PROFESSIONAL TRAFFIC OPERATIONS ENGINEERS

CERTIFICATION PROGRAM REFRESHER COURSE

MODULE 3

TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
INTERRUPTED FLOW

April 2018

Prepared by

Robert K. Seyfried, PE, PTOE

President
R.K. Seyfried and Associates, Inc.
Evanston, IL

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 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
INTERRUPTED FLOW

INTRODUCTION

Traffic flows can be categorized as either:

 Uninterrupted Flow. Vehicles are

not interrupted by external factors
such as traffic signals, Stop or Yield
signs, or frequent driveway access
points. Uninterrupted flow occurs
on freeways and rural highways with
long segments between controlled
intersections.
 Interrupted Flow. Vehicle flow on
interrupted flow facilities is
influenced by external factors such as
traffic signals, Stop or Yield signs, or
frequent uncontrolled intersections
or high volume driveways. Interrupted flow occurs on urban streets.

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INTERRUPTED FLOW

Traffic on interrupted flow facilities is

influenced by factors external to the traffic
stream such as traffic signals, STOP or
YIELD signs, or frequent uncontrolled
intersections or high volume driveways.
Interrupted flow typically occurs on urban
streets.

Intersection Control
At-grade intersections are some of the most
complex locations within the transportation
system. In urban areas, safety and congestion
problems tend to be concentrated at intersections.

There are three levels of traffic control that can be provided at intersections:
 Uncontrolled where basic rules of the road apply
 STOP or YIELD control; STOP control can be either two-way or multi-way control,
YIELD control includes roundabouts
 Signal control.

The selection of the appropriate level of

control to use is determined by an analysis of
many factors, including traffic volumes,
roadway functional classification, crash
history, roadway geometry, and available
sight distances.

Uncontrolled intersection control is used

where traffic volumes are low and adequate
sight distances are available for drivers to see
vehicles on conflicting approaches.
Adequate sight triangles must be available to
all approaching motorists.

YIELD or two-way STOP-controlled

intersections are used when the right-of-way
is assigned to vehicles on the major street and
minor street traffic must stop or yield before
proceeding through the intersection.
According to the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices (MUTCD), YIELD signs are
warranted:
 On the approaches to a through
street or highway where conditions
are such that a full stop is not always

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 required
 At the second crossroad of a divided highway, where the median width at the
intersection is 30 ft (9 m) or greater. In this case, a STOP or YIELD sign may be
installed at the entrance to the first roadway of a divided highway, and a YIELD sign
may be installed at the entrance to the second roadway
 For a channelized turn lane that is separated from the adjacent travel lanes by an island,
even if the adjacent lanes at the intersection are controlled by a highway traffic control
signal or by a STOP sign
 At an intersection where a special problem exists and where engineering judgment
indicates the problem to be susceptible to correction by use of the YIELD sign
 Facing the entering roadway for a merge-type movement if engineering judgment
indicates that control is needed because acceleration geometry and/or sight distance
is not adequate for merging traffic operation

According to the MUTCD, STOP control on the minor approach(es) should be considered if
engineering judgment indicates that a stop is always required because of one or more of the
following conditions:
 The vehicular traffic volumes on the
through street or highway exceed
6,000 vehicles per day,
 A restricted view exists that requires
road users to stop in order to
adequately observe conflicting traffic
on the through street or highway,
and/or
 Street entering a through highway or
street.
 Crash records indicate that three or
more crashes that are susceptible to
correction by the installation of a STOP sign have been reported within a 12 month
period, or that five or more such crashes have been reported within a 2-year period.
Such crashes include right-angle collisions involving road users on the minor-street
approach failing to yield the right-of-way to traffic on the through street or highway.

Sight distance required for minor-street

STOP control is based on gap acceptance
characteristics of drivers. The required sight
triangles are shown in the figure. AASHTO
design policy assumes that the driver’s eye is
located a minimum of 14.5 ft (4.4 m) from
the near edge of traveled lane of the major
street. The length of the sight triangle along
the major street (ISD) depends on the speed
of traffic on the major street and the time gap
(tg) that drivers on the minor street will
accept, calculated as:

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 ISD = 1.47V x tg (U.S. units)

ISD = 0.278V x tg (metric)

Where ISD = intersection sight distance along the major street (ft or m)
V = speed of traffic on major street (mph or km/h)
tg = time gap (sec)

The recommended time gap is 7.5 seconds for passenger cars making left turns onto a two-
lane major roadway with level grades. If any of these conditions change, the time gap must be
adjusted.

