Atlas of Rock-Formingminerals in Thin Sections

Atlas of
rock-forming minerals
in thin sections
W. S. MacKenzie and C. Guilford
Longman Scientific & Technical
1980
CONTENTS
Preface iv Muscovite 54
Introduction v Biotite 55
Birefringence chart vii Stilpnomelane 57
Olivine 1 Pyrophyllite 58
Monticellite 3 Talc 59
Chondrodite 4 Chlorite 60
Zircon 6 Serpentine 62
Sphene 7 Prehnite 63
Garnet 8 Microcline 64
Vesuvianite 9 Perthite & Microperthite 65
Sillimanite 10 Sanidine 66
Mullite 12 Anorthoclase 67
Andalusite 13 Plagioclase 68
Andalusite & Sillimanite Quartz 70
intergrowth 15 Myrmekite 72
Kyanite 16 Granophyric texture 73
Topaz 17 Tridymite 74
Staurolite 18 Cristobalite 75
Chloritoid 19 Nepheline 76
Sapphirine 20 Sanidine & Nepheline 78
Eudialyte 21 Leucite 79
Zoisite 22 Nosean 80
Epidote 23 Cancrinite 81
Piemontite 24 Scapolite 82
Allanite 25 Analcite 83
Lwsonite 26 Corundum 84
Pumpellyite 27 Rutile 85
Melilite 28 Perovskite 86
Cordierite 30 Spinel 87
Tourmaline 32 Brucite 88
Axinite 34 Calcite 89
Orthopyroxene 35 Dolomite 90
Augite 36 Apatite 92
Titanaugite 37 Fluorite 93
Clinopyroxene & Orthopyroxene Deerite 94
intergrowth 38 Howeieite 95
Aegirine-augite 39 Zussmanite 96
Jadeite 40 Yoderite 97
Wollastonite 41 Index 98
Pectolite 42
Anthophyllite - Gedrite 43
Cummingtonite - Grunerite 44
Tremolite - Ferroactinolite 45
Hornblende 46
Kaersutite 48
Glaucophane 49
Arfvedsonite 50
Aenigmatite 51
Astrophyllite 52
Lamprophyllite 53
PREFACE
The purpose of this book is to illustrate the appearance of many of the common rock-
forming minerals in thin section under the microscope. It is not our intention that it should be used
as a substitute for a mineralogy textbook but rather as a laboratory handbook for use in practical
classes together with one of the standard textbooks on mineralogy.
The idea of producing a series of photographs of minerals in thin section came from two
sources. The son of one of the authors, I. R. MacKenzie, then in his second year as a student of
geology, suggested that these would be a useful aid in recognizing minerals under the microscope.
On questioning undergraduates in second-year Geology classes in Manchester University, why they
preferred certain textbooks to others, the answer was invariably that they found those books which
contained illustrations accompanying the text particularly useful, especially when they could
recognize under the microscope features which could be seen in the photographs.
Some of the textbooks which, in our opinion, contain the best photomicrographs or drawings
of minerals are rather old and are not readily available to the student of today. Rosenbusch's
Mikroskopische Petrographie der Mineralien und Gesteine, published in 1905, has some excellent
photomicrographs printed in black and white, while Teall's British Petrography, published in 1888,
has beautiful drawings which appear to have been hand-coloured before reproduction by printing.
H. G. Smith's Minerals and the Microscope, first printed in 1914, has been found useful by
generations of students of elementary mineralogy because of the high quality of the illustrations. It
seemed to us that if we could reproduce faithfully, by colour photography, the appearance of
minerals under the microscope both in plane-polarized light and under crossed polars, the
usefulness of photomicrographs as a teaching aid would be increased enormously.
The majority of the photographs were made from thin sections of rocks in the teaching
collections of the Geology Department in Manchester University and we are grateful of our
colleagues in Manchester for providing us with thin sections.
INTRODUCTION
The minerals represented here are arranged in the same order in which they appear in Deer,
Howie and Zussman's Introduction to Rock Forming Minerals (relevant page numbers given at the
end of each entry in square brackets), except for a few minerals which are not described by these
authors, viz. deerite, zussmanite, yoderite and lamprophyllite. The decision as to which minerals to
include has been based mainly on two considerations, firstly, how frequently they occur and
secondly whether a photograph can be a useful aid in identification.
In the headings for each mineral we have listed the chemical formula (simplified in some
cases), crystal system, optic sign, the values of the β refractive index for biaxial minerals and the ω
and ε ray refractive indices for uniaxial minerals together with the birefringence. These figures have
been quoted from Deer, Howie and Zussman's book with their permision. The rock type and locality
of the specimens are quoted, where these are known, and the magnifications used in taking the
photographs are given. Each pohotograph is accompanied by a brief description of the field of view
illustrated but, in general, only properties which can be seen in the photographs are discussed. Thus
we have omitted reference to optic axial angle, sign of elongation and dispersion. In most cases at
least two photographs have been made of each mineral, one in plane-parallel light with the polarizer
in two orthogonal positions. In the case of isotropic minerals we have tended to omit the view taken
under crossed polars.
With few exceptions the polarizer has been set parallel to the edges of the photograph but we
have not made much use of this fact since discussion of extinction angles is omitted except in the
case of the plagioclase feldspars, because this would necesitate reproducing a number of
photographs taken under crossed polars. In order to show pleochroism, we have used rotation of the
polarizer rather than rotation of the stage of the microscope for two reasons. Firstly, this makes it
easier to compare the photographs and observe the change in colour shown by any one crystal and
secondly it has been done to encourage the use of this method for detecting weak pleochroism.
Although we have adopted the procedure of retaining the thin section in the same orientation
for all three photographs, this has one disadvantage. If there are only a few crystal in the field of
view, or the crystals have a strong preferred orientation in the rock section used, we have been
unable to show the maximum change in absorption colour on rotation of the polarizer through 90°
since the extreme absorption colours are shown by a crystal when its vibration directions are
parallel to and perpendicular to the polarizer. In these positions the crystal would be at extinction
when viewed under crossed polars and ideally we wish to show the characteristic interference colurs
near to their maximum intensity. We have not specified in which of the two orthogoanal positions
the polarizer is set in the photographs taken in plane-polarized light.
As mentioned above we have quoted the numerical value of the birefringence for each
mineral, but in the description of the photograph we have generally referred to the order of the
interference colour. To enable the reader to translate birefringence to a particular colour we have
included a photograph of a quartz wedge with a birefringence scale along its length. This should not
be used as a Michel-Lévy chart since the thickness of the section is not taken into account, it being
assumed that the section is of standard thickness, viz. 0.03 mm. Thus the mineral names are
reproduced against the highest-order colour which they show in a thin section of standard thickness
rather than opposite radial lines which show the variation in colour with thickness and birefringence
of the mineral as in a Michel-Lévy chart.
The faithful reproduction of the interference colours of minerals in thin section or in a quartz
wedge as seen under crossed polars, depends to a large extent on the type of film used and also on
the printing process. Some of the Michel-Lévy charts that have been published depart slightly from
the true colours and one fault which is fairly common concerns the middle of the second-order
colours where a broad band of bright green is sometimes shown between blue and yellow.
Observation of a quartz wedge under crossed polars reveals that the second-order colour between
blue and yellow is a rather pale green in contrast to the fairly deep green in the third order. Only in
minerals which are colourless and have negligible dispersion, is it possible to distinguish these two
greens and even only after considerable experience. In some of the photographs of minerals of
moderate birefringence the edge of the crystals can be seen to be wedge-shaped and thus the order
of the interference colour can be determined fairly readily.
Some of the common minerals which are usually considered difficult to identify (e.g.
cordierite) are represented by more than one rock section if we considered that additional
photographs would give a better idea of the variations in appearance which may be expected in
different rocks or if it was impossible, in one field of view, to illustrate the diferent porperties which
we wished to show.
In a few cases the photographs taken in plane-polarized light show pale pink and green
colours due to stray polarization produced in the photographic equipment: when such colours are
present we have noted this in the description of the photograph.
OLIVINE
Mg2SiO4 (Forsterite) - Fe2SiO4 (Fayalite)
Symetry - Orthorhombic (+) (-)

RI ß - 1.651 - 1.869
Birefringence - 0.035 - 0.052
The olivines form a complete

solid solution between the
magnesian end-member,
forsterite, and the iron end-
member fayalite.
These photographs show two
olivine phenocrysts in a fine-
grained groundmass of
plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene
and iron ore. The upper
photograph, taken in plane-
polarized (PP) light, shows the
typical shape of olivine crystals;
the irregular cracks and slight
alteration along the cracks are
characteristic of this mineral: there
are signs of cleavage along the
length of one of the crystals.
In the lower photograph, taken
under crossed polars (XP), one of
the crystals is cut very nearly
perpendicular to an optic axis and
so shows a very low interference
colour; it is an anomalous brown
caused by dispersion of the optic
axes. The other crystal shows a
second-order blue on the rim
whereas the main part of the
crystal shows a slightly lower
colour. The higher birrefringence
on the rim of the crystal is an
indication of a higher iron
content. The reverse effect, viz.
lowering of the birefringence colour
due to the wedge shape of the
crystal boundary, can be seen on
the bottom edge of one of the
olivine crystals and also on a
clinopyroxene phenocryst part of
which just appears at the bottom of
the field. [1]
Specimen from ankaramite, Mauna

Kea, Hawaii, 43X
1
OLIVINE
Mg2SiO4 (Forsterite) - Fe2SiO4 (Fayalite)
Symetry - Orthorhombic (+) (-)

