Unit VI

Chapter 12- River Training Structures [2 Lectures]

Syllabus
1. Introduction
2. Classification of rivers
3. Classification based on topography
4. Classification based on regime
5. Classification based on alignment
6. Classification based on source
7. Classification based on Behavior of rivers
8. River training
9. Objectives of river training
10. Classification of river training,
11. Purpose
12. Orientation
13. River training structures
14. Embankment or Levee
15. Guide banks
16. Groynes or spurs
17. Artificial cut off
18. Pitched island
19. Submerged sill or dykes
20. Closing dykes

1. Introduction-
Classification of river training works

1. Embankments:

The floods may be prevented from submerging the country by constructing earth embankments.

They are generally constructed up to a height of 12 m. They are designed and constructed in the

same way as an earth dam. The embankments are generally constructed parallel to the river

channel.

Depending upon the position of the embankments subdivisions made are:

i. Marginal embankments or dykes or levees,

ii. Retired embankments.

The marginal embankments are constructed as close to the banks as possible to restrict the flood

water from submerging the area behind them. Figure 14.4 shows the position of marginal

embankments.

They are designed to hold up the water up to a maximum anticipated HFL without the possibility

of overtopping and with a view to withstand all external pressures. This condition is met with by

providing sufficient freeboard, bed width, top width and stone protection on adequate slopes.
As the height of the embankment increases it becomes necessary to provide key treach, zoned

section etc., to make the embankment stable. Like earth dams embankments are also likely to fail

due to overtopping, piping, rat holes, seepage and caving in of river side sloping face. It is

therefore necessary to adopt adequate sections for various heights.

The following sections are generally adopted for various heights. (Fig. 14.5 a, b, c):

Advantages of Embankments:

(i) They are very widely used river training work.

(ii) It is cheaper and quick as well as simple in construction. They can be constructed with

locally available material.

(iii) Maintenance of embankments is similar to canal bank maintenance and does not involve

intricate methods.

(iv) Embankment can be constructed reach by reach to extend extent of protection.

(v) They protect large areas by comparatively small investment.

Disadvantages of Embankments:

(i) By restricting the waterway it raises the flood levels.

(ii) Unpredictable flood flows attack the embankment and hence chances of its failure are quite

high.

(iii) During flood constant vigil is required on the embankments. It increases cost of

maintenance.

(iv) They interfere in laying irrigation canal system and also reduce cultivable area.

Retired embankments are constructed at a distance from the river banks. Thus retired

embankments are the intermediate type between the case of marginal embankments and river

with no embankments. Retired embankments are generally constructed on a lower ground away

from the banks.

Though they are costly due to increased height and risky, they have some mentionable

advantages:

i. They do not interfere in the process of raising of the ground by deposition of silt.

ii. They make it possible to store more water for longer period.

iii. They provide wider waterway in times of high floods.

2. Guide Banks or Bell’s Bunds:

Rivers in flood plains submerge very large areas during flood periods. Naturally when some

structure is to be constructed across such a river (for example, bridge, weir, etc.), it is very
expensive to construct the work spanning whole width of the river. To economies some training

work may be constructed to confine the flow of water within a reasonable waterway.

Guide banks are meant for guiding and confining the flow in a reasonable waterway at the site of

the structure. The design of the guide banks is based on the theory developed by Mr. Bells.

Hence, guide banks are also known as Bell’s bunds. This river training work has been devised

from a study of the natural river channel in alluvial reach.

The river has a tendency to meander over large width of low lying land thereby flooding it

occasionally. But it was observed that the same stream passes through narrow and deep sections

where high and stiff permanent banks are available on either side without appreciable afflux or

abnormal velocity.

The guide banks guide the river flow past a bridge or any other hydraulic structure without

causing damage to the work and its approaches. The guide banks are constructed parallel or

approximately parallel to the direction of flow. They extend both upstream and downstream of

the abutments of the hydraulic structure. The guide banks may be provided on either side of the

hydraulic structure or on one side as required.

The guide banks consist of four parts mainly:

i. Upstream curved head or impregnable head,

ii. Downstream curved head,

iii. Shank or a straight portion which joins the two curved heads, and

iv. Slope and bed protection, it includes apron.

Generally the core of the bund is built with sand. The sloping faces are protected with stones. An

apron is also provided for protecting the bed against scouring. Sufficient freeboard and top width

are also provided. The curved heads are laid with adequate curvature.

