Giving a Hoot:

Basic Countertenor Pedagogy for the Choral Conductor

by Michael Hrivnak, August 2002

The modern, falsetto countertenor voice is a unique and specialized instrument.

However, training it need not remain an esoteric or intimidating process with which private
voice teachers alone may work. Although unique mechanical skills are required of the
countertenor, many universal techniques of trained singing are also applicable and equally
important in artistic countertenor vocal production. Equipped with clear information and
practical experience, the choral conductor may foster and encourage the latest generation of
historical and compelling singers: choral countertenors. The scope of this investigation is
to reveal and codify basic information regarding falsetto countertenor pedagogy and
potential issues for the inclusion of countertenor voices in a choral setting.
Men have been singing in their falsetto register since the Middle Ages (Randell 25).
By the early thirteenth century, a plainchant-derived melody (tenor in Latin) was often
joined by a higher voice part called the superius. During the fourteenth century a second
voice began to appear in high counterpoint to the tenor and was literally named contratenor.
Toward the middle of the fifteenth century the contratenor divided into two contrapuntal
voices; the contratenor altus and contratenor bassus. These voices sounded above and
below the tenor respectively. Coincidentally, vernacular languages began to replace their
Latin predecessor, and in the England the term "contratenor" was modified to the presently
used countertenor (Upton 1). By the seventeenth century, the English countertenor often
denoted a male falsettist, and by the mid-nineteenth century this fact was almost exclusively
the case (Miller, "Countertenoring" 19). Today, it is generally understood and agreed that a
countertenor is a male alto who most often sings in his falsetto register.
Falsetto is an Italian word meaning "false little voice." All men may produce a
falsetto tone by one of two methods, but the degree to which it is comfortable, practical, or
even musical may vary greatly. Brinegar has suggested that bass-baritones may more
quickly and easily produce a pleasingly useful falsetto register, but tenors should not be
discouraged from developing this spectrum of their voices and may succeed equally well.
Though historically male, falsetto should be thought of as natural, (Randell 25; Ardran &
Wulstan 19) and, in its simplest pedagogical terms, an imitation of the female voice (Miller,
"Tenor" 416). Basic, fundamental principles of good singing apply to falsetto production,
and include issues of breath, agility, vowels, vocal tract adjustment, and register
equalization (Miller, "Countertenoring" 20). Yet, the encouragement of male falsetto
singing requires specific understanding of its unique production requirements, as well as its
relationship to the full, or chest voice, and the "head" voice.
Phonation in its simplest terms is the production of vocal sound. It may also be
thought of as the coordination of the vibrator (the vocal folds or "chords") and the actuator
(the breath) (Vennard 18). The issues of breath and breathing techniques are complex.
Briefly, the basic principle of airflow "across" or through the aperture of the vocal folds is
the acknowledged basis for phonation. Issues of air management in regard to onset and
pitch will be developed in as much as they relate to the choral conductor/countertenor
relationship.
 Before the puzzle of falsetto production can be solved, a severe simplification of a
few physiological concepts must be presented. To the extent that the phenomenon of
vocalization is now understood, acknowledged, and available among medical, therapeutic,
pedagogical, and vocal instruction circles, an assumption that the average choral conductor
shares in this knowledge is largely untrue. (Brinegar, Interview) Yet, this information is
accessible via many avenues, and it behooves the choral conductor to both further his or her
own pedagogical knowledge and develop his or her voice as completely as possible.
Phonation involves a few small but significant muscles. The vocalis muscles are
commonly called the vocal folds or "cords." The arytenoids and cricothyroid muscles are
responsible for stretching the vocal folds, resulting in their tightening, lengthening, and
separation from each other (Vennard, Hirano, and Ohala 30). The lateral cricoarytenoid
muscles are most responsible for counteracting or resisting the separation (abduction)
caused by the cricothyroids, and facilitate falsetto-vocal fold approximation: the "cords"
vibrating against one another. The space between the vocal folds is called the glottis. Air
pressure beneath and above the glottis is defined as supraglottic or subglottic, respectively
(Miller, Structure 309).
