3/31/2019

GEOLOGY
NOTES
PROPERTIES OF SOIL

by | Touqeer Ahmed
Reg no: 258717
Batch: 18-A
Soil: - Loose (unconsolidated material) surface of the earth as distinguished
from solid bedrock. Soil is a mixture of four main ingredients: weathered rock,
organic matter, air and water. The weathered rock can be in the form of sand, silt,
clay, pebbles or larger rocks. Organic matter can be anything from old leaves,
dead animals and plants, to microorganisms—tiny living things, like bacteria. The
last two ingredients are air and water. Without air and water, the microorganisms
found in soil cannot live, grow, or help dead matter to decay.

Soils range in depth form just a few inches to ten meters and in many instances
they have been transported many kilometers from the site of their initial
formation and then deposited over materials such as bedrock which is much
different than the original source of the soil materials.
There are five soil factors that alter the soil material: Climate, Time, Relief,
Organism, and parent material. These factors act together to differentiate
individual bodies of soil.
The effects of these soil forming factors (weathering) results in
the formation of layers within the soil from the surface down to varying depths
depending on the intensity of the weathering. These layers are called horizons
 Variation in these forming factors gives us the great variety of soils we
see today. There are many variations within each factor, and even if there were
only 10 gradations in each factor, there would be 105 , or 100,000 different
combinations, which would mean 100,000 different soils. In truth, no two soils are
expected to be just alike, but soils, which are similar, are grouped together for
purposes of classification for cultural practices and uses.

Important Properties of Soil: -

Soil Color: Color of soil is an important feature in recognizing different soil
types, but color is also an indicator of certain physical and chemical
characteristics. Color in soils is due to following three factors,

 Humus content
 Soil minerals
 Seasonal high water table

Munsell Color Chart Used to identify the soil color. This chart allows soil scientists
to uniformly describe soil color. In the field, soil scientists compare the colors
found in the soil with the color chips found on the chart.

Humus content Humus is dark, organic material that forms in soil when plant and
animal matter decays. Humus has a dark brown, almost black, color. A very high
content of humus may mask the color of the mineral matter to such an extent
that the soil appears almost black regardless of the mineral content.

Soil minerals Iron is an important color material because iron appears as a stain
on the surfaces of mineral particles. About 5 percent or more of mineral soils is
iron. In unweathered soils where the iron exists as an unweathered mineral, it has
little or no influence on color. The iron that has the greatest effect on color is that
which has weathered from primary minerals and exits in the oxide or hydroxide
form. The following table depicts the forms of iron in weathered soils:
Seasonal high water: The data gathered suggests that the presence of color
reliably predicts the depth to the water table. Low Chroma (2 or less) soil colors
are used as indicators of the seasonal high water table. Chroma level is
defined as "colorfulness" of an object, like dull colors has low Chroma value. For
example grayish shade makes colors low Chroma color.
Redoximorphic features (RMFs) consist of color patterns in a soil that
are caused by loss (depletion) or gain (concentration) of pigment, formed by
repeated oxidation/reduction of iron and/or manganese coupled with the
removal, translocation, or accrual of iron/manganese resulting from saturation. It
is very useful for predicting the presence and depth of seasonal high water tables
in the soil.

Redoximorphic Depletions Low-Chroma (gray) zones from which iron and

manganese oxide or a combination of iron and manganese oxide and clay have
been removed. These zones are indications of the chemical reduction of iron
resulting from saturation.

Redoximorphic Concentrations Nodules, concretions, soft masses, pore linings,

and other features resulting from the accumulation of iron or manganese oxide. It
is an indication of chemical reduction and oxidation resulting from saturation.

Reduced Matrix Low-Chroma (gray) horizons from which most iron oxide has
been removed by leaching. These horizons are indications of the chemical
reduction of iron resulting from long-term saturation.
Soil Texture: Soil texture has a large influence on water holding capacity,
water conducting ability, and many other properties and is considered among the
most important physical properties.
Texture is the proportion of three mineral particles, sand, silt and clay, in a soil.
The relative amount of various particle sizes in a soil defines its texture. These
particles are distinguished by size.

Particles over 2 mm in diameter are not consider in texture, though in certain

cases they may affect water retention and other properties.

 Soils containing large amounts of sand exhibit little plasticity and cannot
retain large amounts of water or nutrients. They have large voids between
the particles and can readily transport water and air.

 The properties of silt are intermediate between sand and clay. Silty soils
can retain large amounts of water but tend to have moderately slow to
slow permeabilities. Soils high in silt can present problems for engineers
since they will shift under stress and slide and flow when wet.

