertification around desert regions is  There is decrease in soil moisture.
due to wind erosion.  Desertification.
 Wind erosion is accentuated when the soil  Frequency and intensity of floods and
is dry, soils are subjected to overgrazing drought increases.
and devoid of vegetation cover.  Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and
 Very fine and medium sands are moved by their water holding capacity decreases.
wind in a succession of bounds and leaps,  The incidence and damaging power of
known as saltation. landslides increases.
 Coarse sand is not usually airborne but
rather is rolled along the soil surface. This
Deforestation
type of erosion is called surface creep.  Population explosion has created pressure
 Very coarse sand and gravels are too large on forest land and resources and this
to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils causes deforestation. Deforestation
have surfaces covered with coarse accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation).
fragments larger than 1.00 mm in
 Roots of trees and plants bind the soil Demand for Forest Resources
particles and regulate the flow of water,
 Population pressure coupled with changes
thus saving soil from erosion.
in standard of living have increased the
Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind
demand for forest resources.
and water erosion.
 The large scale damage to soil in Shiwalik Raw Materials
range, the Chos of Punjab, the ravines of  Wood is used as a raw material by various Page
Chambal valley are due to deforestation. industries for making paper, plywood, | 130
Major Causes of Deforestation furniture, match sticks, boxes, crates,
packing cases, etc.
 Indiscriminate felling of trees as a result of  Industries also obtain their raw materials
agricultural operations, urbanization, from plants such as drugs, scents and
industrialization, infrastructure perfumes, resin, gums, waxes, turpentine,
development, mining operations, and use latex and rubber, tannis, alkaloids, bees
of wood for domestic and other purposes, wax.
have resulted in depletion of forests.  This exerted tremendous pressure on
Shifting cultivation forest ecosystem and their unrestricted
exploitation for various other raw materials
 In this practice a patch of land is cleared, is the main cause of degradation of the
vegetation is burned and the ash is mixed forest ecosystem.
with the soil thus adding nutrients to the
soil. Other Causes
 This patch of land is used for raising crops  Deforestation also results from
for two to three years, and the yield is overgrazing, agriculture, mining,
modest. urbanization, flood, fire, pest, diseases,
 Then this area is abandoned and is left to defense and communication activities.
recover its fertility, and the same practice
is repeated elsewhere on a fresh piece of Effects of Deforestation
land.  Closed forests (based on canopy level) have
 This agricultural practice has become being diminished due to deforestation
totally unsustainable due to raid increase leading to increase in degraded forests.
in population pressure in the forested  Forests recycle moisture (natural motors)
areas. from soil into their immediate atmosphere
Development project and Mining by transpiration where it again precipitates
as rain.
 Population pressure and development
 Deforestation results in an immediate
agenda have resulted in indiscriminate
lowering of ground water level (low
development of infrastructure, water
percolation due to quick surface runoff on
reservoirs and dams, hydro power projects,
barren lands) and in long-term reduction
roads and railways etc. This led to greater
of precipitation.
deforestation.
 Due to deforestation, this natural reuse
 Open cast mining has resulted in
cycle is broken and water is lost through
deforestation all over the world.
rapid run off.
Plantation Boom  Much of the mining activity in India is
being carried out in forest regions. The
 Increase in demand for cocoa, coffee, tea,
obvious result is deforestation and soil
sugar, palm oil, rubber etc. have resulted
erosion.
in deforestation in the tropical rainforests.
 Underground mining also significantly
Fuel Requirements denudes forests because timber is used for
 The increasing demand for firewood with supporting the roofs of mine galleries.
ever. growing population increases greater  A large number of abandoned mines are
pressure on the forests, which results in lying in bad shape and are under extensive
increased intensity of deforestation. gully erosion leading to degradation of the
habitat.
 Deforestation affects the biota and  Some of the salts are transported in
neighboring ecosystems, soil erosion, land solution by the rivers.
degradation, alteration of ground water  In regions with low water table (due to over
channels, pollution and scarce. irrigation in canal irrigated areas), the salts
percolate into sub soil and in regions with
Overgrazing
good drainage, the salts are wasted away
 During the rainy season, there is plenty of by flowing water. Page
vegetation and animals get enough fodder.  But in places where the drainage system is | 131
 But during the dry period, there is poor, the water with high salt
shortage of fodder and the grass is grazed concentration becomes stagnant and
to the ground and torn out by the roots by deposits all the salts in the top soil once
animals. the water evaporates.
 This leads to loose structure of the soil and  In regions with high sub-soil water table,
the soil is easily washed away by rains. injurious salts are transferred from below
 Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine by the capillary action as a result of
particles) by the hoofs of animals, and thus evaporation in dry season.
proves detrimental to top soil when heavy  In canal irrigated areas plenty of the water
showers fall on it. is available and the farmers indulge in over
 Soil erosion due to overgrazing is a irrigation of their fields.
common site in the hilly areas.  Under such conditions, the ground water
level rises and saline and alkaline
Faulty Methods of Agriculture efflorescences consisting of salts of
sodium, calcium and magnesium appear
 Much of the soil erosion in India is caused
on the surface as a layer of white salt
by faulty methods of agriculture.
through capillary action.
 Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation and
 Alkalinity implies the dominance of sodium
practice of shifting cultivation are the most
salts, specially sodium carbonate.
adversely affecting methods of agriculture.
 Although salts of alkali are somewhat
 If the fields are ploughed along the slope,
different in their chemical properties from
there is no obstruction to the flow of water
the salts of saline soils both soils occur in
and the water washes away the top soil
the same areas.
easily.
 Sandy soils are more prone to alkalinity
 In some parts of the country, the same
and the loamy soils to salinity-alkalinity.
crop is grown year after year which spoils
 It is estimated that about 80 lakh hectares
the chemical balance of the soil. This soil
is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind of land (2.43% of the country's total area)
is affected by the problem of salinity and
or water.
alkalinity.
 Shifting cultivation practiced in some areas
in the north-eastern states. In this method,  Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in Uttar
a piece of forest land is cleared by felling Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; arid regions
and burning of trees and crops are grown. of Rajasthan, semi-arid areas of
The removal of the forest cover leads to the Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana and Karnataka etc. are facing
exposure of the soil to rains and sun which
results in heavy loss of top soil, especially this problem.
on the hill slopes.  Although Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan
has turned the sandy desert into a
Soil Salinity and Soil Alkalinity granary, it has given birth to serious
problems of salinity and alkalinity.
 In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is
impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) Effects of salinity and alkalinity
with saline and alkaline efflorescences
(become covered with salt particles).  Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect
on soil and reduce soil fertility.
 Undecomposed rock fragments, on
weathering, give rise to sodium,  Cultivation is not possible on saline soils
magnesium and calcium salts and unless they are flushed out with large
sulphurous acid.
 quantities of irrigation water to leach out trees and growing population. Climate
the salts. change have also contributed to the spread
 Choice of crops is limited to salinity of deserts.
tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
Ecological implications of
 Quality of fodder and food produced in
desertification
poor in quality.
 Salinity and alkalinity create difficulties in  Drifting of sand and its accumulation on Page
building and road construction. fertile agricultural land. | 132
 These cause floods due to reduced  Excessive soil erosion by wind and to some
percolation of water. extent by water.
Steps to treat salinity and alkalinity  Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and
other water bodies thereby decreasing their
 Providing outlets for lands to drain out water containing capacity.
excess water and lower water table.  Lowering of water table leading to acute
 Seal leakages from canals, tanks and other water shortage.
water bodies by lining them.  Increase in area under wastelands.
 Making judicious use of irrigation facilities.  Decrease in agricultural production.
 Improve vegetal cover to avoid further  Increase in frequency and intensity of
degradation by planting salt tolerant droughts.
vegetation.
Measures of Controlling
 Crop rotation..
 Liberal application of gypsum to convert Desertification
the alkalies into soluble compounds.  Intensive tree plantation in the transition
 Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric zones.
acid or acid forming substances like  Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts
sulphur and pyrite. with different plant species. Mulches serve
 Organic residues such as rice husks and as an effective physical barrier to the
rice straw can be added to promote moving sand.
formation of mild acid as a result of their  Grazing should be controlled and new
decomposition. pastures should be developed.
 Flushing the salt by flooding the fields with  Indiscriminate felling of trees should be
excess water. However, this practice can banned.
lead to accumulation of saline water in the  Alternative sources of fuel can reduce the
downstream area. demand for fuelwood.
Desertification  Sandy and wastelands should be put to
proper use by judicious planning.
 Desertification is the spread of desert like
conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due to Waterlogging
man's influence or climatic change.  The flat surfaces and depressions results
 A large part of the arid and semi-arid in waterlogging.
region lying between the Indus and the  Waterlogged soils are soaked with water
Aravali range is affected by spreading accumulated during rainy season or due to
desert conditions. leakage from various water sources.
 Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by  Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12
wind. The sand carried by wind is million hectares in India – half of which
deposited on the adjoining fertile lands lies along the coast and the other half in
whose fertility dwindles and slowly the the inland area.
fertile land start merging with the  Waterlogging is believed to be one of the
advancing desert. chief causes of salinity.
 It has been estimated that the Thar Desert  Proper layout of drainage schemes is the
is advancing at an alarming rate of about only way to overcome the menace of
0.5 km per year. waterlogging.
 The process of desertification is attributed
to uncontrolled grazing, reckless felling of
 The basic methods of removing excess  Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips,
water from waterlogged soils are (a) surface parallel to one another. Some strips may
drainage and (b) vertical drainage. be allowed to lie fallow while in others
(a) Surface Drainage. Surface drainage different crops may be sown.
involves the disposal of excess water over  Various crops are harvested at different
ground surface through an open drainage intervals. This ensures that at no time of
system with an adequate outlet. the year the entire area is left bare or Page
(b) Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well from exposed. | 133
which the underlying water is extracted is  The tall growing crops act as wind breaks
defined as vertical drainage. It works well and the strips which are often parallel to
in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped the contours help in increasing water
water is used for irrigating the neighboring absorption by the soil by slowing down run
regions. off.