Dampening, and damping are interchangeable terms referring to the partial vibration
of the vocalis muscles. It is common in both trained and untrained singers, but not an
exclusive means of falsetto production (Vennard 69). It is important to reveal that damping
is an effect of the vocal fold lengthening by the cricothyroids, and not a cause or technique
of physically shortening the "cords" for the production of high pitches (Vennard 68).
Damping is one possibility for achieving the male falsetto, and is usually accompanied by
increased medial compression, defined as the result of the laterals pulling the "cords"
together (adduction) for the purpose of approximation (Vennard 63). Occasionally in
younger singers a developmental phenomenon called the mutational chink coincides with
the dampened falsetto. Mutational chink refers to an incomplete approximation of the vocal
folds resulting in a persistent opening between the arytenoid cartilages during phonation
(Vennard 67). To the listener this vocal manifestation may cause the voice to sound
breathy and thin. This phenomenon often corrects itself as the singer matures.
Singers who do not employ damping achieve falsetto tones by intense vibration of
the vocalis ligaments, or extreme edges of the "cords." In this case, the vocalis muscles are
in a state of comparative relaxation despite their ligaments being stretched to their
longitudinal capacity. This falsetto production is most efficient at high frequencies and
employs less air than damping. It also possesses more fundamental pitch than partials, or
overtones, resulting in what may be described as a more flute-like timbre (Vennard 67).
With a fundamental grasp of the activities of the vocal folds and their influences in hand,
one may now delve deeper into issues relating to the incorporation of the choral
countertenor voice.
Richard Miller defines onset as the initiation of vocal sound (Miller, Structure 1).
Ideally, a cooperative combination of light subglottic pressure and mere sliver of glottal
space between the folds prepare and coordinate the onset. As the singer moves air through
the glottis, the coordinated onset permits an initial vocalis vibration via the Bernoulli effect
(5). The Bernoulli principle states that air in motion is less dense than stationary air, and
can cause suction by way of a resultant imbalance of air pressure (Miller, Structure 302).
Vocal manifestation of this effect occurs as air moves through the glottis. The air pressure
between the vocal folds is reduced, and the resultant suction draws the folds together. In
countertenor singing, the coordinated onset is a difficult but not impossible technique to
master due to the stretched and abducted position of the vocal folds prior to phonation and
an increase of subglottic pressure necessary to initiate vibration. Young or inexperienced
countertenors will tend to demonstrate glottal onset until they have refined the necessary
influence of medial compression for coordination. (Brinegar, Interview) Choral conductors
should identify the pitch range wherein a coordinated onset is most nearly or consistently
achieved by their countertenor section and gradually exercise onset techniques from that
range outward. Certainly there are instances for which a glottal onset is desired and
appropriate. However, choral conductors should assist countertenors with the development
of various styles and degrees of onset as they would for other voice categories.
The issue of pitch is one of particular interest, and choral conductors should become
familiar with the unique aspects of falsetto vocal tuning. Perhaps surprisingly, the breath is
the most influential aspect of upper-range falsetto intonation. In the lower falsetto range the
cricothyroids adjust the length of the vocalis muscles to correspond to the step-by-step
rising of pitch as they do in the male chest voice. At a maximum point, however, the folds
cannot continue to lengthen, but can hold their fully stretched position. From this state,
pitch continues to be manipulated by as much as an octave through marginal increases in
breath energy (Vennard, Hirano, and Ohala 31). This is an important revelation for choral
conductors. While arguments may be attempted for continual modification of the vocal tract
in an effort to "place" vowels for the purpose of falsetto intonation, the evidence of breath
as the fundamental aspect of upper-range falsetto tuning compels the choral director to
diversify his or her approach to countertenor tuning issues. This is true for pitch agreement
within the countertenor section as well as countertenor pitches within the context of a
section or piece of music. Modification of the vocal tract is much more a function of
establishing or altering vocal color (timbre) than it is for achieving precise tuning (Brinegar,
Interview).
Breath is also a major consideration in regard to vocal efficiency and phrasing.