 Clays exert a great influence on soil chemical and physical properties. Clay
particles are chemically active and the proportion of clay-sized particles
greatly influences soil physical properties, including aggregation, porosity,
water movement and storage, aeration and workability of the soil.

In field soil scientists frequently estimate the texture by feel using their hands,
but for more exact measurements there are laboratory techniques that can
determine the exact amount of sand, silt, and clay.
1. Mechanical sieving, if size > 0.05 mm
2. Sedimentation - Stokes’ law, if size < 0.05 mm
Soil is dispersed, and mixed with water (soil suspension); Settling velocity of
individual particles depends on particle diameter; Forces acting on soil particle are
gravitation, buoyancy and drag forces, and all depend on particle size; The larger
particles settle first ( Stokes law).

Since soils are a mixture of different size particles, soils are classified using the
so-called soil textural triangle.

Finding Texture by Textural Triangle: Once we know the percentages of particles

(clay, slit, and sand), then we can find out the texture of the soil. Using the
textural triangle we draw parallel lines from the given percentages point of clay,
slit, and sand on the triangle. Point where these three lines meet is the class name
of the soil.
Soil Structure: Structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles. Soil made
up of practically all sand or all silt does not show any appreciable structural
arrangement because of a lack of the binding properties because binding property
is provided by clay. A well-developed structure usually indicates the presence of
clay.

Soil structure is classified into various classes. There are three major classes and
several sub-classes. They are as follows: Structure less which includes Single grain
and Massive; with structure which includes Granular, Platy, Wedge, Blocky,
Prismatic, and Columnar and Structure Destroyed which includes Puddled. The
type and grade of structure plays an important role in the movement of water
within soils.

❖ Granular - Rounded aggregates usually less than 1/4 inch in diameter.

These rounded complexes lie loosely on the surface and are readily shaken
apart. The aggregates are called granules and the pattern is called granular.
This is the most common type of structure found in topsoil.

❖ Single grain –It is the example of Structure less soil. Each individual soil
particle is separate and there is essentially no structure. This is only found
 in very sandy soils and is the type of structure commonly seen in sand
+dunes at the beach.

❖ Blocky - The original aggregates have been reduced to blocks, irregularly

faced, and basically equal in height, width, and depth. Blocky structure is
the most common type of structure seen in the subsoil (B horizon)
❖ Prismatic – Characterized by vertical oriented aggregates or pillars with flat
tops. These elongated columns vary in length with different soils. Prismatic
structure is commonly seen in soils with high clay content and in horizons
dominated by high shrink-swell clays.
❖ Columnar–Characterized by vertical oriented aggregates or pillars with
rounded tops. These elongated columns with flat tops vary in length with
different soils. Most commonly seen in soils that have high sodium content
in a dry climate.
❖ Platy – The aggregates are arranged in thin horizontal plates or sheets. This
structure is commonly found in soil layers that have been compacted. Platy
structure inhibits the downward movement of water.
❖ Wedge – The aggregates resemble wedges, thinner at one end and thicker
on the other. This structure is seen in soils with a high clay content that is
dominated by expansive clays such as montmorillonite. (clays)
Structure affects permeability by influencing the path by which water can flow
through the soil. The type of structure determines the number of macro pores,
which readily permit downward movement of water of interconnected.
Soil consistency
Soil consistency is the strength with which soil materials are held together or the
resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil consistency is measured for
wet, moist and dry soil samples. For wet soils, it is expressed as
both stickiness and plasticity. Soil consistency may be estimated in the field using
simple tests or may be measured more accurately in the laboratory. Field
evaluations of consistence usually include rupture resistance, stickiness, and
plasticity.

Rupture resistance is a measure of the soil’s ability to withstand applied stress.

For this test, moist soil is normally used. A naturally occurring soil aggregate is
placed between the thumb and index finger. Pressure is slowly applied to
estimate the amount of force that is required to rupture a soil aggregate. Rate
moist soil consistency as follows:

 0 Loose, if the soil is non-coherent (single-grain structure);

 1 Very friable, if the soil crushes easily under very gentle pressure but will
stick together if pressed again;
 2 Friable, if the soil crushes easily under gentle to moderate pressure;
 3 Firm, if the soil crushes under moderate pressure but resistance is
noticeable;
 4 Very firm, if the soil crushes under strong pressure, but this is difficult to
do between the thumb and forefinger;
 4 Extremely firm, if the soil crushes only under very strong pressure,
cannot be crushed between the thumb and forefinger, but must be broken
apart bit by bit.
Stickiness is the capacity of a soil to adhere to other objects. Stickiness is
estimated at the moisture content that displays the greatest adherence when
pressed between the thumb and forefinger. This normally occurs when the soil is
quite wet.