Soil Conservation Use of Early Maturing Varieties

 Soil conservation is the prevention of soil  Early maturing varieties of crops take less
from erosion or reduced fertility caused by time to mature and thus put lesser
overuse, acidification, salinization or other pressure on the soil. In this way it can help
chemical soil contamination. in reducing the soil erosion.
 Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to Contour Ploughing
Indian agriculture and animal husbandry.
 Notable Quotable from Kullar’s Indian  If ploughing is done at right angles to the
Geography: “With soil conservation people hill slope, the ridges and furrows break the
rise and with its destruction they fall. flow of water down the hill.
Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that  This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies
lays the golden egg.” are less likely to develop and also reduce
run-off so that plants receive more water.
Crop Rotation
Checking Shifting Cultivation
 Adopting sustainable agricultural practices
is the most important measure to conserve  Checking and reducing shifting cultivation
soil. by persuading the tribal people to switch
 In many parts of India, a particular crop is over to settled agriculture is a very effective
sown in the same field year after year. This method of soil conservation.
practice leads to exhaustion of certain  This can be done by making arrangements
nutrients in the soil making it infertile. for their resettlement which involves the
 Crop rotation is a practice in which a provision of residential accommodation,
different crop is cultivated on a piece of agricultural implements, seeds, manures,
land each year. cattle and reclaimed land.
 This helps to conserve soil fertility as
Ploughing the Land in Right Direction
different crops require different nutrients
from the soil. Crop rotation will provide  Ploughing the land in a direction
enough time to restore lost nutrients. perpendicular to wind direction also
 For example, potatoes require much reduces wind velocity and protects the top
potash but wheat requires nitrate. Thus it soil from erosion.
is best to alternate crops in the field.
 Legumes such as peas, beans, and many Mulching
other plants, add nitrates to the soil by  The bare ground (top soil) between
converting free nitrogen in the air into plants is covered with a protective layer
nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus if of organic matter like grass clippings,
they are included in the crop rotation straw, etc.
nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed
with. Benefits
Strip Cropping  Protects the soil from erosion.
 It helps to retain soil moisture.
  Reduces compaction from the impact of  Terracing and contour bunding which
heavy rains. divide the hill slope into numerous small
 Conserves moisture, reducing the need slopes, check the flow of water, promote
for frequent watering. absorption of water by soil and save soil
 Maintains a more even soil from erosion.
temperature.  Retaining walls of terraces control the flow
 Prevents weed growth. of water and help in reducing soil erosion. Page
 Organic mulches also improve the Intercropping | 134
condition of the soil. As these mulches
slowly decompose, they provide organic  Different crops are grown in alternate
matter which helps keep the soil loose. rows and are sown at different times to
protect the soil from rain wash.
Contour barriers
Contour ploughing
 Stones, grass, soil are used to build
barriers along contours. Trenches are
made in front of the barriers to collect
water.
 They intercept downslope flowing water
and soil particles. These barriers slow
down the water movement and reduce
its erosive force. They also filter out and
trap many of the suspended soil
particles, keeping them from being
washed out of the field.
 A long term advantage of barriers is
that soil tends to build up behind them,
creating a terrace effect. Barriers can be
classified as live (strips of living plants),
dead (rocks, crop residues), or mixed (a
combination of the previous two).
Rock dam  Ploughing parallel to the contours of a
 Rocks are piled up across a channel to hill slope to form a natural barrier for
slow down the flow of water. This water to flow down the slope
prevents gullies and further soil loss. Shelter belts or Windbreaks
Terrace farming  In the coastal and dry regions, rows of
 In terracing, a number of terraces are trees are planted to check the wind
cut along the hill slope. movement to protect soil cover.
 These are made on the steep slopes so Sand fences
that flat surfaces are available to grow
crops. They can reduce surface run-off
and soil erosion.

 Sand fences are barriers made of small,

Contour Bunding evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric.
They are erected to reduce wind velocity
 Contour bunding involves the construction and to trap blowing sand. Sand
of banks along the contours. fences can be used as perimeter
 controls around open construction sites
to keep sediments from being blown
offsite by the wind.
Afforestation
 It includes the prevention of forest
destruction along with growing new forests Page
or increase area under forests. | 135
 A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of forest
land was considered healthy for soil and
water conservation for the whole country.
 It was raised to 33 per cent in the second
five year plan – 20 per cent for the plains
and 60 per cent for hilly and mountainous
regions.
Checking Overgrazing
 Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During
the dry period, there is shortage of fodder
and the grass is grazed to the ground and
torn out to the roots by animals. Soil is
pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the
hoofs of animals. All this leads to weak top
layer.
 So overgrazing needs to be checked to
prevent soil erosion.
 This can be done by creating separate
grazing grounds and producing larger
quantities of fodder.
Dams
 Much of the soil erosion by river floods can
be avoided by constructing dams across
the rivers in proper places. This checks the
speed of water and saves soil from erosion.
 But indiscriminate dam construction can
worsen the condition by creating floods
and landslides like it happens in the
Himalayan region.
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