Multi-way STOP control may be used as a

safety measure in limited situations. All-way
STOP control should not be used as a means
of controlling speed by requiring vehicles to
stop. Multi-way STOP signs should be used
when volumes on the intersecting roadways
are about equal. The MUTCD states the
following conditions may warrant a multi-
way STOP sign installation:
A. Where traffic signals are justified, the
multi-way STOP is an interim
measure that can be installed quickly
to control traffic while arrangements
are being made for the installation of the traffic control signal
B. Five or more reported crashes in a 12-mo. period that are susceptible to correction by
a multi-way STOP installation. Such crashes include right-turn and left-turn collisions
as well as right-angle collisions.
C. Minimum volumes:
1) The vehicular volume entering the intersection from the major street approaches
(total of both approaches) averages at least 300 vehicles per hour for any eight
hours of an average day, and
2) The combined vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle volume entering the intersection
from the minor street approaches (total of both approaches) averages at least 200
units per hour for the same eight hours, with an average delay to minor street
vehicular traffic of at least 30 seconds per vehicle during the highest hour, but
3) If the 85th percentile approach speed of the major street traffic exceeds 40 mph
(65 km/h), the minimum vehicular volume warrants are 70 percent of the values
provided in items 1 and 2.
D. Where no single criterion is satisfied, but where Criteria B, C.1, and C.2 are all satisfied
to 80 percent of the minimum values. Criterion C.3 is excluded from this condition.

Traffic Signal Operations

Signal control is the highest form of control at an at-grade intersection. An engineering study
is required to assess the need for a new signal. The MUTCD contains nine warrants for signal

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installation. Satisfaction of one or more
warrants means that a signal may be further
considered for installation (but not
necessarily that it should be installed).
Variables considered in these warrants
include vehicle volumes, pedestrian volumes,
crashes, delay, and system considerations. It
is important to note that a signal should not
be installed solely on the basis of the fact that
one or more of the warrants are met. Other
factors, such the location of the intersection,
availability of other control measures, etc.,
must also be considered.

The efficiency of arterial streets and networks is strongly influenced by the location, spacing,
and operation of traffic signals. It has been estimated that 148,000 of the 240,000 urban
signalized intersections in the United States need physical equipment and timing optimization
upgrading, while another 30,000 signals need optimization only. Traffic signal retiming
projects are extremely cost-effective, with benefit-cost ratios of at least 10:1 when considering
fuel savings only. If reduced delay and stops are considered too, the ratio doubles to about
20:1. Interconnecting previously uncoordinated signals and providing newly optimized timing
plans can result in a 10 to 20 percent reduction in travel time

There are a number of basic signal

improvements that should be considered to
improve flow on the arterial street system:
 Equipment updates allow for
planning of a more comprehensive
set of solutions to improve traffic
flow. An inventory of current
equipment should determine
whether new, more modern
equipment could be used.
 Timing plan improvements
require data collection to update the
signal operation to reflect current conditions. Re-timing signals has been highly
successful in reducing delays and improving traffic flow.
 Coordinated signals include pre-timed, traffic actuated, interconnected actively
managed timing plans, and master controls.
 Traffic signal removal should be considered where conditions no longer warrant or
support their use. Removal of unwarranted signals can reduce delays and unnecessary
stops.
 Ongoing maintenance is required for the large investment in traffic signals to be
cost-effective. As equipment becomes more sophisticated, the skills needed to
maintain the signals become more complex and critical to efficient operation.

Closely spaced or irregularly spaced traffic signals on suburban and urban arterials result in an

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excessive number of stops, unnecessary delay, increased fuel consumption, excessive vehicular
emissions, and high crash rates. Conversely, long and uniform signal spacing permits timing
plans that can efficiently accommodate varying traffic conditions during peak and off-peak
periods.

SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION CAPACITY ANALYSIS

The capacity analysis procedure for
automobile traffic at signalized intersections
involves a number of steps:
 Determine Lane Group Flow Rates. Lane
groups are the basic analysis units.
For each intersection approach,
exclusive left or right-turn lanes are
designated as a lane groups. Any
shared lane is designated as a separate
lane group. Any lanes that are not
exclusive turn lanes or shared lanes
are combined into one lane group.
Approach traffic movements are
assigned to each lane group.
 Determine the Adjusted Saturation Flow Rate. The adjusted saturation flow rate is calculated
for each lane group, starting with an “base” saturation flow rate, and adjusting for
geometric and traffic conditions using the following equation:

𝑠 = 𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑤 𝑓𝐻𝑉𝑔 𝑓𝑝 𝑓𝑏𝑏 𝑓𝑎 𝑓𝐿𝑈 𝑓𝐿𝑇 𝑓𝑅𝑇 𝑓𝐿𝑝𝑏 𝑓𝑅𝑝𝑏 𝑓𝑤𝑧 𝑓𝑚𝑠 𝑓𝑠𝑝

where s = adjusted saturation flow

rate (veh/h/ln)
so = base saturation flow rate
fW = adjustment for lane width
fHVg = adjustment for heavy vehicles
and grades
fp = adjustment for parking activity
fbb = adjustment for blocking effect
of local buses
fa = adjustment for area type (CBD
or non-CBD)
fLU = adjustment for lane utilization
fLT = adjustment for left turns in the
lane group
fRT = adjustment for right turns in the lane group
fLpb = pedestrian adjustment factor for left turn groups
fRpb = pedestrian-bicycle adjustment factor for right turn groups
fwz = adjustment factor for work zone presence
fms = adjustment factor for downstream lane blockage
fsp = adjustment factor for sustained spillback