Press a small amount of wet soil between your thumb and forefinger to see if it
will stick to your fingers. Then slowly open your fingers. Rate the stickiness as
follows:

 0 Non-sticky, if no soil or practically no soil sticks to your fingers;

 1 Slightly sticky, if the soil begins to stick to your fingers but comes off one
or the other cleanly and does not stretch when the fingers are opened;
 2 Sticky, if the soil sticks to both the thumb and forefinger and tends to
stretch a little and pull apart rather than pulling free from your fingers;
 3 Very sticky, if the soil sticks firmly to both thumb and forefinger and
stretches when the fingers are opened.
Plasticity is the degree to which a reworked soil can be permanently deformed
without rupturing. Plasticity is evaluated by forming a roll (wire) of soil that is 4
cm long. Roll a small amount of wet soil between the palms of your hands until it
forms a long, round strip like a wire about 3 mm thick. Rate the plasticity as
follows:

 0 Non-plastic, if no wire can be formed;

 1 Slightly plastic, if a wire can be formed but can easily be broken and
returned to its former state;
 2 Plastic, if a wire can be formed but, when it is broken and returned to its
former state, it cannot be formed again;
 3 Very plastic, if a wire can be formed which cannot be broken easily and,
when it is broken, it can be rolled between your hands and be reformed
several times.
Shrink-swell Potential Shrink/swell potential is the relative change in volume
to be expected with changes in moisture content, that is, the extent to which the
soil shrinks as it dries out or swells when it gets wet. Extent of shrinking and
swelling is influenced by the amount and kind of clay in the soil. Soils high in 2:1
clays such as montmorillonite tend to have high shrink-swell potentials. Soils high
in 1:1 clays such as kaolinite tend to have low shrink-swell potentials. Shrinking
and swelling of soils causes much damage to building foundations, roads and
other structures. A high shrink/swell potential indicates a hazard to maintenance
of structures built in.

Identification of Expansive Soil:- Soil that cracks or fractures when it dries is

often a sign that it is expansive; however a lack of cracks does not necessarily
indicate that the soil is not expansive. Soils containing expansive clays become
very sticky when wet and usually are characterized by surface cracks or a
"popcorn" texture when dry. Expansive soils take on popcorn like appearance
when they dry, they look like someone spread little lumps of popcorn shaped dirt
on the soil surface, and it is shown in the Figure 1. Expansive soils are often clay
like, becoming very sticky when wet and hard and brittle when dry. The best way
to determine if the soil at a location is expansive is to have an expansion test
performed by a soil expert. Expansive soils are common in desert areas, and also
in river bottoms or valleys formed by sediment. They typically form in areas that
were once covered by seas or lakes. Often your local government building
department can tell you if the soil in your area is known to have expansion
problems.
Shrinkage Limit: The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss
of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction.

Shrinkage Limit Test on Soil

In case of shrinkage limit, the water content in the soil is just sufficient to fill the
voids of soil. That is degree of saturation is of 100%. So, there is no change in
volume of soil if we reduce the shrinkage limit. It is determined by the below
formula for the given soil sample.

Plastic Limit: The plastic limit (PL) is the water content where soil transitions
between brittle and plastic behavior. A thread of soil is at its plastic limit when it
begins to crumble when rolled to a diameter of 3 mm.

Plastic Limit Test on Soil

Take the soil sample and add some water to make it plastic enough to shape into small
ball. Leave it for some time and after that put that ball in the glass plate and rolled it into
threads of 3mm diameter.

If the threads do not break when we roll it to below 3mm diameter, then water content is
more than the plastic limit. In that case reduce water content and repeat the same
procedure until crumbling occurs at 3mm diameter. Finally find out the water content of
resultant soil which value is nothing but plastic limit.
Liquid Limit: The liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil changes from
plastic to liquid behavior. The original liquid limit test of Atterberg's involved
mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10-12cm diameter. A
groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then
struck many times against the palm of one hand.
Liquid Limit Test on Soil
In this test, Casagrande’s liquid limit device is used which consist a cup with moving up
and down mechanism. The cup is filled with soil sample and groove is created in the
middle of cup with proper tool. When the cup is moved up and down with the help of
handle the groove becomes closed at some point.