RI ß - 1.651 - 1.869
The olivines form a complete

solid solution between the
magnesian end-member, forsterite,
and the iron end-member fayalite.
These upper photograph, taken
in PP light, shows olivine
(brownish-green colour, occupying
most of the field) intergrown with a
calcic plagioclase. The high relief of
the olivine against the feldspar is
noticeable. A pale colour in olivine
seen in PP light is common but it
does not show pleochroism - the
more Fe-rich members of the
series show a yellowish-brown
colour. The cracks in the crystals
are quite characteristic as is the
slight alteration of the mineral
along the cracks.
under XP, the interference
colours are mostly second order;
the highest colour showing in this
view is the yellow in the small
crystal just above the centre of the
field - these colours indicate a
Mg-rich olivine since
birefringence colours well into
the third order are only seen in
olivines with high iron contents.
[1]
Specimen from gabro picrite, Border

Group, Skaergaard intrusion, East
Greenland, 23X
2
MONTICELLITE
CaMgSiO4
Symetry - Orthorhombic (-)

RI ß - 1.646 - 1.664
In the upper photograph, taken in

PP light, the dominant mineral is
monticellite with subordinate
calcite. In PP light the calcite can
be recognized by its good cleavage
and twin lamellae. The high relief of
the monticellite against the mounting
material can be seen at a small hole
near the top edge of the slide.
under XP, the interference colours
are seen to be low first order; the
highest colour seen here is the
orange-yellow colour. It should be
remembered that in rocks without
quartz or feldspar present it is
sometimes difficult to judge the
correct thickness of a section and
this section may be slightly thin. [10]
Specimen from monticellite-spinel-

phlogopite rock. Barnavave,
Carlingford, Eire. 32X
3
CHONDRODITE
Mg(OH,F)2 . 2MgSiO4
Symetry - Monoclinic (+)

RI ß - 1.602 - 1.627
In this section a concentration of

chondrodite almost colourless PP
light (upper photograph), is shown
intergrown with a garnet (brown).
The yellowish colour which
characterizes the members of the
humite group is very pale here so
that a separate photograph to show
the pleochroism has not been
included. Some of the crystals show
signs of poor cleavage.
In the view under XP (lower
photograph), the twinning which
characterizes the monoclinic
member of this series is well
illustrated and the interference
colours extend up to middle second-
order. The garnet in this rock is a
grossular and it is very slightly
birrefringent.
In addition to chondrodite this
rock also contains clinohimite but,
since its birefringence is in the same
range as that of chondrodite, they
can only be distinguished by the fact
that the clinohumite has a higher
refractive index. [13]
Specimen from marble, Kilchrist,

Skye, Scotland. 28X
4
ZIRCON
ZrSiO4
Symetry - Tetragonal (+)

RI ω - 1.923 - 1.960
ε - 1.968 - 2.015
Zircon commonly occurs in rather

small crystals but is easily noticed
because of its very high relief. The
upper photograph, taken in PP light,
shows rather large zircon crystals
associated with sphene in a fine-
grained groundmass mainly of
feldspar. Sphene also has a very
high relief and in this photograph is
very difficult to distinguish from the
zircon. The good cleavages in
zircon are well displayed in some of
the crystals.
In the lower photograps, taken
under XP, most of the zircon crystals
show high interference colours
except for the crystal to the left of
centre which shows two cleavages
at right angles. This crystal is cut
almost at right angles to the optic
axis and hence the low interference
colours. The sphene crystals can
perhaps be more easily identified in
this photograph because of their
much higher birefringence and by the
presence of twinning (top of field of
view in centre and to the right of
zircon showing low birefringence).
[13]
Specimen from segregation in

syenite-pegmatite, Kola peninsula,
USSR. 28X
6
SPHENE
CaTiSiO4 (OH,F)

RI ß - 1.870 - 2.034
Sphene is a relatively easy mineral to identify

because it commonly forms diamond-shaped
crystals of very high relief having a brown or
red-brown colour. These features are well
shown in the upper and middle photographs
taken in PP light. These crystals are pleochroic
and simple twinning is common. The mineral
intergrown with sphene in this section is alkali
feldspar.
The lower photograph, taken under XP,
shows a number of crystals near the extinction
position but those which show double refraction
have a colour very similar to the absorption
colour seen under PP light. This is due to the
extreme birefringence of sphene such that the
interference colours are very high order, i.e.
almost white light. In crystals without the
characteristic shape this fact is useful for
identification. [17]
Specimen from sphene-rich rock, Kola

peninsula, USSR. 20X
7
GARNET
(Mg, Fe, Mn)3Al2Si3O12 almandine group
Ca3(Al, Fe, Ti, Cr)2 Si3O12 andradite group
Symetry - Cubic
RI η - 1.714 - 1.887
A considerable range of compositions is

possible in garnets and hence the range of
refractive indices quoted. They are very
commonly euhedral or subhedral in shape.
The upper photograph shows a number of
subhedral garnet crystals, of the almandine
series, intergrown with quartz and mica in a
metamorphic rock. The garnet stands out quite
clearly from the other minerals because of its
high relief and brownish colour. It shows
inclusions of the groundmass minerals and this
is a very common feature.
The middle photograph shows the same view
under XP and the garnets are seen to be
isotropic (some garnets are birefringent and may
show zoning and twinning revealed in the low
birefringence colours, see lower photograp, p.
5).
The lower photograph, taken in PP light,
shows a melanite garnet (Ti-rich andradite) in
an alkaline igneous rock. Its deep brown colour
is rather unevenly distributed but it shows zoning
at the edges of the crystals: the euhedral shape
is very characteristic. The other mineral in this
section is altered alkali feldspar. [21]
Upper and middle specimen frm garnet-mica

schist, Pitlochry, Scotland, 11X.
Bottom specimen from segregation in nepheline
syenite, Assynt, Scotland, 20X
8
VESUVIANITE (IDOCRASE)
Ca10 (Mg,Fe)2 Al4Si9O34 (OH,F)4
Symetry - Tetragonal (-)

RI ε - 1.700 - 1.746
ω - 1.703 - 1752

PP light, one crystal of idocrase
occupies most of the field of view. Its
slight yellowish-brown colour can be
seen in contrast to a few holes in the
section. Its very high relief can also
be seen against the mounting
medium.
The lower photograph under XP
shows the characteristic low
anomalous interference colours and
the vague signs of bands in the
interference colours is also a fairly
common feature of large crystals and
is an indication of zoning. There is no
sign of the poor cleavage in this
crystal. The anomalous interference
colour is due to strong dispersion and
is the most useful property for
identifying this mineral: it commonly
occurs with grossular garnet which
may also show low birefringence
colours and sometimes the two
minerals are difficult to distinguish.
The green crystals at the lower
edge of the field of view and the small
green inclusions in the vesuvianite
are alkaline amphibole. [32]
Specimen from unknown locality. 25X
9
SILLIMANITE
Al2SiO5
Symetry - Orthorhombic (+)

RI ß - 1.658 - 1.662

plane-polarized light, all the crystals
which stand out in relief are
sillimanite which shows clearly
against the cordierite with which it
is intergrown: at the top left-hand
corner of the photograph a yellow
halo can be seen in the cordierite. In
this section the sillimanite has a
strong preferred orientation such
that most of the crystals are cut at
right-angles to their length and show
diamond-shaped cross-section due
to the faces of the {110} form; the
(010) cleavage is well displayed in
some of the crystals.
The interference colours shown
in the lower photograph are
generally low since the highest
collours are shown in crystals cut
along the length of the prismatic
crystals (see p. 11). Crystals cut so
that the (010) cleavage is sharp and
well defined should be in extinction
when parallel to the edges of the
photograph. A few crystals cut
parallel to their lenght show second-
order colours. [34]
Specimen from garnet-cordierite-

sillimanite gneiss, Ihosy,
Madagascar. 40X
10
SILLIMANITE
Al2SiO5

RI ß - 1.658 - 1.662
These photographs show lath-like

crystals of sillimanite which stand
out in high relief against the
cordierite with which is intergrown.
Within the cordierite are numerous
small needle-like crystals which are
also of sillimanite: bunches of very
long narrow crystals of sillimanite
are termed fibrolite but the
concentration of needles is
insufficient to justify the use of this
term here.
under XP, the second-order
purplish-blue interference colour is
near to the maximum colour shown
by sillimanite. Sillimanite is difficult to
distinguish from mullite, but mullite
does not often occur in crystals as
large as those illustrated here and is
restricted to very high temperature
contact metamorphic rocks. [34]
Specimen from cordierite-sillimanite

gneiss, Ihosy, Madagascar. 68X
11
MULLITE
Al6Si2O13

RI ß - 1.642 - 1.675
Mullite usually occurs in very

small needle-like crystals. The upper
photograph, taken in PP light, shows
mullite crystals within a large crystal
of anorthite (notice the high
magnification used for this
photograph). These crystals have a
very pale pink colour in this section
but the pale pink in the background
is probably due to stray polarization.
The rocks is a buchite and the two
very dark brown patches in the field
of view are of glass.
under XP, the black lines parallel to
the vertical edge of the photograph
are plagioclase twin lamellae in the
extinction position and in this
photograph these could easily be
confused with mullite needles. The
interference colours shown by these
crystals of mullite are not as high as
expected and this is caused by the
fact that the crystals are thinner than
the total thickness of the section. The
interference colours of mullite in a
section 0.03 mm thick should be
about the same as those of
sillimanite. [37]
Specimen from buchite.