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 The default value for the base saturation flow rate (s o) is 1,900 pc/h/ln for
metropolitan areas with populations
greater than 250,000. Otherwise it is
1,750 pc/h/ln.
 Determine Proportion of Traffic Arriving
on Green. Control delay and queue
size is highly dependent on the
proportion of vehicles that arrive
during the green and red signal
indications. The estimated
proportion arriving on green is
calculated based on the proportion
of time the signal is green for a lane
group and the quality of signal
system progression.
 Determine Capacity. The capacity of each lane group is calculated as

𝑔
𝑐 =𝑁×𝑠×
𝐶
where c = capacity of the lane
group (veh/h)
s = adjusted saturation flow
rate (veh/h/ln)
g = effective green time for
lane group (sec)
C = cycle length (sec)

 Determine Delay. Control delay for a

lane group is calculated as a basis to
determining level of service. Control delay is the delay attributable to the traffic control
device at the intersection. This includes initial deceleration delay, queue move-up time,
stopped delay, and final acceleration delay. Control delay is calculated as:

𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3

where d = control delay (sec/veh)

d1 = uniform delay
component assuming
uniform vehicle arrivals
d2 = incremental delay
component to account for
the effect of random
arrivals and over-saturation
queues

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 d3 = initial queue delay to account for over-saturated queues that may have
existed before the analysis period
 Determine Level of Service. Level of
service is based on average control
delay per vehicle, and can be
expressed for each lane group, each
approach, and the intersection as a
whole.

Calculation procedures for signalized

intersection capacity analysis are very
complex and difficult to perform “by hand.”
A number of software packages, such as
HCS, are to aid in the computations.
Separate capacity analysis procedures are
contained in the Highway Capacity Manual for pedestrian and bicycle users at signalized
intersections.

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
MANAGEMENT

Transportation System Management (TSM)

strategies have been applied as a means of
addressing congestion and/or safety
problems on the roadway system without
resorting to major construction projects.
TSM techniques try to maximize the
efficiency of the existing roadway system,
using relatively small-scale traffic control
measures. Typical TSM strategies include:

One-way Streets
One-way streets can reduce congestion and
increase capacity by eliminating the friction
between opposing directions of traffic,
simplifying intersection operations, and
utilizing intersection approach widths more
efficiently. One-way operation is especially
advantageous:
 Where large volumes of left turning
vehicles severely impede two-way
operation or where closely spaced
traffic signals make signal
progression inefficient.
 Where adjacent roadways can be paired to form a one-way couple. One-way pairs
should serve approximately the same origins and destinations, have about equal

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 capacity, and have convenient terminals for safe and smooth transition from one-way
to two-way flow
 A grid pattern of one-way streets may
be used to improve access and
circulation within a densely
developed area such as a central
business district. This flow pattern
serves the circulatory types of
movements often found in and near
the central business district.
 Continuous one-way frontage roads
provide an efficient means of
collecting and distributing freeway
access traffic. They also offer a
convenient alternative to travel on the freeway during congested hours or an incident
reduces the number of lanes on the freeway. To be used effectively, one-way frontage
roads must be continuous along a significant length of the freeway corridor to serve
longer distance trips.

Studies have shown that the conversion of two-way streets to one-way flow can reduce the
total crashes by 10 to 50 percent. In particular, intersection crashes such as left-turn, rear-end,
head-on, and pedestrian crashes are generally reduced. A possible negative effect of one-way
street operation is an increase in mid-block lane change crashes.

Other potential advantages of one-way

operation include:
 Left turns are made without opposing
vehicle conflicts, resulting in reduced
crash potential and increased capacity
and efficiency.
 Better multi-lane efficiency for
movement between intersections,
which reduces running time. It is
easier to pass slower-moving vehicles
or double-parked vehicles. Odd-
width streets can be more effectively
utilized. A street with a 33 foot curb-
to-curb width can provide three lanes
if operated in one direction. If the
same street is two-way, it is probably
marked for just one lane in each
direction.
 One-way streets with traffic signals at
major intersections can also provide
better gaps for crossing movements at
unsignalized intersections and

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 driveways. This is particularly the case if the signal system provides for progressive
movement along the arterial.
 Minor one-way streets at signalized intersections can simplify operations. A five-leg
intersection where all streets are two-way requires at least three phases. The same
intersection with the minor leg made one-way away from the intersection might be
operated with two phases, resulting in lower delays at the intersection.
 Temporary one-way streets provide an efficient way of serving special event traffic or
in a case of a major incident which closes other streets or blocks an important
intersection.
 Since capacity is typically increased by one-way operation, it may be possible to permit
parking on-street that would not have been possible with the two-way flow.
 At the intersection with a two-way cross street, the turning paths of some of the larger
design vehicles may swing into the opposing lanes when making a right turn. Since
there is no opposing traffic on one-way streets, the turns of the larger vehicles may be
better accommodated.