Guide banks mainly serve two purposes:

i. They protect the approach embankment for the bridge from attack of the water. Approach

embankments extend from the bank of the river to the guide banks generally in perpendicular

direction to both.

ii. They control the river and induce it to flow through the bridge more or less axially.

Selection of Site and Section of Guide Banks:

The site for guide banks should be selected in such a way that there is no side channel flowing

parallel to the guide banks. The side channel if present may breach the approach embankment.

The guide banks should be so designed that no swirls are produced.

The top width of bank should not be less than 3 m. Side slopes should be 2:1 and free board 1.25

to 1.50 meters. While providing the free board due weightage should be given for heading up of

the water and also for settlement of banks (generally 10 per cent of height). The inside slope

should be protected with stone pitching and outside slope with good earth.

The waterway is given by Lacey’s regime perimeter formula:

Pw = 4.825 Q1/2

Where Pw is waterway in metres and

Q is discharge in cubic metres/sec. The length of upstream part of the guide bank should be 10

per cent more than the length of a bridge or any other structure between the abutments. The

length of downstream part of the guide bank should be 1/5 of the structure. (Fig. 14.6).
The radius of curvature of the upstream curved head should be such as not to cause intense

eddies. The radius of downstream curved head may be kept half that of upstream curved head.

The heads should be curved well round to the back of the guide bank. Upstream curved head

generally subtends an angle from 120° to 145° to the centre and downstream head from 45° to

90°. The upstream curved head is also called “impregnable head”.

To protect the face of the guide bank at the river bed level a thick stone cover is laid on the bed.

It is called an apron. When the scour undermines the river bed the apron comes down or launches

to cover the face of the scour. Hence it is called Launching apron also. The quantity of stone in

the apron should be adequate to insure complete protection of the scoured face. Figure 14.7

shows the details of a guide bank. After launching, the apron does not remain uniform in

thickness.
Generally apron thickness is kept 1.25 times thickness of the pitching. For rivers in which deep

scour is likely to take place thickness of the apron may be increased to 1.5 times.

3. Spurs or Groynes:

They are the structures constructed transverse to the river flow. They extend from the bank into

the river.

Groynes serve following purposes:

a. They protect the river bank by keeping the flow away from it.

b. They create still pond along a particular bank with the aim of silting up the area in the vicinity.
c. They train the river to flow along a desired course by attracting, deflecting or repelling the

flow.

d. They contract the wide river channel for improving the navigation depth.

Classification of Groynes:

Various classifications of spurs or groynes may be given as mentioned below:

1. Classification according to the method of construction.

(a) Permeable, and

(b) Impermeable.

2. Classification according to the height of the spur below high water.

(a) Submersible, and

(b) Non-submersible.

3. Classification according to the functions served.

(a) Attracting type,

(b) Deflecting type,

(c) Repelling type, and

(d) Sedimenting type.

4. Special type:

For example, Denehy’s “T” headed groynes. Hockey spurs, etc. When a river is to be confined to

a definite channel impermeable type of groyne is most suitable. For excessively silt-laden rivers
permeable groynes are suitable. The groynes may be used singly or in series or in combination

with other training work depending upon the problem in hand.

When training or protection is to be given over a long and straight river reach groynes are used in

series. Spacing of 2 to 2.5 times the length of groynes is a general practice. In a curved reach

river can be trained by limited number of spurs. They can also be used in combination with other

training measures.

4. Impermeable Groynes:

The groynes may be aligned either perpendicular to the bank or inclined, pointing upstream or

downstream. When a groyne points upstream then it is called a repelling groyne. The reason

being, this type has a property of repelling the river flow away from the bank (Fig 14.8) .This is

accomplished by creation of a still pond on the upstream. Obviously the river starts following

beyond the still pond and in the process the river flow goes away from the bank.

On the contrary, when a groyne points downstream it is called an attracting groyne as. It attracts

the river flow towards the bank from which it takes off (Fig. 14.9).
In this case the groyne actually provides a body against which the river current keeps hugging.

The river flow thus remains along the bank permanently. When a groyne of short length is taken

perpendicular to the bank, it only deflects the flow locally. Hence, it is called deflecting groyne

(Fig. 14.10).

After successfully conducting model experiments various designs for groyne heads have been

evolved. A groyne with head normal to the groyne direction of called ‘T’ headed groyne (Fig.

14.11).