Rudh'a'Chromain sill, Ross of Mull,
Scotland. 164X
12
ANDALUSITE
Al2Si05

RI ß - 1.633 - 1.653
The upper photograph, taken in

PP light, shows one rectangular
porphyroblast of andalusite in a fine-
grained groundmass. The two
cleavages approximately at right-
angles to one another can be seen.
In the centre of the crystal there is a
rectangular area full of inclusions
and radiating towards the corners of
the crystal there are concentrations
of inclusions. This variety of
andalusite is known as chiastolite
because of the cruciform pattern
formed by the inclusions and it is
fairly common in low-grade
metamorphic rocks.
under XP, the cruciform pattern is
still visible and the characteristic low-
order interference colour is seen.
[38]
Specimen from chiastolite slate,

Lake District, England. 44X
13
ANDALUSITE
Al2Si05

RI ß - 1.633 - 1.653
In thin section andalusite

sometimes shows a pale pink
pleochroism and if seen is fairly
diagnostic. A pale brownish-pink
colour can be seen in the upper
photograph, taken in PP light, and its
uneven distribution is characteristic.
The high relief against quartz is
noticeable. There is a large area in
the slide to the right of centre of the
photograph where the relief of the
andalusite is also obvious - this is a
hole in the thin section.
The absorption colour affects the
low first-order interference colour so
that the same patchy distribution is
visible under XP (lower photograph).
Andalusite has two good cleavages,
(110) and (110), and so most
sections show at least one good
cleavage. The bright interference
colours in this photograph are due to
small crystals of muscovite. [38]
Specimen from contact rock, Ardara

pluton, Donegal, Ireland. 20X
14
ANDALUSITE & SILLIMANITE INTERGROWTH

PP light, most of the field is occupied
by one crystal of andalusite with a
few inclusions of biotite and of
quartz. The {110} cleavages of the
andalusite can be seen
approximately at right-angles to each
other and parallel to the edges of the
photograph. Intergrown with the
andlusite are numerous diamond-
sghaped crystals of sillimanite with
the (010) cleavage bisecting the
angle between the andalusite
cleavages. The two minerals were
probably formed at the same time
and the coincidence of the z axes of
the crystals reflects the similarity of
their structures. The difference in
refractive indices of the two minerals
is not sufficiently great to show much
difference in relief in this photograph.
Under XP (lower photograph)
both the andalusite and sillimanite
show low interference colours but the
colour of the sillimanite is lower than
that of andalusite despite the fact
that sillimanite has a greater
birefringence than andalusite (the
vibration directions of both minerals
are at 45° to the edges of the
photograph). In this orientation both
minerals show centred acute
bisextrix interference figures. [34]
[38]
Specimen from contact rock,

Bendoran Cottage, Ross of Mull,
Scotland. 52X
15
KYANITE
Al2Si05
Symetry - Triclinic (-)

RI ß - 1.721 - 1.723
In these photographs kyanite

occurs along with quartz and biotite.
In the upper photograph taken in PP
light, kyanite is easily recognized by
its high relief compared with quartz
and by the fact that the well
developed cleavage appears very
dark. It has been suggested that the
appearance of kyanite resembles a
steel ruler with black engraving
marks, since the prominent parting
parallel to (001) is frequently visible
almost at right-angles to the length of
the crystals.
under XP, the bright interference
colours of the biotite contrast with
those of kyanite. Unfortunately this
section is very slightly thick so that
quartz is showing a yellowish tinge
hence all the other grains are
showing slightly higher interference
colours than expected: one half of a
twinned kyanite crystal shows a
colour close to teh sensitive tint red.
[41]
Specimen from kyanite gneiss, Glen

Urquhart, Inverness-shire, Scotland.
16X
16
TOPAZ
Al2Si04 (OH, F)2
Symetry - Orthorrombic (+)

RI ß - 1.609 - 1.631

PP light, is of a topaz-quartz rock.
The quartz is full of many tiny
inclusions whereas the topaz, which
stands out in relief aginst the quartz,
is relatively free from inclusions. The
perfect (001) cleavage of topaz is
visible in one of the crystals.
under XP, it is difficult to distinguish
the topaz from the quartz since their
birefringence is almost identical. The
narrow white veins on the borders of
the topaz crystals are muscovite
and this could be an indication of the
presence of topaz since topaz is
frequently accompanied by
muscovite. [45]
Specimen from topaz-tourmaline-

quartz rock, Blackpool Clay Pit,
Cornwall, England. 32X
17
STAUROLITE
(Fe,Mg)2(Al,Fe)9Si4O22 (O, OH)2

RI ß - 1.745 - 1.753
The upper and middle photographs show

porphyroblassts of staurolite with biotite in a
fine-grained mass of quartz and feldspar.
Pleochroism of the staurolite from yellow to
pale yellow is shown in a few of the crystals.
The lozenge shape of some of the staurolite
crystals is typical and the high relief against the
groundmass is well illustrated by the almost
black edges of the crystals.
In the lower photograph, taken under XP,
the low interference colours can be seen, the
large brown-coloured crystal may owe its
colour to a combination of the absorption
colour and a first-order red. Inclusions as seen
here are very common in staurolite. [49]
Specimen from staurolite schist, Waddy Lake,

Saskatchewan, Canada. 20X
18
CHLORITOID
(Fe,Mg)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4
Symetry - Monoclinic or triclinic (+) or (-)

RI ß - 1.719 - 1.734
The upper and middle photographs, taken in

PP light, show a number of olive-green crystals
of chloritoid in which the strong pleochroism to
a pale yellow colour can be seen by comparing
the two views with the polarizer in orthogonal
positions. In this rock chloritoid is intergrown
with muscovite and quartz; a few garnet
crystals are also visible. The high relief of the
chloritoid shows up against the mica but it has
lower relief than the garnet. These sections
have a preferred orientation and are cut nearly
at right-angles to the perfect basal cleavage
and hence the strong pleochroism. Sections cut
parallel to (001) have only weak pleochroism.
the interference colours are slightly anomalous
for two reasons, viz. the absorption colours and
fairly strong dispersion. No twinning is visible in
any of these crystals although chloritoid is
commonly multiply-twinned. [52]
Specimen from schist, Île de Grois, Brittany,

France. 43X
19
SAPPHIRINE
(Fe,Mg)2Al4SiO10
Symetry - Monoclinic (+) or (-)

RI ß - 1.703 - 1.728
In the upper and middle photographs, the

sapphirine crystals are recognized by their
colour, which is this case is pleochroic from an
indigo-blue to a brownish-yellow colour. In this
rock its high relief shows up quite well but there
are other high relief minerals in the field, viz.
garnet (large crystal at top left-hand corner of
the field) and orthopyroxene (pinkish crystals at
bottom right). The central part of the field of
view is a symplectite intergrowth of cordierite
and orthopyroxene. Biotite and quartz are the
other minerals present.
Under XP (lower photograph) the
interference colours seen in the sapphirine are
influenced by the absorption colours and the
low birefringence produces anomalous blues.
Careful study of the clear areas reveals
yellow pleochroic haloes in the cordierite and
the sapphirine crystal in the lower left part of the
field of view is surounded by multiply-twinned
cordierite. [57]
Specimen from schist, Val Codera, Italy. 27X
20
EUDIALYTE
(Na,Fe,Ca)6ZrSi6O18(OH,Cl)
Symetry - Trigonal (+) or (-)

RI ω - 1.593 - 1.643
ε - 1.597 - 1.634

PP light, a number of euhedral
crystals of eudialyte show up in
relief against analcite with which it is
surrounded. In this photograph the
substage diaphragm has been left
fairly wide open - if it had been more
fully closed the relief of eudialyte
would show more strongly against
the analcite.
The lower photograph, taken
under XP, shows two characteristic
features of eudialyte which are (a)
the uneven distribution of low-
interference colours, a distribution
which is not always clearly related to
a growth structure and (b) the dark
veins of an alteration product.
Eudialyte is easily noticed in hand
specimen because it is almost
always red or brown in colour but in
thin section the colour, if present, is
generally pale. The crystal at the top
left-hand corner of the field is alkali
feldspar which here shows a patchy
extinction not dissimilar to that of the
eudialyte: the three greenish crystals
in the field of view are of an alkali
amphibole. [59]
Specimen from red kakortokite,

Ilimaussaq intrusion, West
Greenland. 42x
21
ZOISITE
Ca2Al3Si3O12 (OH)
Symetry - Orthorrombic (+)

RI ß - 1.688 - 1.710

PP light, shows a number of short
prismatic crystals of zoisite
intregrown with quartz and a small
amout of feldspar. The high relief of
the zoisite against the quartz is
obvious. There is a suggestion of a
cleavage parallel to the length of one
crystal at the bottom left.
zoisite crystals show an anomalous
blue interference colour somewhat
unevenly distributed and this is
characteristic of both zoisite and the
monoclinic mineral clinozoisite: they
are distinguished by the fact that
zoisite shows straight extinction in all
sections. This sample is zoisite
although none of the crystals shown
here is exactly parallel to the edges
of the photograph. [61]
Specimen from zoisite schist, Glen

Roy, Inverness-shire, Scotland. 60X
22
EPIDOTE
Ca2Fe Al2Si3O12 (OH)
Symetry - Monoclinic (-)

RI ß - 1.725 - 1.784
The colour of epidote in thin section (yellow

of greenish-yellow) is a feature which enables
it to be identified fairly readily since the number
of common minerals which are yellow in thin
section is not great. The pleochroism is shown
by comparision of the upper and middle
photographs taken in PP light in which some
crystals change from pale brown to yellow.
The presence of a good cleavage can be seen
in a few crystals. The relief of epidote shows
against the quartz near the top of the field.
The lower photograph shows the same view
taken under XP and the bright interference
colours show complex zoning. [63]
Specimen from epidotized basalt, Michigan,