Potential disadvantages of one-way

operation include:
 Motorists have to travel farther to
reach their destinations when
considering round trip travel. This
directly increases the total vehicle
miles of travel and fuel consumption
within the system.
 Multi-lane one-way streets do not
have median pedestrian refuge
islands. At traffic signals, the
pedestrian WALK time may exceed
the minimum time needed for cross
street vehicle traffic.
 Turn opportunities are reduced to one-fourth the number of locations available in a
system of two-way streets. Turns are concentrated at the intersections where they can
be made, requiring greater storage lengths or multiple turn lanes.
 When one-way streets become congested, emergency vehicle access is limited. The
emergency vehicle cannot bypass queued traffic as it could on a two-way street.
 Modifications in transit and bus routes may be needed. Transit operators should be
consulted during the alternative evaluation process. Walking distances to bus stops
may also increase.
 Unfamiliar drivers may have greater difficulty finding destinations or understanding
the street pattern. Special attention should be focused on directional traffic controls
and guide signs.
 Business owners, particularly those who rely on attracting customers from passing
traffic, usually object to one-way streets because they may perceive that their exposure
will be reduced.

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  Lane-change crashes at midblock locations may increase with conversion to one-way
flow. Also, left turns from one-way streets seem to result in more pedestrian crashes
at intersections than other turns.

Reversible Lane Control

Reversible lanes provide for one or more lanes which operate in one direction during part of
the day, and in the opposite direction during another part of the day. This may offer the
opportunity to balance the roadway capacity with the directional distribution of traffic during
peak hours.

Possible operational alternatives include:

 Two-way streets on which traffic
flow is reversed in the center lane(s)
 Two-way streets on which the center
lane normally operates as a two way
left turn lane, but is used by through
traffic during the peak hours
 One-way streets on which the flow is
reversed at different periods of the
day
 Two-way streets, which become one-
way during peak hours

Several important factors need to be considered in determining whether or not reversible lanes
are appropriate.

 Evidence of congestion. If severe

congestion is indicated by poor levels
of service during certain periods, the
use of reversible lanes could be
investigated.
 Time of congestion. It should be
established that congestion recurs on
a regular and predictable basis. This
is critical since traffic lanes should
only be reversed at a consistent fixed
time each day.
 Ratio of directional volumes. Lane
reversals to serve the heavier flow take capacity away from the off-peak direction.
Directional traffic counts must be used to determine the appropriate number of lanes
for each direction of travel.
 Capacity at terminal points. There must be adequate capacity at the end points of the
reversible lane system to facilitate smooth transitions between normal and reversible
flow operations. Insufficient terminal capacity can exacerbate congestion and safety
problems or may simply shift the problem elsewhere.

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  Lack of alternatives. Cost factors and right-of-way limitations preclude widening the
existing roadway or providing a parallel facility on a separate right-of-way.

A reversible lane operation has the potential to be one of the most efficient methods of
increasing peak capacity of the current street system. With only minimal expenditures, the
unused capacity of the off-peak direction is tapped to accommodate the demands for the peak
direction. Reversible lanes are especially useful on bridges or tunnels where demands are
concentrated at the crossing of a natural or constructed barrier and the cost of additional
capacity is prohibitive.

However, reversible lane operations must be

carefully designed and operated. Potential
problems include:
 Increased crash frequency may occur
if the lane control methods or
terminal designs are inappropriate.
 Changeover before and after peak
periods may prove difficult.
Typically one or more lanes are
“reversed” during the changeover.
Proposed selection and use of lane
control methods may alleviate this
problem.
 Provision of adequate capacity for the minor direction may be difficult, especially on
four lane streets. Parking prohibitions may be necessary, adding to enforcement costs
and travel inconvenience.
 Since the same lanes are not available in the morning and evening periods, unfamiliar
drivers may be confused even when proper traffic controls are used.

Implementation of reversible lane systems can be accomplished through a variety of traffic

control techniques. One key to successful operation is to keep road users well-informed as to
the current nature of operation. Methods, which do this unequivocally and leave little to the
judgment of road users are preferred. Methods of control include:
 Distinctive pavement markings
(double broken yellow stripes) to
delineate the dividing lines.
 Permanent signs indicating hours
and direction of lane flow. Active
signs, such as internally illuminated,
are preferred.
 Lane control signals mounted over
each lane indicating appropriate lane
usage
 Physical separations, ranging from
traffic cones to movable barriers.

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The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices indicates that reversible lanes may be controlled
using pavement markings and signs without the use of lane use control signals if all of the
following conditions are present:
 Only one lane is reversed in direction,
 An engineering study indicates the use of Reversible Lane Control signs alone would
result in an acceptable level of safety and efficiency, and
 There are no unusual or complex operations

Turn Controls and Treatments

Conflicts between turning vehicles and other
vehicles or pedestrians can cause congestion,
delays, and crashes at intersections and
driveways. In some circumstances, it may be
appropriate to prohibit some or all turning
movements at these locations. Left turns in
particular are of primary concern in terms of
their operational and safety implications.

