8604-1 Autumn 2018 PDF
8604-1 Autumn 2018 PDF
8604-1 Autumn 2018 PDF
We have Solved Guess Papers, 5 Years Papers & Notes for Students.
The scientific method is a series of processes that people can use to gather knowledge about
the world around them, improve that knowledge, and, through gaining knowledge, attempt to
explain why and/or how things occur. This method involves making observations, forming
questions, making hypotheses, doing an experiment, analyzing the data, and forming a
conclusion. Every scientific experiment performed is an example of the scientific method in
action, but it is also used by non-scientists in everyday situations. The exact steps of the
scientific method vary from source to source, but the general procedure is the same: acquiring
knowledge through observation and testing. The first step of the scientific method is to make an
observation about the world around you. Before hypotheses can be made or experiments can
be done, one must first notice and think about some sort of phenomena occurring. The
scientific method is used when one does not know why/how something is occurring and wants
to uncover the answer, but before one can even question an occurrence, they must notice
something puzzling in the first place. to happen around the same time, as one can see a
confusing occurrence and immediately think, “why is it occurring?” When observations are
being made and questions are being formed, it is important to do research to see if others have
already answered the question, or uncovered information that may help you shape your question.
For example, if you find an answer to why something is occurring, you may want to go a step further
and figure out how it occurs.
Forming a Hypothesis
In epistemology, a common concern with respect to knowledge is what sources of information
are capable of giving knowledge.
The following are some of the major sources of knowledge:
1.Perception — that which can be perceived through the experiences of the senses.The view
that experience is the primary source of knowledge is called empiricism.
2.Reason — Reason can be considered a source of knowledge, either by deducingtruths from
existing knowledge, or by learning things a priori, discovering necessarytruths (such as
mathematical truths) through pure reason. The view that reason is theprimary source of
knowledge is called rationalism
3.Introspection — knowledge of one’s self that can be found through internal self-evalution.
This is generally considered to be a sort of perception. (For example, Iknow I am hungry or
tired.)
4.Memory — Memory is the storage of knowledge that was learned in the past —whether it be
past events or current information.
Criticism is an evaluative or corrective exercise that can occur in any area of human life.
Criticism can therefore take many different forms (see below). How exactly people go about
criticizing, can vary a great deal. In specific areas of human endeavour, the form of criticism
can be highly specialized and technical; it often requires professional knowledge to more
directly to answer his question. He'll look for patterns in the data. Perhaps he reads in the diary
of the daughter of a Nazi that her father didn't believe in the Nazi party beliefs but was scared to
stand up for his values. Then he hears the same thing from a Nazi soldier he interviews. A
pattern is starting to emerge.
is to also analyze the veracity of his data. The daughter's diary is a secondary source, so it
might not be as true as a primary source, like the diary of her father. Likewise, people have
biases and motivations that might cloud their account of things; perhaps the Nazi soldier Stan
interviews is up for parole, and he thinks that if he says he was scared and not a true Nazi
believer, he might get out of jail. Understand the criticism. This article provides only general
information about criticism. For subject-specific information, see the Varieties of criticism page.
To criticize does not necessarily imply "to find fault", but the word is often taken to mean the
simple expression of an object against prejudice, no matter positive or negative. Often criticism
involves active disagreement, but it may only mean "taking sides". It could just be an
exploration of the different sides of an issue. Fighting is not necessarily involved.
Normally criticism involves a dialogue of some kind, direct or indirect, and in that sense criticism
is an intrinsically social activity. Even if one is only criticizing a book or an idea in private, it is
usually assumed there is someone who will be made aware of the criticism being expressed at
some point, although who exactly will hear it, may also remain unknown. One is still engaging
with the ideas of others, even if only indirectly. One can of course also keep a criticism to
oneself, rather than express or communicate it, but in general the intention is, that someone
else ought to be aware of it, however that may occur. Self-criticism, even if wholly private, still
mentally takes the concerns of others into account.
Distinguish primary source of data from secondary source of data:
Definition of Primary Data
Primary data is data originated for the first time by the researcher through direct efforts and
experience, specifically for the purpose of addressing his research problem. Also known as the
first hand or raw data. Primary data collection is quite expensive, as the research is conducted
by the organisation or agency itself, which requires resources like investment and manpower.
The data collection is under direct control and supervision of the investigator.
Dear Students! For more AIOU Solved Assignments, Criticism is often presented as something
unpleasant, but sometimes, that may not be the case. There are also friendly criticisms,
amicably discussed, and some people find great pleasure in criticism ("keeping people sharp",
"providing the critical edge"). The Pulitzer Prize for Criticism has been presented since 1970 to
a newspaper writer who has demonstrated 'distinguished criticism'. The data can be collected
through various methods like surveys, observations, physical testing, mailed questionnaires,
2.Primary data is a real-time data whereas secondary data is one which relates to the past.
3.Primary data is collected for addressing the problem at hand while secondary data iscollected
for purposes other than the problem at hand.
4.Primary data collection is a very involved process. On the other hand, secondary
datacollection process is rapid and easy.
Secondary data implies second-hand information which is already collected and recorded by
any person other than the user for a purpose, not relating to the current research problem. It is
the readily available form of data collected from various sources like censuses, government
publications, internal records of the organisation, reports, books, journal articles, websites and
so on.
5.Primary data collection sources include surveys, observations, experiments,questionnaire,
personal interview, etc. On the contrary, secondary data collectionsources are government
publications, websites, books, journal articles, internal recordsetc.
6.Primary data collection requires a large amount of resources like time, cost andmanpower.
Conversely, secondary data is relatively inexpensive and quickly available.
7.
8.Primary data is available in the raw form whereas secondary data is the refined form
ofprimary data. It can also be said that secondary data is obtained when statisticalmethods are
applied to the primary data.
9.Data collected through primary sources are more reliable and accurate as compared tothe
secondary sources.
Conclusion
As can be seen from the above discussion that primary data is an original and unique data,
which is directly collected by the researcher from a source according to his requirements. As
opposed to secondary data which is easily accessible but are not pure as they have undergone
through many statistical treatments.
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This is a basic outline of the steps involved in conduction experimental. Additional modules in
this series will address these steps in more detail.
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Q.5. Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with
the example of case studies, causal comparative and correlation studies.
Answer:
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being
studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather
it addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of Minnesota state population or
situation being studied?) The characteristics used to describe the situation or population are
usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories. For example,
the periodic table categorizes the elements. Scientists use knowledge about the nature of
electrons, protons and neutrons to devise this categorical scheme. We now take for granted the
periodic table, yet it took descriptive research to devise it. Descriptive research generally
precedes explanatory research. For
Determine the research methods. In this step, the researcher will identify and plan the details
necessary to conduct the research. This includes identifying the test subjects, materials, data
collection instruments and methods, and the procedures for the conducting the experiment.
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