Countertenors who sing with the aforementioned mutational chink employ a breathy and
therefore inefficient mechanism. It is also proposed that light falsetto phonation is not
dissimilar to a whisper: a spoken but decidedly ineffective vocalism (Miller, "Tenor" 417).
Compared to full, or chest, voice, falsetto singing requires less overall breath energy. Yet,
the approximation of falsetto singing is generally less efficient than that of chest voice
phonation. Therefore, developing countertenors require more frequent breaths and shorter
phrase considerations than their full-voiced, choral counterparts. Mastery of sustained
pitches, lines, and phrases, as well as skillful management of the falsetto glottis liabilities
are the marks of a skilled countertenor (Miller, "Countertenoring" 20).
Blend is generally regarded as uniformity of timbre. It is often achieved through the
reduction of resonance and elimination of particular vocal qualities when choral conductors
discourage particular sounds from an individual or section of singers (Brinegar, Interview).
Regardless of whether or not the result of such an approach to blend is generally regarded
as effective, choral conductors should learn to discern the implications of such an approach.
This holds equally true when blending individual singers with each other, and respective
sections (including countertenor), into the corporate timbre of a choir. Vibrato, one
component of this blending, may be simply defined as a natural phenomenon of a trained
singing voice (Miller, Structure 312). Without attempting to traverse the slippery slope of
explaining vibrato, it is possible to remind choral musicians of the simple reality than an
imbalance of first and third vocal formants arises when a healthy and genuine vibrato is
arrested. Formants are naturally occurring overtones (harmonic partials) present in the
characteristic resonant qualities of individual voice classification (singers’ formant) and
vowels (vowel formant) (Miller, Structure 304). Vocal formants do not depend on the
presence of vibrato, but natural and healthy vibrato is a reliable indicator of their presence.
Suppression of formants results in a tone quality that is comparatively thin or
uncomplicated as a result of relatively strong fundamental pitch sounding without a
harmonic context. In the ear of a singer, this diminished resonance can sound and feel
unstable. To compensate, and often overly so, singers increase breath flow and modify the
vocal tract in an attempt to replace lost timbre. Most often the initial result is a strident tone
combined with pitch discrepancies and vowel disunion. Similar overcompensation by the
falsettist is known by the commonly attributed and pejorative "hooty" description.
Countertenors are particularly susceptible to this unfortunate circumstance because
of the difficulty in establishing the relaxed and coordinated phonation required for vibrato.
Choral blend via timbre reduction is an option for the conductor who wants to achieve one
type of uniformity of sound. The same is also an initial default function of falsetto singing.
It is possible, however, to restore resonance to the countertenor, as well as the other voices
of a choir, by building formants through demonstration and guided vocalization (Brinegar,
Interview). As the primary feedback instrument of his or her singers, the choral director
shoulders a great responsibility in understanding both the mechanics of the voice as well as
familiarity with its most desired choral applications.
The development of any muscular anatomy depends on the type and frequency of
exercise it receives. To this end the vocal musculature is no exception. If a muscle is to
perform to its full potential, it first must be brought to a point of fatigue (Brinegar,
Interview). A sung, three-step process may be divided into isometric, isotonic, and
calisthenic vocal activities. Isometrics work muscles against one another, develop
flexibility through tension and release, and are the initial method by which a muscle is
gently fatigued. Isotonics build strength and foster sustained energy through coordinated
motion and continue the exertion process. Calisthenics build versatility, enable variety of
coordination, and complete the vocal exercise with an athletic conclusion (Brinegar, Seven
1). Despite its unique phonation, the countertenor should vocalize initially in his baritone
or tenor register, and secondly in his falsetto range. By breaking down the vocal muscles
to a point of fatigue before changing registers, a countertenor may most benefit from the
flexibility and resilience he’ll likely carry into the affected phonation of falsetto singing
(Brinegar, Interview).
A second aspect of vocalizes glosses the issue of registers. Chest voice, what one
might regard as the low or speaking voice, and falsetto have already been mentioned. Head
voice denotes an intermediate adjustment between chest and falsetto. Although this voice is
easily heard and felt by the singer, he may not easily produce it (Vennard, Hirano, and
Ohala 31). The great feat of singing with the head voice is an ability to combine the
cricothyroid activity of the falsetto with an aspiration rate less than that of the chest voice
(Vennard, Hirano, and Ohala 37) and a relaxed vocalis (Vennard, Hirano, and Ohala 35).