Before implementing turn prohibitions, the

following factors should be carefully
considered:
 Degree of congestion and delay
caused by turning vehicles
 Frequency and severity of crashes
related to turns. Some studies have
found that turn restrictions may
reduce crashes by as much as 40 to 50
percent.
 Availability of alternative travel
routes
 Impact of traffic diversion on
congestion and safety of locations
expected to accommodate the diverted turning traffic
 Adverse environmental and social impacts of diverted traffic

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It is preferable to develop a plan for
accommodating road user needs, rather than
implementing turn restrictions. Alternative
improvements might include providing
separate left- or right-turn lanes, double-turn
lanes, two-way left turn lanes, left-turn
phasing, or turn restrictions which are limited
to only the peak hours.

Two-way left turn lanes are commonly used

along streets where frequent driveways,
minor intersections, and left turn traffic
create a safety or capacity problem. The major benefit of a two-way left turn lane is the
reduction in rear-end collisions and reduced delay for through traffic. A secondary benefit is
that vehicles turning left onto the arterial can perform the maneuver in two steps: left into the
turning lane followed by a merge into the traffic stream. Factors to consider in implementing
a two-way left-turn lane include effects on capacity, turning volumes, and the location of access
points onto the roadway.

Right turning traffic may be separated from

the rest of the intersection approach by
channelization and controlled by a lesser
regulatory device. If cross street vehicle and
pedestrian traffic are light, a free right turn
movement maximizes capacity for a high-
volume turning movement. However, where
pedestrians are present, it is better to
discourage high speed, uncontrolled right
turns.

Right-turn-on-red (RTOR) has been used as

a means of increasing capacity and reducing
delay. However, RTOR should be restricted
where: a history of RTOR crashes is found,
where departure sight distance is limited, if
the intersection configuration is complex, or
if there is a large number of pedestrians,
especially elderly or child-age pedestrians.

Railroad crossings near signalized

intersections require that notice be given to
drivers of turn restrictions during times when
trains are approaching or occupying the
crossing. Changeable message signs
(internally illuminated, LED, etc.) indicating
the turn prohibitions are effectively used to convey these part-time restrictions to drivers.

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Curb Lane Use Control and Parking Management
Arterial streets should primarily serve the
function of traffic movement. On-street
parking often conflicts with this function.
The roadway width influenced by parked
vehicles is much greater than the physical
space occupied by the parked vehicles.
Friction due to vehicles entering and leaving
parking spaces and car doors opening further
reduces the effective width of the street. This
makes the width of influence of an on-street
parking strip in the range of 12 to 14 feet (3.6
to 4.2 m).

On-street angle parking should only be permitted if a buffer zone can be provided between
the nearest adjacent travel lane and the end of the parking stalls, or where traffic volumes are
low. A buffer zone provides an area outside of a moving lane of traffic for use by vehicles
entering and exiting the angle spaces. If sufficient space is not available for the buffer lane
and parking must be retained on-street, it should occur parallel to the curb. Conversion from
angle to parallel parking has shown crash reductions of 20 to over 50 percent.

Because parking is permitted on many arterial streets, at least to some extent, a set of priorities
must be considered in the use of the curb
lane.
 Movement of traffic is the highest
priority for use of the curb lane
whenever this space is needed for
additional capacity.
 Loading and unloading of delivery
and transit vehicles is the second
priority. If this use is not adequately
accommodated, it often takes place
anyway, usually in less than desirable
locations.
 Time limit parking to provide turnover for short-term (e.g., two-hr. maximum) parking
could be provided as the third priority. Parking meters are useful for encouraging such
turnover.
 Long-term parking should be permitted only if the three preceding priorities are
satisfied. Typically, long-term parking is not permitted on arterial streets.

When on-street parking cannot be totally removed from a length of street, efforts should be
made to remove curb parking in advance of and beyond intersections. Peak period parking
restrictions should be considered where as an alternative to total parking elimination if the
curb lane is needed for capacity reasons only the peak hours.

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Parking restrictions should be indicated by prominent signs at the beginning and ending points
of the restriction, and at frequent intermediate locations along the curb. The number of
different restrictions or hours of applicability at any one location should be kept to a minimum,
and clearly stated on the signs.

Bus stops
Bus stops should be located to maximize
passenger safety and minimize impact on
through traffic flow. Ideally, bus bays can be
provided to allow buses to pull out of traffic
to load and unload passengers. Relocating
bus stops to mid-block or to the far-side of
intersections should be considered improve
visibility of disembarking passengers who
wish to cross the street, and to minimize the
effect of stopped buses on intersection
operations.

ACCESS MANAGEMENT

Access management is the process of

balancing the competing needs of traffic
movement and land access. It is the
systematic control of the location, spacing,
design, and operation of traffic signals, local
street locations, and driveway connections
to a roadway. It also involves roadway design
applications such as median treatments and
auxiliary lanes.