Note down the number of blows required to close the groove. After that water content of
soil is determined. Repeat this procedure 3 times and draw a graph between log N and
water content of soil. Water content corresponding to N=25 is the liquid limit of soil.

Permeability: - Permeability refers to the movement of air and water within the
soil. Permeability rate is the rate at which a saturated soil transmits water, usually
expressed in inches per hour. Texture, structure, bulk density, and the type and
connectivity of macro pores influence permeability.

Infiltration is the downward entry of water into the immediate surface of the soil
and is influenced by texture, structure, bulk density, and the type and
connectivity of macro-pores.
Bulk Density: Bulk density is the mass of dry soil per unit volume, including
the air space. The bulk density of soil depends greatly on the mineral make up of
soil and the degree of compaction. The bulk density of a mineral soil is normally
between 1.0 and 1.6 g/cm³. Soils high in organics and some friable clay may have
a bulk density well below 1 g/cm³. The reason why soils rich in soil organic carbon
do have lower bulk density is due to the low density of organic materials. For
instance peat soils have bulk densities of around 0.02 g/cm³.

High and low bulk densities have great

influences on engineering properties, water movement, rooting depth of plants,
and many other physical limitations for soil interpretations. Bulk density has a
major effect on the movement of air and water in soils. Soils with high bulk
densities are often compacted. Soil compaction restricts rooting depth, which
reduces the uptake of water and nutrients by plants, and also decreases
infiltration which increases the runoff and the hazard of water erosion.

(Extra Notes)

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

The standard penetration test is an in-situ test that is coming under the category
of penetrometer tests. The standard penetration tests are carried out in borehole.
The test will measure the resistance of the soil strata to the penetration
undergone.
The test is extremely useful for determining the relative density and the
angle of shearing resistance of cohesion less soils. It can also be used to
determine the unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soils.

Procedure
The test is conducted in a bore hole by means of a standard split spoon sampler.
Once the drilling is done to the desired depth, the drilling tool is removed and the
sampler is placed inside the bore hole.
By means of a drop hammer of 63.5kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at
the rate of 30 blows per minute, the sampler is driven into the soil. This is as per
IS -2131:1963.

The number of blows of hammer required to drive a depth of 150mm is counted.

Further it is driven by 150 mm and the blows are counted.

Similarly, the sampler is once again further driven by 150mm and the number of
blows recorded. The number of blows recorded for the first 150mm not taken
into consideration.. The number of blows recorded for last two 150mm intervals
are added to give the standard penetration number (N). In other words,
N = No: of blows required for 150mm penetration beyond seating drive of
150mm.

Fig.1: Standard penetration Test

If the number of blows for 150mm drive exceeds 50, it is taken as refusal and the
test is discontinued. The standard penetration number is corrected for dilatancy
correction and overburden correction
Some Other Types of Soil Tests for Building Construction
Various tests on soil are conducted to decide the quality of soil for building
construction. Some tests are conducted in laboratory and some are in the field.
Here we will discuss about the importance of various soil tests for building
construction. The tests on soil are as follows.

 Moisture content test

 Atterberg limits tests
 Specific gravity of soil
 Dry density of soil
 Compaction test (Proctor’s test)

Moisture Content Test on Soil

Moisture content or water content in soil is an important parameter for building
construction. It is determined by several methods and they are

 Oven drying method

 Calcium carbide method
 Torsion balance method
 Pycnometer method
 Sand bath method
 Radiation method
 Alcohol method
From the entire above oven drying method is most common and accurate
method. In this method the soil sample is taken and weighed and put it in oven
and dried at 110o + 5oC. After 24 hours soil is taken out and weighed. The
difference between the two weights is noted as weight of water or moisture
content in the soil
Proctor’s Compaction Test on Soil
Proctor’s test is conducted to determine compaction characteristics of soil.
Compaction of soil is nothing but reducing air voids in the soil by densification.
The degree of Compaction is measured in terms of dry density of soil.

In Proctor’s Compaction Test, given soil sample sieved through 20mm and 4.75
mm sieves. Percentage passing 4.75mm and percentage retained on 4.75mm are
mixed with certain proportions.

Add water to it and leave it in air tight container for 20hrs. Mix the soil and divide
it into 6 – 8 parts. Position the mold and pour one part of soil into the mold as
3layers with 25 blows of ramming for each layer.

Remove the base plate and Weight the soil along with mold. Remove the soil from
mold and take the small portion of soil sample at different layers and conduct
water content test. from the values find out the dry density of soil and water
content and draw a graph between them and note down the maximum dry
density and optimum water content of the compacted soil sample at highest
point on the curve.