USA, 32X
23
PIEMONTITE
Ca2 (Mn,Fe,Al)2 AlSi3O12 (OH)

RI ß - 1.750 - 1.807
Although not a very vommon mineral it is

included here because of its spectacular
pleochroic colours, viz., yellow-carmine-red and
violet or amethyst. This is well shown in the
upper and middle photographs taken with the
polarizer in orthogonal positions in PP light: the
perfect cleavage does not show up well in this
sample nor does the tendency for the crystals to
be elongated.
The lower photograph shows that the
interference colours are masked by the
absorption colours and are thus dominantly red.
Two crystals show simple twinning and another
shows one thin twin lamella. The intergrown
mineral (showing characteristic amphibole
cleavages) is a pale coloured manganese
amphibole which although pink in hand
specimen is colourless in thin section.
This distinctive pleochroism is not an
indication of a particularly high content of
manganese: the Mn-bearing variety of epidote
called thulite shows the same colours as
piemontite. [63]
Specimen from piemontite-quartz rock, Mautia

Hill, Tanzania, 42X
24
ALLANITE (ORTHITE)
(Ca, Ce)2 FeAl2Si3O12 (OH)

RI ß - 1.700 - 1.815

PP light, shows the brown colour of
the mineral which is characteristic as
are the dark cracks. The radioactive
elements contained in this mineral
cause a brown halo in the
surrounding rock due to radiation
damage but there is no sign of this in
the thin section. Allanite is generally
slightly pleochroic in shades of
brown.
under XP, shows a crystal of biotite
enclosed in the larger allanite crystal.
These allanite crystals are much
larger than are commonly found. The
other two minerals visible in this
section are microcline (tartan
twuinning) and quartz. [68]
Specimen from granite, near

Mandalahy, Madagascar, 28X
25
LAWSONITE
CaAl2Si2O7(OH)2 . H2O

RI ß - 1.674
Birefringence - 0.020
The upper and middle photographs are of the

same field of view, one in PP light, the other in XP.
The field is almost entirely occupied by lawsonite
and the feint pleochroism is shown by the slight
difference in colour of the crystals in different
orientations with respect to the polarizer: many of
the crystals show one of the two good cleavages.
The birefringence is moderate so the interference
colours extend up to second-order and this is
shown in the photograph under XP.
The lower photograph, made from the same
thin section was taken under XP to show multiple
twinning in lawsonite (large crystal in the centre of
the field). The mineral at the top right corner of this
photograph is glaucophane and it is shown here
since the occurrence of lawsonite is restricted to
glaucophane-schist facies rocks. [70]
Specimen from glaucophane schist, Valley Ford,

California, USA. Upper and middle specimen 20X.
Lower specimen 27X.
26
PUMPELLYITE
Ca4 (Mg, Fe) Al5Si6O23 (OH)3 . 2 H2O

RI ß - 1.675 - 1.715
The whole field of view is occupied by

pumpellyite except for the clear areas which are
voids between crystals and here the high relief of
the mineral shows up clearly. The upper and
middle photographs, taken in PP light, show that
the mineral is slightly pleochroic from yellow to
pale green and this is fairly characteristic of this
mineral - the more Fe-rich specimens being more
deeply coloured. These are signs of cleavages in
most of the crystals since pumpellyite has one
perfect and one good cleavage.
In the lower photograph, taken under XP, the
interference colours range up to second-order
blue but the feature which is most noticeable in
this photograph is the "oak leaf" shape formed by
the crystals lying diagonally across the centre of
the field. This habit is found mainly in vein
occurrences of the mineral but when it is seen it is
diagnostic. [71]
Specimen from glaucophane schist, Tiburon

Pass, California, USA. 44X
27
MELILITE
Ca2Al2SiO7 - Ca2MgSi2O7
Symetry - Tetragonal (+) or (-)

RI ω - 1.669 - 1.632
ε - 1.658 - 1.640
The upper and middle photographs are of

melilite, in an uncompahgrite, a rather rare
melilite-rich rock, one photograph taken in PP
light and the other under XP. In this rock the
opaque mineral is magnetite and most of the rest
of the field is occupied by melilite. In PP light
there is nothing very distinctive about the mineral
and there are signs of at leas one cleavage.
Under XP however the interference colour is very
characteristically an anomalous blue colour and
when this can be seen it is a useful diagnostic
property taken along with the uniaxial character of
the mineral. Zoning of the colour at the edges of
the crystals is also fairly typical.
The lower photograph is taken under XP and
is from a skarn. Here the zoning from an
anomalous blue to an anomalous brown colour is
obvious.
The refractive indices quoted above are for the
two end-members of the melilite series but the
birefingence of zero is for a member of the solid
solution containing almost equal amounts of the
two end-members. [72]
Upper and middle specimens from

uncompahgrite, Uncompahgre, Colorado, USA,
43X. Lower specimen from melilite-phlogopite-
clinopyroxene rock, Grange Irish, Carlingford,
Ireland, 72X
28
MELILITE
Ca2Al2SiO7 - Ca2MgSi2O7
Symetry - Tetragonal (+) or (-)

RI ω - 1.669 - 1.632
ε - 1.658 - 1.640
The two photographs shown here

are of melilite in an olivine-melilite,
the upper photograph taken under
PP light. In this view the melilite
crystals resemble laths of
plagioclase in the groundmass of a
basalt (with microphenocrysts of
olivine) except that melilite crystals
commonly have a dark line along the
centre of the laths - seen only a few
crystals in this view - due to included
groundmass.
anomalous blue colour zoned to a
white colour is quite distinctive and
is faierly certain indication of melilite.
The crystals showing yellow, red and
a normal blue interference colour are
olivine. [72]
Specimen from olivine-melilite,

Katunga, Uganda, 83X
29
CORDIERITE
(Mg, Fe)2 Al4Si5O18
Symetry - Orthorhombic (+) or (-)

RI ß - 1.524 - 1.574
The upper photograph, taken

under PP light, shows cordierite
intergrown with alkali feldspar. The
cordierite can be recognized in this
section by its dusty appearance
whereas the feldspar is relatively
clear. In addition there are irregular
cracks veins at the edges of the
cordierite crystals which are yellowish
in colour. These are composed of a
mineral which is generally called
pinite and this alteration is very
common in cordierite
under XP, the birefringence of the
cordierite is seen to be very similar to
that of the alkali feldspar but many of
the cordierite crystals show lamellar
twinning and this causes it to be
confused with plagioclase (see
photographs on p. 31). [84]
Specimen from sillimanite-cordierite

gneiss, Fort Dauphin, Madagascar,
20X
30
CORDIERITE
(Mg, Fe)2 Al4Si5O18

RI ß - 1.524 - 1.574

under PP light, shows most of the
field occupied by cordierite with a
number of included minerals
showing up in relief (the perfect
circles are air bubbles and not
mineral inclusions). Around one of
two of the inclusions are yellow
haloes and these are pleochroic, the
mineral forming the halo almost in
the centre of the photograph was not
in the plane of the thin section.
under XP, shows that most of the
field is taken up by a lamellar
twinned cordierite. The inclusions
which show a second-order blue
interference colour are of sillimanite
and these do not produce yellow
pleochroic haloes.
The presence of yellow
pleochroic haloes, frequently seen in
cordierite, is one of the most useful
diagnostic properties, but these may
not be common in cordierites in
contaminated igneous rocks in which
cyclic twinning is a useful diagnostic
feature. [84]

gneiss, near Ihosy, Madagascar,
72X
31
TOURMALINE
Na (Mg, Fe)3 Al6B3Si6O27 (OH, F)4
Symetry - Trigonal (-)

RI ω - 1.635 - 1.675
ε - 1.610 - 1.650
The photographs on this page

and the opposite page are of thin
sections from the same rock
specimen. Comparision of these two
photographs, taken in PP light with
the polarizer in orthogonal position
shows the distinct pleochroism
and zoning of the absorption
colour. In the lower photograph the
polarizer was oriented parallel to the
short dimension of the photograph
since the maximum absorption
colour is shown when the length of
the crystal is at right-angles to the
plane of polarization of the light.
(The crystals were not oriented to
show the maximum variation in
absorption colour, otherwise in the
photograph taken under XP - see
next page - they would be in the
extinction position). The other
minerals present are quartz and
alkali feldspar with crystals of
muscovite at the top left and at the
right edge of the field. Comparision
with the same view, taken under XP,
on the opposite page is necessary
to identify the musccovite.
Tourmaline shows a wide range
of colours in hand specimen; a
brownish-yellow, green or blue
are the most common colours
seen in thin section. In igneous
rocks it is usually restricted to late-
stage acid varieties but is very
common in minor amounts in
metamorphosed sediments. The fact
that the maximum absorption colour
is shown when the length of the
crystals is at right-angles to the
plane of polarization of the light is a
particularly useful diagnostic feature
when tourmaline is present in fairly
small crystals. [90]

Cornwall, England, 20X
32
TOURMALINE
Na (Mg, Fe)3 Al6B3Si6O27 (OH, F)4

RI ω - 1.635 - 1.675
ε - 1.610 - 1.650

under XP, shows the same field of
view as illustrated on the previous
page. This shows the moderate
birefingence of tourmaline, i.e., up
to middle second-order colours.
Since the crystals in this
specimen shows a fairly strong
preferred orientation another tin
section was cut at right-angles to the
first and this is shown in the lower
protograph taken in PP light. This
view shows the trigonal cross-
sectional outline of the tourmaline
crystals and again shows zoning of
the absorption colours. Sections cut
in this orientation can be used to
determine the uniaxial negative
character of the mineral. [90]