Access management provides reasonable

access to land development while
simultaneously preserving the safe and
efficient flow of traffic on the roadway system. It applies traffic engineering principles to the
location, design, and operation of access drives serving activities along the highway. It
evaluates the suitability of providing access to a given road, as well as the suitability of a site
for land development. It addresses the basic questions: when and where access should be
located and how it should be designed. In broad context, it is resource management, since it
is a way to anticipate and prevent safety problems and congestion.

Access management includes:

 Classifying roadways based upon functional criteria which reflect the importance of
each roadway to statewide, regional, and local mobility
 Defining allowable levels of access for each road class, including criteria for the spacing
of signalized and unsignalized access points
 Applying appropriate geometric design criteria and traffic engineering analysis to the

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 allowable access
 Adopting appropriate regulations and administrative procedures.

The highest levels of control of access location and design are applied to freeways and arterials.
The least access control is applied to local
roads, including minor collectors and local
access roads.

Among the traffic operations tools that are

used in access management are:
 Controlling access to the roadway by
limiting the location and number of
driveways,
 Designing driveways to
accommodate certain movements
through channelization, provision of
acceleration and deceleration lanes,
and other geometric improvements,
 Designing driveways to prohibit certain movements
 Providing raised median treatments to prohibit or limit left-turn access; or to provide
storage space for left turning vehicles,
 Providing two-way, left-turn lanes
 Limiting the number and spacing of traffic signals, and
 Providing frontage roads or other facilities to concentrate access points and
accommodate local circulation off the arterial.
 Eliminating parking areas that may cause conflicts with through traffic.
 Encouraging cross access between adjacent lots.
 Promoting flexible or mixed-use zoning and the minimization of commercial strip
zoning.
 Promoting a unified parking and circulation plan for new developments.

Storage areas for entering and exiting traffic should be sufficiently long to avoid backups of
traffic onto surrounding streets or within a parking facility or drive-up service facility (banks,
toll booths, fast-food restaurants, etc.). The following equations can be used to estimate mean
queue lengths, mean wait time, and the probability that the queue will not exceed a given size
for a single service lane.

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 2
Em 
 (   )

Ew 
 (   )

P (n  N )  ( /  ) N 1

Where Em = Mean queue length (vehicles)

Ew = Mean wait time (minutes)
P(n>N) = Probability that the queue
length will exceed N vehicles
λ = Arrival flow rate (vehicles/minute)
µ = Service flow rate (vehicles/minute)

TRAFFIC CALMING AND SPEED

MANAGEMENT

Residential streets are multipurpose facilities,

shared by pedestrians, bicyclists, automobiles,
public transit, trucks and service vehicles. On
most local streets these street users coexist in
relative safety and harmony. In some
communities there are residential streets on
which motor vehicle traffic has become a
problem. These problems may be related to
traffic volume, traffic speed, road geometry, traffic operations, or any combination of these.
The result is that traffic impacts the street in such a way that the residential streets are no
longer perceived as pleasant or safe for children, pedestrians, bicyclists, or other motorists.

Traffic calming involves altering motorist behavior on a single street or on a street network to
resolve traffic and safety problems on residential streets. The following is the definition of
traffic calming adopted by the Institute of Transportation Engineers:

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 “Traffic calming involves changes in street alignment, installation of barriers, and other
physical measures to reduce traffic
speeds and/or cut-through volumes,
in the interest of street safety,
livability, and other public purposes.”

Traffic calming measures include:

 Physical measures such as speed
humps, traffic circles, curb
extensions and other devices
 Traffic regulations such as STOP
signs, one-way streets, and
reductions in speed limits.

These measures when used alone or in various combinations, and implemented properly, can
be effective in reducing motor vehicle speeds, reducing traffic volumes, and reducing conflicts
between road users, thereby improving the neighborhood environment. They can also have
potentially negative effects on the mobility of the local residents and emergency response times
if implemented improperly.

Although every situation is unique, there are several principles of traffic calming which are
relevant to each situation:
 Identify the real problem. Frequently the
perceived nature of a problem is
substantially different from the real
problem. In some cases, the
difference is so great that a solution
intended to eliminate the perceived
problem might make real problem
worse.
 Quantify the problem. Some problems
are more significant than others.
Some are all-day problems. Others
occur at only at certain times of the
day, or only in one direction.
 First consider improvements to the arterial network. Motorists do not shortcut through
neighborhoods unless there is a reason, and the reason is often congestion on the
nearby arterial.
 Apply traffic calming measures on an area-wide basis, not on a localized site-by-site basis. In
considering measures to resolve a traffic problem in one location, any effects on
adjacent streets must be considered. If these local area effects are not considered in
advance, a traffic calming “solution” might create a new problem in the neighborhood.
 Avoid restricting access and egress. Generally, residents and other members of the
community will be more supportive of traffic calming measures which do not unduly
restrict access into and egress out of a neighborhood. Measures which restrict access

