Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology:

Blood

Blood - In each scenario, the respiratory system

and kidneys help restore blood pH to
- The only fluid tissue in the human body normal.
- Classified as a connective tissue Formed Elements:
- Components of blood
- Living cells – Formed elements ● Erythrocytes – Red blood cells (RBCs)
- Non-living matrix – Plasma ● Leukocytes – White blood cells (
WBCs)
If blood is centrifuged ● Platelets – Cell fragments
- Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% Erythrocytes (Red blood cells or RBCs)
of blood, a percentage known as the
hematocrit) - Main function is to carry oxygen
- Buffy coat contains leukocytes and - Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
platelets (less than 1% of blood - Biconcave disks
- Buffy coat is a thin, whitish layer - Essentially bags for hemoglobin
between the erythrocytes and plasma - Anucleate (no nucleus)
- Plasma rises to the top (55% of blood) - Contains very few organelles
Physical Characteristic of Blood - 5 million RBCs per cubic millimetre of
blood
● Color Range:
- Oxygen-rich blood (Scarlet red) Hemoglobin
- Oxygen-poor (Dull red)
● pH: 7.35 -7.45 - Iron-containing protein
● Blood temperature is slightly higher than - Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
body temperature at 100.4 - Each hemoglobin molecule has 4
● In a healthy man, blood volume is about oxygen binding sites
5-6 liters or about 6 quarts - Each erythrocytes has 250 million
● Blood makes up 8% of body weight hemoglobin molecules
Blood Plasma - Normal blood contains 12-18 g of
hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
- Composed of approximately 90% water
- Includes many dissolved substances Homeostatic imbalance of RBCs:
- Nutrients
- Salts (electrolytes) ● Anemia – a decrease in the oxygen-
- Respiratory gases carrying ability of the blood
- Hormones ● Sickle cell anemia (SCA) – results from
- Plasma proteins abnormally shaped hemoglobin
- Waste products ● Polycythemia - an excessive or
- Plasma Proteins abnormal increase in the number of
- Most abundant solutes in plasma erythrocytes.
- Most plasma proteins are made - May be caused by bone marrow
by liver cancer (Polycythemia Vera)
- Various plasma proteins include - May be a response to life at
- Albumin – regulates higher altitudes (Secondary
osmotic pressure Polycythemia)
- Clotting proteins – help - Increased RBC slows blood flow
to stern blood loss when and increase blood viscosity.
a blood vessel is injured
- Antibodies – help
protect the body from Leukocytes (White blood cells or WBCs)
pathogens
- Acidosis – blood becomes too acidic - Crucial in the body’s defence against
- Alkalosis – blood becomes too basic disease
 Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology:
Blood

- These are complete cells, with a - 3,000-7,000 neutrophils in a

nucleus and organelles cubic millimeter of blood (40-
- Able to move into and out of blood 70% of WBCs)
vessels (diapedesis)
- Can move by amoeboid motion b. Eosinophils
- Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues - Red, coarse cytoplasmic
- 4,800 – 10,800 WBC per cubic granules
millimeter of blood - Bilobed nucleus stains blue-red
- Function to kill parasitic
Abnormal number of Leukocytes: worms and play a role in
allergy attacks
● Leukocytosis – WBC count above - 100-400 eosinophils in a cubic
11,000 leukocytes/mm3, generally millimeter of blood (1-4% of
indicates an infection WBCs)
● Leukopenia – abnormally low leukocyte
level, commonly caused by certain c. Basophils
drugs such as corticosteroids and
anticancer agents. - Sparse but large blue-purple
● Leukemia – bone marrow becomes granules
cancerous, turns out excess WBC - U-or S-shaped nucleus stains
dark blue
Types of Leukocytes: - Release histamine
(vasodilator) at sites of
● Granulocytes inflammation
- Granules in their cytoplasm can - Contain heparin (anticoagulant)
be stained - 20-50 basophils in a cubic
- Possess lobed nuclei millimeter of blood (0-1% of
- Include neutrophils, eosinophils, WBCs)
and basophils
● Agranulocytes d. Lymphocytes
- Lack visible cytoplasmic
granules - Cytoplasm is pale blue
- Nuclei are spherical, oval, or - Dark purple-blue nucleus
kidney-shaped - Functions as part of the
immune response
- Include lymphocytes and
monocytes ● B Lymphocytes –
produce antibodies
List of WBCs from most to least abundant: ● T Lymphocytes –
involved in graft rejection,
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, fighting tumors and
Eosinophils, Basophils viruses
- 1,500-3,000 lymphocytes in a
Types of Granulocytes: cubic millimeter of blood (20-
45% of WBCs)
a. Neutrophils
- Cytoplasm stains pale pink and
contains fine granules
- Deep purple nucleus contains 3- e. Monocytes
7 lobes
- Function as phagocytes at - Largest of the white blood cells
active sites of infection - Gray-blue cytoplasm
- Number increase during infection - Dark blue-purple nucleus is often
kidney shaped
- Function as macrophages
 Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology:
Blood