Cornwall, England, 20X
33
AXINITE
(Ca, Fe)3 Al2BSi4O15 . OH

RI ß - 1.681 - 1.701

PP light, shows almost the whole field
of view is occupied by axinite which
has a pale brownish colour in this
specimen but no detectable
pleochroism. Most of the crystals
show one or more cleavages ant this
is characteristic since it has four
cleavages. The high relief of the
mineral shows up against a few holes
in the slide.
In the lower photograph under XP,
the birefringence is seen to be low.
The axe-head shape of the crystals
can be more clearly seen under XP
and this shape is fairly diagnostic
when taken along with the high relief,
low birefingence and presence of
more than one cleavage in most
crystals. [97]
Specimen from axinite-actinolite rock,

St. Ives, Cornwall, England. 32X
34
ORTHOPYROXENE
(Mg, Fe) SiO3

RI ß - 1.653 - 1.770
In the upper and middle photographs, taken in

PP light, the coloured high-relief mineral is an
orthorhombic pyroxene and the most frequently
occurring composition is hypersthene. The
characteristic pleochroism from green to pink is a
good indication of the presence of orthopyroxene.
The change in colour may not be very intense but
can be detected most easily by rotating the
polarizer through 90° as has been done here.
The lower photograph, taken under XP, shows
fairly low interference colours. Since the Mg-rich
members of this series have the lowest
birefringence this is a fairly Mg-rich specimen. The
other minerals in this section are quartz, alkali
feldspar, plagioclase end one crystal of biotite.
It should be noted that while the pleochroism is a
useful diagnostic property it is not always present in
orthopyroxenes. [108]
Specimen from charnockite, near Fort Dauphin,

Madagascar, 20X
35
AUGITE
Ca(Mg, Fe) Si2O6

RI ß - 1.670 - 1.741

PP light, shows a number of
phenocrysts of augite together with
some small feldspars, and a few
altered olivines (yellow-brown
crystals with black edges) and
rounded pseudoleucites. Zoning in
the larger phenocrysts of augite is
visible in plane-polarized light
because of slight differences in
absorption colour and density of
small inclusions.
zoning is seen more clearly and both
simple and lamellar twinning are
obvious. The long crystal at the
upper left of the field shows hour-
glass zoning as well as concentric
zoning. The interference colours
range up to middle second-order
blue.
The black circular regions were
probably leucite crystals originally
but are now mainly analcite.
The good cleavage usually
associated with pyroxenes does not
show up in these crystals. This is
also true of the pyroxenes in many of
the lunar rocks. [120]
Specimen from leucite-nepheline-

dolerite, Misches, Vogelsberg,
Germany. 20X
36
TITANAUGITE
Augites which are rich in Ti usually have a

purplish or brown colour in thin section. The
upper and middle photographs show crystals of
titanaugite taken in PP light; they have a
somewhat darker colour than usual. The
pleochroism is quite distinst as also is zoning of
the absorption colour. The colourless minerals in
this rock are sanidine, nepheline and leucite.
interpherence colours are, to some extent,
masked by the absorption colour but the crystals
at the bottom of the field of view show a third-
order green colour and this is a higher colour
than expected from a norml augite since it
represents a birefringence of about 0.04 if the
section is of standard thickness. In this view the
white area is almost entirely sanidine but the
dark region to the top left of the photograph is
part of a leucite crystal. [120]
Specimen from leucite-nepheline-dolerite,

Misches, Vogelsberg, Germany. 20X
37
CLINOPYROXENE & ORTHOPYROXENE INTERGROWTH

PP light, the dark crystals are
pyroxenes and the light crystals
plagioclase feldspars. In some of
the pyroxene crystals a lamellar
structure can be seen but this is more
clearly visible in the lower
photograph, taken under crossed
polars.
The large crystal just above the
centre of the field of view was
originally a pigeonite and inverted to
an orthopyroxene (dark-brown
interference colour) containing
lamellae of clinopyroxene (green)
parallel to (001) of the original
pigeonite: fine lamellae of
clinopyroxene (white) are oriented
parallel to (100) of the original
pigeonite. The crystal at the top left-
hand corner of the photograph is a
similar inverted pigeonite - the coarse
clinopyroxene lamellae are blue but
the fine lamellae are only just visible.
The simply-twinned crustal in the
lower part of the field of view (violet
and reddish-yellow interference
colours) is a clinopyroxene twinned
(100) and showing exsolution
lamellae of orthopyroxene or
pigeonite. [110] [124]
Specimen fromnorite, Bushveldt

intrusion, South Africa. 24X
38
AEGIRINE-AUGITE
(Na, Ca) (Fe, Mg) Si2O6

RI ß - 1.710 - 1.780

PP light show the green to brownish-yellow
colour and pleochroism which are diagnostic of
sodium-bearing pyroxenes. Zoning shown by
variation in the absorption colour is fairly
common in such pyroxenes. Most of the
crystals show only one of the perfect {110}
cleavages but a small crystal embedded in the
green mass to the right of the field shows both
cleavages clearly.
shows the birefringence associated with this
mineral. The distinction between pyroxene with
some of the aegirine molecule (NaFeSi2O6)
and one with a high proportion of the molecule
is made on the basis of refractive indices, optic
axial angle and extinction angle in an (010)
section so that it is not possible from these
photographs alone to determine whether this
mineral has a small or large amount of the
aegirine molecule. [132]
Specimen from sodalite-syenite, Ilimaussaq,

West Greenland. 32X
39
JADEITE
NaAlSi2O6

RI ß - 1.645 - 1.663

PP light, two cleavages can be seen
in some crystals, the others show one
cleavage. There is a slight difference
in colour between grains in this
section but this is due to stray
polarization in the photographic
equipment and is not a property of
this mineral.
under XP, shows the low
birefringence characteristic of jadeite
which serves to distinguish it from
other clinopyroxenes which have
moderate to high birefringence. This
section is from a vein in a serpentinite
and the whole field is occupied by
jadeite. [137]
Specimen from jadeite-serpentinite,

San Benito Quadrange, California,
USA. 58X
40
WOLLASTONITE
CaSiO3

RI ß - 1.628 - 1.650

PP light, shows a number of
wollastonite crystals lying sub-
parallel to the lenght of the
photograph. The other colourless
crystals are of nepheline and a few
deep green aegirine crystals are
also visible. The few slightly cloudy
regions (one is almost in the centre
of the field) are due to holes in the
slide. Wollastonite crystals are
elongated along the y
crystallographic axes and have three
cleavages, all of which are parallel to
the y axis so that most crystals show
at least one good cleavage.
under XP, the interference colours
extend up to first-order orange but
not to red: this is a useful diagnostic
property taken along with the
tendency for the crystals to be
elongated. Simple twinning is
common and is shown in the longest
crystal. [140]
Specimen from nepheline-

wollastonite rock, Oldoinyo Lengai,
Tanzania. 12X
41
PECTOLITE
Ca2NaSi3O8(OH)
Symetry - Triclinic (+)

RI ß - 1.605 - 1.615

PP light, colourless crystals of
pectolite stand out in relief against
the other colourless mineral, viz, a
sodic plagioclase feldspar and
microcline. Pectolite has two perfect
cleavages and so the large crystals
show at least one cleavage.
under XP, the pectolite crystals show
up clearly because of their bright
interference colours extending into
second-order blue.
The mineral with a slightly green
to brown colour in this rock is
eckermannite a fairly uncommon
amphibole; and a group of small
acicular crystals of sodic pyroxene.
[144]
Specimen from pectolite-

eckermannite-nepheline-syenite,
Norra Karr, Sweden. 53X
42
ANTHOPHYLLITE - GEDRITE
(Mg, Fe)7 Si8O22(OH,F)2 -
(Mg, Fe)8 Al4Si6O22 (OH, F)2

RI ß - 1.605 - 1.710
The name anthophyllite is used

for the Al-poor members of this series
and gedrite for the Al-rich minerals.
The upper photograph, taken in PP
light, shows anthophyllite, biotite and
cordierite. The anthophyllite shows
considerable relief against the
cordierite with hich it is intergrown
and the typical amphibole cleavages
at 120° are seen in some crystals.
The the lower photograph, taken
under XP, shows that the
birefringence is low in comparision
with that of most amphiboles.
Members of the anthophyllite-gedrite
series are orthorhombic in symmetry
and in this respect differ from other
amphiboles. The absence of twinning
is an indication that this may be an
orthorhombic amphibole although of
course this is not diagnostic. [156]
Specimen from cordierite-

anthophyllite schist, Pipra, Rewa
State, India. 62X
43
CUMMINGTONITE - GRUNERITE
(Mg, Fe)7 Si8O22(OH)2 -
(Mg, Fe)7 Si8O22 (OH)2

RI ß - 1.644 - 1.709
The name grunerite is used for

the Fe-rich members of this series
whereas cummingtonite is used for
the intermediate members. No pure
Mg end-member is known.
PP light, shows cummingtonite
crystals intergrown with a
plagioclase feldspar and a few
crystals of biotite. Unfortunately the
charactedristic amphibole cleavage
does not show up well in this thin
section. The dark edges to some of
the crystals have a deep olive-green
colour which is pleochroic and these
are probably due to a common
hornblende.
under XP, interference colours range
up to middle second order - the blue-
coloured crystals in the cenre of the
field show the highest colour in this
view, i.e. a second-order blue, so
that this is a fairly Mg-rich
cummingtonite since the colours
shown by grunerites extend well into
the third order. The fact that the
mineral has only a very pale colour in
PP light is also an indication that it is
not a grunerite since they tend to be
brownish in colour. Multiple twinning
is characteristic of members of this
series and can be seen in some of
the crystals near to the centre of the
field of view. [160]
Specimen from cummingtonite-

norite, Le Pallet, Nantes, France.
56X
44
TREMOLITE - FERROACTINOLITE
Ca2Mg5Si8O22 (OH,F)2 -
Ca2Fe5Si8O22 (OH,F)2