The head voice, however elusive it may be, is a vitally useful register for men because it
permits agile and pianissimo singing in a high pitch area, and a direct, unbroken connection
to the chest voice via crescendo. A direct shift between the falsetto and chest voice requires
a noticeable "break" in phonation and timbre as the vocal mechanism changes from one
extreme of vocal coordination to another. The result is a glottal pulse not unlike an
uncoordinated glottal onset, commonly referred to as a vocal cough. The same gentle
transition between head and chest voice also exists between head and falsetto, making the
head voice the desirable vocalism for developing one unified, ideal register (Vennard 69).
Choral conductors may facilitate experimentation with the male head voice by having men
sing pitches common to both the low-falsetto and mid-range chest voice in alternation. The
goal of this activity is the successful combination of the two. Countertenors will find the
head voice invaluable whenever musical passages require the unique timbre of the falsetto
in a low range of alto pitch.
Falsetto countertenor singing is a teachable technique, and one from which choral
conductors need not shy away. Men have been employing falsetto singing for centuries,
and what we now describe as the countertenor voice continues to sound in choirs
throughout the world. Hence, choral conductors should encourage singers who express an
interest in falsetto singing. For some men, the falsetto register may be their most
comfortable and facile vocal mechanism (Brinegar, Interview).
Choral conductors can successfully teach basic countertenor production after
gaining a primary understanding of the male falsetto mechanism. The issues of
countertenor breath, onset, phonation, resonance, and timbre should be understood as
consistent with those of other vocal categories and instructed as such. However, the
specific manifestations of these concepts paired with the unique aspects of falsetto vocal
production, pitch, blend, and the fascinating relationship between the male chest, head, and
falsetto registers present a challenging and exciting opportunity for the ambitious choral
director. Conscientious vocalization can foster the development of falsetto singing in terms
of efficiency, timbre, agility, and flexibility while concurrently maintaining healthy
vocalisms in a typical tenor or baritone chest voice range. Choral conductors are
encouraged to add an ability to work with countertenors to their overall teaching and
performance regimens. This worthy effort will confirm that training and incorporating this
unique and specialized voice need not remain a unique and specialized talent.

Works Cited
Ardran, G. M. and David Wulstan. "The Alto or Countertenor Voice." Music & Letters
48.1 (1967): 17–22.
Brinegar, Donald. Personal interview. August 2002.
- - - "The Seven Minute Warm Up." Unpublished notes. (June 2002): 24.
Miller, Richard. "Countertenoring." Journal of Singing 57.2 (2000): 19–21.
- - - "Tenor Choral Falsettoing." Journal of Singing 58.5 (2002): 416–17.
- - - The Structure of Singing: System and Art in Vocal Technique. New York: Schirmer
Books-Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1996.
Randell, Elizabeth. "Countertenors Then and Now." Opera News 59.1 (1994): 25–7, 58.
Upton, Elizabeth. "Voice Ranges and Definitions." Medieval Music and Arts Foundation.
Ed. Todd M. McComb, 1991. 3 pp. 23 June 2002. <http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/
misc/ voices/html>.
Vennard, William. Singing: The Mechanism and the Technique. Ann Arbor: Edwards
Brothers, 1964.
Vennard, William, Minoru Hirano and John Ohala. "Chest, Head, and Falsetto." Journal of
Singing 28.2 (1970): 30–37.
 Abstract
Falsetto countertenor singing is presented as a teachable technique. A brief history of the
countertenor voice is offered. Issues of both general vocal and specific countertenor vocal
pedagogy are explored and both anatomical structures and functional definitions are
described. Specific topics include breath, onset, phonation, resonance, timbre, intonation,
and blend. The relationships between the male chest, head, and falsetto registers are
compared, and the male falsetto voice is investigated in detail. Vocalization techniques for
both general and countertenor singing are suggested. Choral conductors are encouraged to
learn to work with both the countertenor voice and timbre.
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