From this it is clear that deflecting, repelling, attracting, T headed, hockey type, etc., all come

under the impermeable type of groynes. The section of groyne is like a guide bund or an

embankment (Fig. 14.12). It is protected on both sides by stone pitching or concrete blocks etc.

At the river bed launching apron is also provided. Top of spur is generally kept 3 m wide. Side

slopes of 2:1 is general practice. The spurs are built by sand, gravel and boulders.
5. Permeable Groynes:

Common type of permeable groynes are tree groynes and pile groynes. They are temporary in

nature and get washed away during floods. Therefore they are constructed every time before

floods. A tree groyne consists of a thick wire rope (2.5 cm dia) firmly anchored at one end to the

bank and tied at the other to a heavy buoy. Sometimes this wire may be stretched across the river

and anchored at its ends. It may be supported at intermediate points on tripods.

Entire leafy trees are taken and about 30 cm up the stem a hole is drilled through each tree. Then

an iron ring is drawn through the whole and attached to the wire rope. Dimensions of trees may

vary from 6 to 12 m in height and 0.50 to 1.2 m in girth.

A pile groyne consists of a series of piles driven 6 to 9 m into the bed 2.5 m to 3 m apart. There

may be two or three rows. The rows are spaced 1 to 2 m apart. Each row is closely intertwined

by brushwood branches. For stability upstream row is braced to the downstream row by

transverse laterals and diagonals.

The permeable groynes lower the velocity of flow. As a result sedimentation occurs. Hence

permeable groynes may be said to be of segmenting type according to the function served. The

cost of construction of this type is about 40 per cent that of impermeable type of same length.

This type of groynes may be constructed even if there is flow in the river. Thus construction is

easy and rapid.

To summarise, the factors which influence the choice and design of groynes are:

i. Fall and velocity of flow in the river.

ii. Character of bed load carried by the river.

iii. Depth of waterway, maximum HFL and nature of flood hydrograph.

iv. Width of waterway, at high water, low water, and mean water.

v. Availability of funds and construction materials.

6. Bed Pitching and Bank Revetment:

Sometimes to protect the bed and bank against action of water, protection is provided by laying a

closely packed stone blocks or boulders or even concrete blocks. This permanent revetment and

pitching counteracts the general tendency of the water to notch away the material from bed and

banks.

7. Dredging of River:

To improve navigability of the river channel the river section may need to be excavated. This

excavation is carried out to increase the depth of flow even when there is flow m the river. The

process of underwater excavation is termed dredging. The machinery used for the purpose is

called a dredger. Various types of dredgers are in use for example, dipper dredger, grab dredger,

bucket dredger, suction dredger etc. Figure 14.13 (a, b, c, d) shows various types of dredgers.

Types of Dredgers:

1. Bucket or grab dredger:

It is essentially a stiff leg derrick, or crane fitted with bucket and these are mounted on a barge or

a self propelled vessel. The buckets are of various weight for different kind of material to be

dredged. These also have two types of cutting edges (plain and toothed). The material is either
loaded in the hopper in the vessel (in case of large dredger) or dumped in hopper barges or flat

barges for transporting to dumping places. The dredgers are kept in desired place with the help of

anchors and three spuds provided in the dredger. The capacity of bucket varies from one cubic

metre to eight cubic metres.

2. Dipper dredger:

This consists of a floating power shovel and except for the dragging equipment; it is same as a

Grab dredger. It is used when material is hard such as soft rock, boulders and requires breaking.

3. Ladder dredger:

This consists of a series of buckets attached to an endless chain operating around sheaves at each

end of the frame. This type of dredger is suitable for dredging silt, mud and sand. When self

propelled and provided with hopper the material is filled in hopper and carried away for

dumping. Generally two units of hopper barges and tugs are used to carry the material when

continuous operation is necessary and the dumping ground is far off. Generally these dredgers

are not provided with hoppers so that draft could be reduced.

4. Suction cutter head dredger:

It has a rotary cutter head which carves clay, breaks off chunks of soft rock such as coral and

shale and stirs up gravel and sand so that the pipe carries material to its capacity. The cutter

diameter ranges from 1 to 3 m and the cutter speed is 25 to 30 rpm.

Impeller diameter of the pump range from 75 to 240 cm and pump power 100 HP to 5000 HP

with pump speed varying 600 rpm to 140 rpm. The dredger is provided with large spuds round or

square for anchoring. The process of dredging is very costly and should be adopted only when

the situation demands it seriously