RI ß - 1.612 - 1.697
The uper and middle photographs, taken in PP

light, show a group of actinolite crystals, showing
pronounced pleochroism. Most of the crystals
show one good cleavage but none of them are cut
to show the angle between the {110} cleavages.
twinning in one or two of the crystals and this is
fairly common. The interference colours are
dominated by greens and browns but this is due
to the addition of the absorption colours.
This is actinolite rather than tremolite because
of its green colouration since tremolite is
colourless.
Since the common twin law for the monoclinic
amphiboles is reflection across (100), elongated
crystals showing a sharply defined twin junction
are the most suitable crystals for measuring the
extinction angle Y:z since these must be nearly
(010) sections. The large twinned crystal showing
one half of the crystal in the extinction position is
not in a suitable orientation, since the (100) plane
is quite oblique to the length of the section and
shows up aas a white band in this photograph.
[163]
45
HORNBLENDE
NaCa2(Mg,Fe)4AlSi6Al2O22 (OH, F)2
Symetry - Monoclinic (-) or (+)

RI ß - 1.618 - 1.714
The uper and middle photographs, taken in PP

light, show hornblende and biotite together with
quartz, alkali feldspar and a sodium-rich
plagioclase. The hornblende shows pleochroism
from green to brown whereas the pleochroism of
the biotite is from a dark brown to a pale brown. A
few of the hornblende crystals show the
characteristic shape and two cleavages at 120°.
Under XP (lower photograph) twinning can be
seen in a few of the hornblende crystals and the
highest interference colour seen in this view is a
second-order blue. The difference between biotite
and hornblende can be seen in this photograph by
the mottled appearance of the interference colours
in the large biotite crystal which is near to its
extinction position. [167]
Specimen from granite, Moor of Rannoch, Scotland.

20X
46
HORNBLENDE
NaCa2(Mg,Fe)4AlSi6Al2O22 (OH, F)2

RI ß - 1.618 - 1.714
The uper and middle photographs show

brownish phenocrysts of hornblende along with
plagioclase phenocrysts in a fine-grained
groundmass mainly of alkali feldspar. The typical
amphibole shape and cleavage can be seen in a
few crystals and the pleochroism is quite
pronounced. The opaque rims are probably due to
the formation of magnetite by oxidation of iron,
and are fairly common in hornblende in volcanic
rocks.
The interference colours (lower photograph)
tend to be obscured by the absorption colours; the
birefringence of common hornblende is low to
moderate. [167]
Specimen from trachyte, Lacqueille, Mt. Dore

region, France. 32X
47
KAERSUTITE
NaCa2(Mg,Fe)4(Ti,Fe)Al2Si6O22 (OH, F)2

RI ß - 1.690 - 1.741

PP light, show the strong pleochroism and fox-
brown colour which is characteristic of this
mineral. The amphibole shape and cleavages
are well displayed in the crystal in the centre of
the field.
The lower photograph taken under XP, shows
that the absorption colours are strong enough to
mask partly the interference colours, but the
birefringence of this mineral has a very large
range and is not a useful diagnostic property. It is
difficult to distinguish kaersutite from other brown
amphiboles. The amphibole in this rock was
previously known as barkevikite. [176]
Specimen from lugarite, Lugar Sill, Ayrshire,

Scotland. 20X
48
GLAUCOPHANE
Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2

RI ß - 1.622 - 1.667

PP light, show mainly glaucophane crystals with
a few small quartz crystals. The two prismatic
cleavages at 120° are clearly seen and the
striking absorption colours which vary from blue
to a lavender-blue are typical for this mineral.
The colours are zoned near the margins of some
crystals.
interference colours are lower order, but
anomalous because of the strong absorption
colours. The zoning is even more easily seen
under XP.
The only minerals which show comparable
absorption colours are eckermannite which may
show a pale lavender colour and yoderite (q.v.)
but both are very rare in occurrence. This
sample should possibly be described more
correctly as crossite since there is generally
some Fe+3 substituting for Al and the name
glaucophane is restricted to minerals with rather
low contents of Fe+3. [179]
Specimen from scist, Syphnos, Greece. 20X
49
ARFVEDSONITE
Na3(Mg,fE)4AlSi8O22(OH,F)2

RI ß - 1.679 - 1.709
In the upper and middle photographs, taken in

PP light, arfvedsonite is recognized by its
absorption colours which vary from a deep
Prussian blue to brownish-green colour. The blue
may be so dark that the crystals appear opaque.
None of these crystals show the typical amphibole
cleavage but the colour and pleochroism are
characteristic. In this rock the arfvedsonite is
intergrown with alkali feldspar, plagioclase and
quartz.
arfvedsonite shows anomalous interference
colours, because of the strong absorption colours.
The birefringence is low so that bright colours are
not to be expected.
It is difficult to distinguish arfvedsonite from
riebeckite since both may show the deep blue
absorption colour illustrated here, but riebeckite
does not show the brownish colour seen in this
sample. [187]
Specimen from syenite, Ilimaussaq intrusion, West

Greenland. 32X
50
AENIGMATITE
Na2Fe5TiSi6O20

RI ß - 1.820
In the upper and middle photographs, taken

in PP light, the very dark brown crystals are
aenigmatite. It is sometimes so dark as to
appear opaque but the brown colour can usually
be seen at the edges of the crystals. A few of the
crystals show cleavages and one crystal at the
bottom edge of the field has two cleavages at
approximatelly 120°; in this respect it could be
mistaken for an amphibole. That it is pleochroic
can be seen by comparing these two
photographs.
Under XP (lower photograph) the brown
colour masks any interference colours so that it
is not possible to estimate the birefringence. The
large rectangular crystals in this view are
sodium-rich alkali feldspars, one of them
being in the extinction position. The remainder of
the field is occupied by a brownish glass. [191]
Specimen from pantellerite, Pantelleria, Italy.

32X
51
ASTROPHYLLITE
(K,Na)3Fe7Ti2Si8O24(O,OH,F)7

RI ß - 1.703 - 1.726
Astrophyllite usually occurs in needle-

shaped crystals in radiating groups, but in this
section it occurs as rather shapeless crystals full
of inclusions in a fine-grained groundmass. The
upper and middle photographs show the
pleochroism which is from brown to a yellow
colour. Some crystals are much more distinctly
yellow than those illustrated. Most crystals show
one cleavage.
Because of the strong absorption colours it is
difficult to judge the order of the interference
colours shown in the lower photograph, taken
under XP, but the large crystal at the top of the
field shows a third-order green colour which
indicates a birefringence of at least 0.04 so we
know that the birefringence is fairly high.
The groundmass of this rock conists of a
sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar. [192]
Specimen from microsyenite, East Greenland.

20X
52
LAMPROPHYLLITE
Na3(cA,fE)tI3sI3o14(OH)

RI ß - 1.747 - 1.754
This mineral is included because it occurs in

some of the rocks from the Pilansberg complex
and the Bearpaw Mountains in Montana and
these may be represented in many teaching
collections.
Lamprophyllite is the pale-brown mineral
which shows slight pleochroism (compare upper
and middle photographs). A few euhedral crystals
can be seen and a cleavage is visible in a number
of crystals. (The greenish-coloured minerals are
aegirine-augite and arfvedsonite: the colourless
mineral is mainly alkali feldspar.
Under XP (lower photograph) a few of the
lamprophyllite crystals show very slightly
anomalous colours and one showing brown
colour. This crystal is cut nearly perpendicular to
an optic axis and the anomalous colour is due to
dispersion of the optic axes. Twinning can be
seen in one of the crystals. That the blue
interference colour is a second-order blue can be
readily seen at the wedge-like termination of one
of the crystals.
Specimen from green foyaite, Pilansberg, South

Africa. 44X
53
MUSCOVITE
KAl3Si3O10(OH,F)2

RI ß - 1.582 - 1.610
A very slight greenish tint (upper

photograph) can be seen in this
muscovite against the quartz with
which it is intergrown: this could be
due to the mineral being a phengite
rather than muscovite but in this case
it is due to slight stray polarization in
the photomicroscope. Most of the
crystals show the perfect basal
cleavage.
under XP, similar interference colours
are shown by most crystals due to a
preferred orientation in the rock: one
crystal near the top right-hand corner
of the photograph is cut nearly
parallel to the basal cleavage and so
gives a good interference figure.
Many of the crystals show twinning
and crystals which are near to the
extinction position show the mottled
appearance which is characteristic of
all micas. [201]
Specimen from kyanite schist,

Hamma of Snarravae, Unst,
Shetland, Scotland. 44X
54
BIOTITE
K(Mg,Fe)3Al3Si3O10(OH,F)2

RI ß - 1.605 - 1.696
Biotite is invariably brown or green in colour.