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 might also divert traffic to other streets, creating problems elsewhere in the
neighborhood.
 Use self-enforcing measures. Measures which maintain a 24-hour presence, and do not
require police enforcement to be effective may be preferable. For example, consider
using speed humps instead of posted speed limits, semi-barriers (i.e., access or egress
only) and diverters instead of signed turn prohibitions, and traffic circles instead of
multi-way STOP signs. Measures that can be circumvented, such as a turn prohibition
or partial closure, should be used only at intersections with major roads, where
visibility and the presence of other traffic discourage motorists from disobeying or
ignoring these measures.
 Do not impede non-motorist modes. The purpose of traffic calming is to affect motor
vehicles only, not other modes. Traffic calming measures should be designed to permit
bicyclists and pedestrians to travel unaffected, while slowing down or obstructing
motor vehicles.
 Consider all services, including transit, police, fire, ambulance, and other emergency
services, garbage collection, snow plowing, and street cleaning.
 Monitor and follow-up. It is important to report back to the community and political
decision-makers as to the success of traffic calming measures. This helps to justify
additional expenditures and enhance the credibility of traffic calming efforts.

Traffic calming measures often focus on

“localizing” the character of a street as a
means of reducing through traffic and
lowering speeds. One of the primary
characteristics of an arterial street is its
continuity; a local street which has continuity
may invite diversion of through traffic.
Discontinuities can be created through the
systematic use of cul-de-sacs, diverters,
traffic circles, barrier medians on cross
streets, one-way street patterns, etc. Typical
traffic calming measures include:
 Speed humps, speed tables, raised crosswalks and raised intersections are raised areas of the
roadway surface. If properly designed, such vertical deflections can reduce speeds and
divert through traffic. Speed humps are typically the most frequently used traffic
calming measure.

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  Chicanes consist of a series of two or
more staggered curb extensions on
alternating sides of the roadway,
forcing drivers to follow a curvilinear
path. This encourages drivers to
slow down.
 Curb extensions at intersections and
chokers at midblock locations reduce
street width, resulting in reduced
crossing distances for pedestrians,
increased pedestrian visibility, and
reduced speeds due to narrower
roadway widths.
 Directional closures (semi-diverters) are devices which bar traffic in one direction on a
street while permitting travel in the other direction. Because semi-diverters block only
half the street, they are easily violated by motorists who are so inclined. But this same
property makes them a minimal impediment to emergency vehicles.
 Median islands can be used to narrow the local street and provide pedestrian refuge.
Medians on arterial streets which are continuous through local street intersections can
be employed to prevent left turn entries to local streets from the arterial and to prevent
through traffic flows on local streets from one residential area to another across an
arterial.
 Right turn in/out islands are raised triangular islands at an intersection which prevent left
turns and through traffic movements to and from the side street, thereby blocking
short-cutting or through traffic.
 Traffic circles have been used at low-
volume, local street intersections to
control speed and reduce conflicts.
A traffic circle is a raised island
located in the center of the
intersection. STOP or YIELD signs
should not be used with traffic
circles. Traffic is forced to slow
down in negotiating its way around
these circles.
 Diagonal diverter is a barrier placed
diagonally across a four-legged
intersection to convert it into two unconnected streets, each making a sharp turn. By
interrupting street continuity in a neighborhood, a system of diverters can prevent or
significantly discourage shortcutting or through traffic.
 Full closure (cul-de-sac) entirely eliminates all non-local traffic from a street. It may be
retrofitted to an existing street either at an intersection or at midblock to completely
close the street. It provides a stronger traffic restraint than the diagonal diverter.

Passive controls involve the use of regulatory signs and markings to inform the driver that a
specific action is not permitted, while not physically preventing the action. As such, passive

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controls are more easily violated than most physical controls. Their advantages include the
fact that some can be in force during only portions of the day. They also impose fewer
constraints on emergency vehicles, which can ignore them when necessary with little problem
or hazard. Experience has shown that even with the violations, some passive controls produce
a significant improvement in the volume and speed of traffic on local streets.
 One-way signs can substantially
discourage through traffic by
creating system discontinuities.
One-way streets may also result in
substantial reductions in crashes at
local street intersections by reducing
potential traffic conflicts. In some
cases, one-way “mazes” have been
created to discourage through traffic
in a neighborhood. If not carefully
designed, such one-way patterns may
result in substantial inconvenience
for local residents and visitors.
 Turn prohibitions involve the use of standard “No Right-Turn” or “No Left-Turn”
signs, with or without peak hour limitations. These signs prohibit turning movements
onto local streets, thereby reducing volume. They are best used at the periphery of a
residential area rather than within it. Turn prohibitions are generally more effective
and more easily enforceable than “No Thru Traffic” prohibitions used under similar
conditions.
 STOP signs have frequently been used in attempts to control traffic volumes and speeds
on local streets. Such use of STOP signs is generally inappropriate and ineffective for
speed control, and excessive use of them (especially multi-way STOPs) breeds
contempt for all traffic control devices. Speed reductions are generally limited to
within about 200 feet (60 m) of the STOP sign, while midblock speeds may actually
increase.