- Important in fighting chronic - Thrombopoietin stimulates

infection production of platelets
- 100-700 monocytes per cubic
millimeter of blood (4-8% of Hemostasis
WBCs)
● Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a
Platelets break in a blood vessel
● Involves 3 phases:
- Derived from ruptured multinucleate - Vascular spasms
cells (megakaryocytes) - Platelet plug formation
- Needed for the clotting process - Coagulation (blood clotting)
- Platelet count ranges from 150,000 to ● Vascular spasms
400,000 per cubic millimeter of blood - Vasoconstriction causes blood
- 300,000 is considered a normal number vessel to spasm
of platelets per cubic millimeter of blood. - Spasms narrow the blood
vessel, decreasing blood loss
Hematopoiesis ● Platelet plug formation
- Collagen fibers are exposed by a
- Blood cell formation break in blood vessel
- Occurs in red bone marrow - Platelet become “sticky” and
- All blood cells are derived from a cling to fibers
common stem cell (Hemocytoblast) - Anchored platelets release
- Hemocytoblast differentiation chemical to attract more platelets
● Lymphoid stem cell produces - Platelets pile up to form a
lymphocytes platelet plug
● Myeloid stem cell produces all ● Coagulation
other formed elements - Injured tissues release tissue
Formation of Erythrocytes factor (TF)
● Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize - PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts
proteins with TF, blood protein clotting
● Wear out in 100 to 120 days factors, and calcium ions to
● When worn out, RBCs are eliminated by trigger a clotting cascade
phagocytes in the spleen or liver - Prothrombin activator converts
● Lost cells are replaced by division of prothrombin to thrombin (an
hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow enzyme)
- Thrombin joins fibrinogen
Control of Erythrocytes Production proteins into hair-like molecules
of insoluble fibrin
● Rate is controlled by a hormone - Fibrin forms a meshwork (the
(Erythropoietin) basis for a clot)
● Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as ● Blood usually clots within 3-6 minutes
a response to reduced oxygen levels in ● The clot remains as endothelium
the blood regenerate
● Homeostasis is maintained by negative ● The clot is broken down after tissue
feedback from oxygen levels repair
Undesirable Clotting
Formation of White Blood Cells and
Platelets ● Thrombus
- A clot in an unbroken blood
● Controlled by hormones vessel
- Colony stimulating factors - Can be deadly in areas like the
(CSFs) and interleukins prompt heart
bone marrow to generate ● Embolus
leukocytes
 Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology:
Blood

- A thrombus that breaks away ● The lack of these antigens is called type
and floats freely in the O
bloodstream ● The presence of both antigens A and B
- Can later clog vessel in critical is called type AB
areas such as the brain ● The presence of antigen A is called type
A
Bleeding Disorders ● The presence of antigen B is called type
B
● Thrombocytopenia ● The lack of both antigens A and B is
- Platelet deficiency called type O
- Even normal movements can ● Blood type AB can receive A, B, AB,
cause bleeding from small blood and O blood
vessels that require platelets for - Universal recipient
clotting ● Blood type B can receive B and O blood
● Hemophilia ● Blood type A can receive A and O blood
- Hereditary bleeding disorder ● Blood type O can receive O blood
- Normal clotting factors are - Universal donor
missing
Rh Blood Groups
Blood Groups and Transfusions
● Named because of the presence or
● Large losses of blood have serious absence of one of eight Rh antigens
consequences (agglutinogen D) that was originally
- Loss of 15-30% causes defined in Rhesus monkeys
weakness ● Most Americans are Rh+ (Rh positive)
- Loss of over 30% causes shock, ● Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood
which can be fatal into a body with Rh- (Rh negative) blood
● Transfusions are the only way to replace
blood quickly Rh Dangers during Pregnancy
● Transfused blood must be of the same
blood group ● Danger occurs only when the mother is
Rh- and the father is Rh+, and the child
Human Blood Groups inherits the Rh+ factor
● RhoGAM shot can prevent build-up of
● Blood contains genetically determined anti-Rh+ in mother’s blood
proteins ● The mismatch of an Rh- mother carrying
● Antigens (a substance the body an Rh+ baby can cause problems for
recognizes as foreign) may be attacked the unborn child
by the immune system ● The first pregnancy usually proceeds
● Antibodies are the “recognizers” without problems
● Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that ● The immune system is sensitized after
will cause blood with certain proteins to the first pregnancy
clump (agglutination) ● In the second pregnancy, the mother’s
● There are over 30 common red blood immune system produces antibodies to
cell antigens attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease
● The most vigorous transfusion reactions of the new-born)
and caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens Blood typing
ABO Blood Groups ● Blood samples are mixed with anti-A
and anti-B serum
● Based on the presence or absence of ● Coagulation or no coagulation leads to
two antigens determining blood type
- Type A
- Type B
 Essential of Human Anatomy and Physiology:
Blood

● Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done

in the same manner
● Cross matching – testing for
agglutination of donor RBCs by the
recipient’s serum, and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of Blood

● Sites of blood cell formation

- The fetal liver and spleen are
early sites of blood cell formation
- Bone marrow takes over
hematopoiesis by the seventh
month
● Fetal hemoglobin differs from
hemoglobin produced after birth
● Physiologic jaundice results in infants in
which the liver cannot rid the body of
hemoglobin breakdown products fast
enough.