The upper and middle photographs, taken in PP
light, show a field almost entirely occupied by
biotite with numerous dark brown to black
pleochroic haloes. The perfect cleavage can be
seen in many of the crystals. The maximum
absorption colour is shown when the polarizer is
parallel to the cleavage.
crystals in the centre of the field are fairly close to
the extinction position, and this has been done to
emphasize the mottled appearance which is
chacarcteristic of all micas and is most clearly seen
when close to extinction.
The greenish crystal at the bottom left-hand
corner of the field is tourmaline. [211]
Specimen from biotite-kyanite-gneiss, Dun nan

Geard, Ross of Mull, Scotland. 52X
55
BIOTITE
K(Mg,Fe)3Al3Si3O10(OH,F)2

RI ß - 1.605 - 1.696
These photographs show brown phenocrysts

of biotite in a fine-grained groundmass. The
change in absorption colours on rotating the
polarizer (upper and middle photographs) and
zoning of the absorption colours is clearly seen.
This zoning is probably due to variation in Fe
and Ti contents.
zoning of the birefringence colours can also be
seen. The long crystal to the right of centre
shows blues and yellows which are second-
order colours.
The other minerals in the rock are feldspars
and a few microphenocrysts of pyroxene (high
relief). [211]
Specimen from lamprophyre, Puffin Bay, Herme,

Channel Islands. 32X
56
STILPNOMELANE
K(Mg,Fe,Al)3Si4O10(O,OH)2.3H2O

RI ß - 1.576 - 1.745
The brown lath-shaped crystals in these

photograph are of stilpnomelane and the
pronounced pleochroism is clearly illustrated by
the upper and middle photographs with the
polarizer rotated through 90°. It may be brown,
as in the example, or green and so can be
confused with biotite but the cleavages is not
nearly as well developed as in biotites. This
sample shows a darker brown colour than is
expected in a fresh sample because it is partly
oxidized.
The interference colours are generally
masked by the brown absorption colours as seen
in the lower photograph, taken under XP. There
are slight signs of another cleavage at right-
angles to the length of the crystals and when this
is clear it is a useful observation to distinguish
stilpnomelane from biotite.
The chemical formula given above is
simplified and does not show the wide variation
in composition which this mineral may have.
[222]
Specimen frommetamorphosed ironstone,

Laytonville, California, USA. 32X
57
PYROPHYLLITE
AlSi2O5(OH)

RI ß - 1.586 - 1.589
The upper photograph shows a

field of view almost entirely occupied
by pyrophyllite but there are no
features visible which permit easy
distinction between pyrophyllite and
muscovite.
Under XP, lower photograph, the
mottled appearance is also similar to
that of muscovite. This section was
chosen because it shows relatively
large crystals of pyrophillite and an
interference figure shows a moderate
optic axial angle in contrast to the
low value seen in muscovites.
Usually pyrophillite occurs in such
small crystals that it is impossible to
obtain an interference figure from
them. [225]
Specimen from unknown locality.

72X
58
TALC
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

RI ß - 1.589 - 1.594
Most of the field of view is occupied by talc in a

highly deformed rock. It is much easier to identify
talc in hand specimen than in thin section because
it feels slippery, whereas in thin section it can be
confused with a white mica. The change in relief
of different parts of the highly contorted bands of
talc is well illustrated by the upper and middle
photographs, taken with the polarizer in
orthogonal positions.
second-order interference colours over almost the
whole field except for small areas of chlorite
which is intergrown with the talc. The chlorite
shows a first-order grey or white colour. [227]
Specimen from Madran Mountain, Menderes

Massif, South West Turkey. 27X
59
CHLORITE
(Mg, Fe, Al)12 (Si,Al)8 O20 (OH)16

RI ß - 1.57 - 1.67
The term chlorite covers a wide

range of mineral compositions but
most members of this group are
either colourless or green in colour
and when green mineral is observed
intergrown with a brown biotite as in
the photograph adjacent it is likely to
be chlorite. The upper photograph,
taken in PP light, shows biotite
breaking down to a chlorite so that
residual brown flakes of biotite are
surrounded by pale green chlorite: it
is usually pleochroic. Chlorite has a
perfect basal cleavage but it is visible
in only a few crystals in this view.
anomalous interference colours
which are characteristic of some
chlorites are clearly seen. Although
all chlorites do not have anomalous
colours, their birrefringence is always
low. [231]
Specimen from mica-diorite, Glen

Loy, Scotland. 58X
60
CHLORITE
(Mg, Fe, Al)12 (Si,Al)8 O20 (OH)16

RI ß - 1.57 - 1.67
Only one photograph (upper)

taken in PP light is shown here
because there are enough crystals
in different orientations to show the
pleochroism from pale yellowish to
green. The perfect cleavage can be
clearly seen in many of the crystals
and others are cut nearly parallel to
the basal cleavage and, of course,
show no cleavage.
under XP, the low grey and
anomalous brown colours are
characteristic of some chlorites.
There are also signs of twinning in
some crystals.
The mineral with which the
chlorite is intergrown is adularia, a
K-rich feldspar formed in low-
temperature veins. [231]
Specimen from adularia-quartz vein,

St. Gottard, Switzerland. 72X
61
SERPENTINE
Mg3Si2O5 (OH)4

RI ß - 1.54 - 1.566
The name serpentine covers

three polymorphs which cannot easily
be distinguished optically, and many
specimens contain more than one
polymorphic form. This specimen is
probably a mixture of lizardine and
chrysotile.
The upper photograph shows
serpentine which is pale yellowish in
colour together with an opaque iron
oxide: this aggregate is undoubtedly
the result of breakdown of an olivine
or pyroxene, although relict crystal
shapes are not clearly defined as in
some examples.
under XP, shows the low first-order
colours characteristic of the
serpentine minerals and it also shows
a mesh texture which is a common
feature of this mineral and is fairly
diagnostic. [242]
Specimen from serpentinete, Lizard,

Cornwall, England. 20X
62
63
MICROCLINE
KAlSi3O8

RI ß - 1.518
The two photographs show a

perthitic microcline crystal cut
approximately parallel to (001) with
the trace of (010) parallel to the long
dimension of the photograph.
The upper photograph was taken
in PP light with the substage
diaphragm closed to accentuate the
relief in different parts of the section.
Parallel to the short edge of the
photograph are small veinlets
differing in relief from the host - these
are microperthitic albite lamellae. At
an angle of about 25° to the same
edge of the photograph there are
three or four thick veins of perthitic
albite which also differ in relief from
the surrounding material.
under XP, shows the cross-hatched
twinning (albite and pericline laws)
which is very characteristic of
microcline. The perthitic albite veins
at 25° to the short edge of the
photograph are rather dark here but
show twinning according to the albite
law - the composition plane (010) is
parallel to that of the albite twinned
lamellae in the microcline.
The twin lamellae in the
microcline are most sharply defined
close to the albite veins and they are
of variable width. This mineral should
not be confused with anorthoclase.
[285]
Specimen from pegmatite, Diamond

Mine, Topsham, Maine, USA. 43X
64
PERTHITE & MICROPERTHITE
(K,Na) AlSi3O8
Perthite is the name given to an intergrowth

of a K-rich and a Na-rich feldspar when the host
material is the K-rich feldspar. When the host
material is a plagioclase the name antiperthite
is used and when the Na-rich and K-rich phases
are in equal amounts the term mesoperthite is
used. Perthite is used when the intergrowth can
be seen in hand specimen and microperthite
when it is visible only under the microscope.
These three photographs were taken under XP.
The upper photograph shows most of the
field occupied by a mineral with a very dark grey
interference colour and small white blebs of
microperthitic albite fairly uniformly distributed
throughout. Two cleavages are visible almost at
right-angles to one another so that this section is
cut nearly perpendicular to the x axis. No
twinning is visible so it is likely to have
monoclinic symmetry and the name orthoclase-
microperthite is appropriate. A nearly centred
acute bisectrix interference figure is obtained
from this section with an optic axisal angle of
about 45°, a value appropriate for orthoclase-
microperthite.
The middle photograph is a coarse perthite
cut nearly parallel to (010). The white areas are
Na-feldspar and the dark areas are of K-
feldspar. Within the dark areas are fine light-
coloured lamellae of microperthitic albite which
lie an angle of approximately 75º to the trace of
the (001) cleavage which is parallel to the long
edge of the photograph. Although no twinning
can be seen in either the Na-rich or K-rich
phases, if albite twinning were present it would
not be seen in a section cut nearly parallel to
(010). In addition pericline twinning will not be
seen in a section cut exactly at right-angles to
the twin axis, the y crystallographic axis, and will
be difficult to detect in a section close to this
orientation. From this section alone it is not
possible to say whether the K-rich phase is
orthoclase or microcline.
The lower photograph is also of a
microperthitic feldspar in the same orientation as
the middle photograph, but here only
microperthitic albite is visible, oriented at about
75° to the trace of the (001) cleavage. [283]
Upper specimen from garnet-granulite, West of

Amboasry, Madagascar. 21X
Lower specimen from pegmatite, Kodarma,
Bihar, India. 25X
65
SANIDINE
(K,Na) AlSi3O8

RI ß - 1.522 - 1.528
The name sanidine is used for

monoclinic alkali feldspars which
occur in volcanic rocks; they are
usually fairly K-rich. The upper
photograph taken in PP light shows a
few phonocrysts of sanidine in a
groundmass also composed mainly
of sanidine. The regular arrangement
of inclusions at both ends of the
largest crystal outlines the shape of
the growing crystal.
Simple twinning, as seen in the
lower photograph taken under XP, is
very common in monoclinic alkali
feldspars and this serves to
distinguish them from plagioclases
since the latter usually show lamellar
twinning as well as simple twinning.
The twin law in this case is the
Carlsbad law which is the most
frequently observed twin law in
monoclinic feldspars. [285]
Specimen from phonolite, San