MULTIMODAL SYSTEMS

The Institute of Transportation Engineers

has defined traffic engineering as “that phase of
transportation engineering which deals with
the planning, geometric design, and traffic
operations of roads, streets and highways,
their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and
relationships with other modes of
transportation.” The objective of traffic
engineering is to “provide for the safe, rapid,
comfortable, efficient, convenient, and
environmentally compatible movement of
people, goods, and services.” As a result, the
traffic engineer must consider all potential

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modes of transportation, including personal automobiles, trucks, public transit, bicycles, and
pedestrian travel. All modes should interact cooperatively and seamlessly in an integrated
transportation system. When planning improvements for one mode of transportation, the
potential impacts on other modes must be duly considered.

Freight Movement
Freight is moved to, within, and through urban areas, in trucks, railroads, airplanes, ships, and
barges. The economic viability of businesses, cities, regions, and the country depends on
efficient freight movement. With “just-in-time” inventory management, timely freight
movement is critical to manufacturers, offices, and other businesses. Freight movements must
be considered in many traffic engineering planning, design, and operations decisions,
including:
 Selection of design vehicle for
roadway improvements
 Vehicle weight and size restrictions
and lane-use restrictions
 Designation of loading zones
 Design of access to intermodal
facilities
 Truck speed limits
 Service and loading access and
design for land developments

Public Transit
Public transit may take the form of transit
services in mixed traffic on city streets and
freeways (e.g., bus systems and some light-
rail systems), transit on exclusive right-of-
way (e.g., some light-rail systems, rapid
transit, commuter rail systems, and
automated guideway systems), and
paratransit services (e.g., service that may
deviate from fixed-route, fixed-schedule
operations, contract services, and demand-
responsive services). In some areas, public
transit services may also include ferry boats.

In order to expedite public transit services, a number of priority treatments are possible on
streets and freeways:
 Exclusive or semi-exclusive transit lane
 Priority right-of-way past

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 bottlenecks such as toll booths or
ramp metering
 Express transit lane, roadway, or
ramp
 Contra-flow exclusive transit lane on
one-way streets
 Special transit streets/malls
 Traffic signal preemption or priority
service
 Exemption from turn prohibitions
 Park-and-ride or kiss-and-ride
facilities in outlying areas

Bicycles
Bicycles are an important element of the transportation system for both utilitarian as well as
recreational trips. The viability of bicycling as a mode of transportation is greatly enhanced by
providing connectivity of convenient bicycling routes. Further, because bicycles are powered
by human muscle, facilities intended for bicycle use should minimize energy losses as a result
of speed changes due to traffic control devices.

In many cases, bicycles can safety and comfortably share roads with motor vehicle traffic.
Improvements that can considerably enhance the safety of a street or highway for bicycle usage
include:
 Paved shoulders
 Wider outside traffic lanes (14-foot
[4.2 m]) minimum width) if no
shoulder exist
 Bicycle lanes
 Bicycle-safe drainage grates
 Maintaining a smooth, clean riding
surface

Providing a secure parking facility at the

bicyclist’s destination is also an important
factor in determining the viability of bicycle
use for a particular trip.

Pedestrians.
Walking is the most basic mode of transportation, and is a fundamental part of the
transportation system. Safety is a key consideration in the planning, design, and operation of
pedestrian facilities. Accessibility and usability are also key considerations for pedestrian
facilities which should accommodate pedestrians of all abilities including children, adults, the
elderly, and those with disabilities.

Pedestrian issues that should be addressed during project planning, design, and
implementation include:

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  Vehicle speed management through
design measures and traffic calming
techniques
 Pedestrian sidewalk access along the
length of a corridor
 Measures to buffer pedestrians from
high-speed or high-volume motor
vehicle traffic
 Crossing measures to ensure
frequent and safe opportunities for
pedestrians to cross motor vehicle
traffic flows
 Visual quality and aesthetic treatments that encourage walking.

Federal regulations provide that when new pedestrian facilities (or projects that alter existing
facilities) are planned, those facilities must be designed and constructed to be accessible to and
usable by people with disabilities.

The viability of walking is greatly affected by land-use patterns. Segregated land uses increase
the distance between trip origins and destinations, while mixed use developments generally
shorten distances and encourage walking. Similarly, good planning and design can encourage
walking by providing good pedestrian circulation and minimizing conflicts with motor
vehicles. Poor planning and design can send the message that motor vehicles are the preferred
mode and pedestrians are not invited.

 Promoting flexible or mixed-use zoning and the minimization of commercial strip

zoning.
 Promoting a unified parking and circulation plan for new developments.

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 REFERENCES

1. A Toolbox for Alleviating Traffic Congestion and Enhancing Mobility, Institute of

Transportation Engineers, Washington, DC, 1997.

2. Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington, DC,

2016.

3. Transportation Planning Handbook, 3ed Edition, Institute of Transportation Engineers,

Washington, DC, 2009.

4. Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2004.

5. Traffic Calming: State of the Practice, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Washington,

DC, 1999.

6. Highway Capacity Manual, Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC, 2010.

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