Angelo, Ischia, Italy. 24X
66
ANORTHOCLASE
(Na, K) AlSi3O8

RI ß - 1.528 - 1.532
The name anorthoclase is used

for triclinic Na-rich alkali feldspar
which occur in volcanic rocks. The
upper photograph taken in PP light
shows a group of crystals of
anorthoclase in a fine-grained
groundmass of alkali feldspar and
quartz. There are slight signs of
cleavages because the largest crystal
is cut almost at right-angles to both
(001) and (010) cleavages.
The lower photograpg, taken
under XP, shows albite and pericline
twin lamellae forming a cross-
hatched or 'tartan' pattern which at
first sight resembles the texture seen
in microcline. In anortoclase however
the lamellae are seen in sections cut
nearly perpendicular to the x
crystallographic axis as in this case
and, in this orientation, a nearly
centred acute bisectrix interference
figure can be obtained. [285]
Specimen from pantellerite,

Pantelleria, Italy. 37X
67
PLAGIOCLASE
NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8
Symetry - Triclinic (-) or (+)

RI ß - 1.532 - 1.585
These photographs are of a thin section of a

labradorite crystal cut almost exactly at right-
angles to the x crystallographic axis, and all
three exposures were made under XP. In the
upper photograph the (010) cleavage has been
set parallel to the long edge of the photograph
which is perpendicular to the vibration direction
of the polarizer. The (001) cleavage is not
parallel to the short edge of the photograph but
shows slight changes in direction at the
boundaries of the albite twin lamellae seen in the
two lower photographs. The middle and lower
photographs show the appearance of the section
after rotation to the extinction positions of the two
sets of twin lamellae. The angle of rotation in
each case is 26°: from a graph of composition in
the plagioclase fedspar series against extinction
angle in a section cut perpendicular to the x axis,
the composition of this crystal is abaout
Ab50An50. [318]
68
PLAGIOCLASE
NaAlSi3O8 - CaAl2Si2O8
Symetry - Triclinic (-) or (+)

RI ß - 1.532 - 1.585
These photographs show a

number of phenocrysts and
microphenocrysts of plagioclase in
the fine-grained groundmass of an
andesite (a few phenocrysts of
orthopyroxene are also visible). In
PP light (upper photograph) zoning
can be seen by the arrangement of
incluisons in the group of feldspar
crystals in the centre of the field.
Within this aggregate the brown
material is cryptocrystalline
groundmass incorporated in the
growing crystals.
Under XP (lower photograph)
lamellar twinning is visible in most of
the crystals and oscillatory zoning is
obvious in the crystals which are
near to their extinction positions. The
low grey interference colours are
slightly anomalous due to dispersion,
a feature which is not uncommon in
plagioclase from volcanic rocks.
[318]
Specimen from pyroxene-andesite,

Matra Hills, near Budapest, Hungary.
26X
69
QUARTZO
SiO2
Symetry - Trigonal (+)

RI ω - 1.544
ε - 1.553
Quartz is the most common of all

minerals and is fairly easily
distinguished from feldspar in thin
section because it is generally
unaltered and lacks visible twinning
or cleavage. (It may contain fluid
inclusions and if these are very small
and numerous they make give the
quartz a dusty appearance).
PP light, shows clear quartz
phenocrysts in a volcanic rock and
shows clear quartz phenocrysts in a
volcanic rock and these have
embayments against the groundmass
of the rock: this is not an uncommon
feature and although sometimes
interpreted as due to resorption of the
crystals it may be due to the rapidly
growing crystal enclosing the
groundmass material.
under XP, some crystals show the
white interference colours
characteristic of crystals cut nearly
parallel to the optic axis. Signs of a
yellowish interference colour is an
indication that the thin section is
slightly too thick. [340]
Specimen from quartz porphyry,

Dundubh, Isle of Arran, Scotland.
21X
70
QUARTZO
SiO2

RI ω - 1.544
ε - 1.553
These photographs show quartz

in a metamorphic rock. In the upper
photograph, taken in PP light, most of
the field of view appears to be
occupied by clear quartz crystals with
a few small inclusions. The minerals
at the corners of the photograph are
biotite and sillimanite.
under XP, individual crystals of quartz
can be seen but, within these, the
extinction is not uniform and this
shadowy extinction is fairly common
in deformed rocks. Closer inspection
of this view reveals that, at the top of
view, there are regions which differ in
that the crystals have dark borders
and dark veinlets penetrating into the
crystal: at the left-hand bottom corner
there are signs of twin lamellae in one
of the crystals. These are cordierite
crystals and they have been included
in this field of view to show that the
relief and birefringence of cordierite
may, depending on its composition,
be very similar to that of quartz but
can be distinguished by signs of
alteration to pinite at the edges of the
cordierite grains. [340]

gneiss, 11 km south of Ilhosy,
Madagascar. 43X
71
MYRMEKITE
This consists of an intergrowth of

plagioclase and quartz with a
vermicular texture which is clearly
seen in the lower photograph, taken
under XP. This should be compared
with granophyric texture. In the upper
photograph, taken under PP light the
intergrowth is almost invisible
because the plagioclase and the
intergrown quartz have almost the
same RI whereas the remainder of
the field, except for an apatite crystal
in the centre, is occupied by alkali
feldspar with lower RI. The alkali
feldspar has a microperthitic texture
with oriented inclusions of
plagioclase..
Specimen from charnockite, 25 km

NW of Fort Dauphin, Madagascar.
52X
72
GRANOPHYRIC TEXTURE
These photographs show an

intergrowth of quartz and alkali
feldspar. Even in PP light (upper
photograph) the intergrowth is visible
because of the difference in
refringence of the two minerals and
the fact that the alkali feldspar is
brown, due to alteration, whereas the
areas of quartz are clear. Under XP
(lower photograph) what appear to be
the outlines of individual crystals are
visible. What is not known is what
material these shapes represent
since each 'crystal' consists of about
equal amounts of quartz and feldspar
although it is probable that the crystal
outline is that of feldspar.
Specimen from granophyre, Eastern

Red Hills, Skye, Scotland. 32X
73
TRIDYMITE
SiO2

RI ß - 1.470 - 1.480

PP light, is of a fine-grained rock in
which there is an elongated cavity or
vein which is mainly filled with
tridymite. To the right of the
photograph the tridymite shows up in
relief against the mounting medium
where there are small holes in the
slide.
under XP, shows that the tridymite
has very low birefringence: the
wedge-shaped twinned crystals are
characteristic of this mineral.
Although the name tridymite implies
three-fold groups of twins, two-
twinned individuals are probably
more common. [340]
Specimen from dacite, Hakone

Volcano, Japan. 72X
74
CRISTOBALITE
SiO2

RI ε - 1.484
ω - 1.487

PP light, cristobalite is intergrown
with pyroxene (brown), plagioclase
feldspar (colourless) and opaque
crystals which are probably mainly
ilmenite. The cristobalite shows
moderate relief against the
plagioclase feldspars because of the
low index of the cristobalite. It is
characterized by what is known as
"tile" structure, i.e., resemblance to
curved tiles on a roof. Under XP
(lower photograph), the cristobalite
shows very low grey colours which
are characteristic. The different
orientations shown by the differences
in birefringence are partly due to the
tile structure but multiple twinning is
also present. [340]
Specimen from coarse-grained

basalt, Apollo 17 lunar sample.
164X
75
NEPHELINE
NaAlSiO4
Symetry - Hexagonal (-)

RI ε - 1.526 - 1542
ω - 1.529 - 1546
The colourless minerals in the

upper photograph, taken in PP light,
are mainly nepheline and
cancrinite. A light difference in relief
can just be detected but it is
necessary to look at the lower
photograph (taken under XP) too see
clearly that the areas with bright
interference colours consist of
cancrinite while the very dark areas
are of nepheline. No cleavages are
visible so that there is unlikely to be
any alkali feldspar in this field of
view. Cancrinite is very often
associated with nepheline
particularly in plutonic rocks and this
gives a clue to the presence of
nepheline.
The green mineral in these
photographs is aegirine-augite and
the occurrence of an alkali pyroxene
indicates that the rock is rich in
alkalis but is not necessarily
nepheline-bearing. [356]
Specimen from nepheline syenite,

Khabozero, Kole, URSS. 34X
76
NEPHELINE
NaAlSiO4

RI ε - 1.526 - 1542
ω - 1.529 - 1546
These photographs show

nepheline phenocrysts in the fine-
grained groundmass containing also
small green crystals of aegirine-
augite and a few crystals of sphene.
It is common to find nepheline
phenocrysts together with alkali
feldspar phenocrysts in the same
rock and it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish them (see photographs
on p. 78). All colourless phenocrysts
in this field of view are of nepheline
although there are some small
sanidines in the groundmass. The
crystals at the top left of the field of
view with the inclusion of aegirine-
augite shows a hexagonal outline but
is incomplete.
under XP, the two crystals at the
bottom edge of the field of view are
at extinction. A few small sanidine
crystals can be recognized in the
groundmass by the presence of
simple twinning. [356]
Specimen from phonolite, ejected

block, Oldoinyo Lengai, Tanzania.
20X
77
SANIDINE & NEPHELINE

PP light, shows phenocrysts of
nepheline and sanidine in a
groundmass composed mainly of the
same two minerals with some
pyroxene and a few minute crystals
of nosean. Because their relief and
birefringence are very similar it is
difficult to distinguish nepheline from
sanidine. Crystals which show a good
cleavage or simple twinning are
almost certainly sanidine: basal
sections are usually nearly square so
that the two narrow elongated
crystals in the centre of the field are
sanidines, whereas the group of
crystals to the right of the field
showing partly hexagonal shape are
nepheline.
Under XP (lower photograph) a
few crystals show simple twins: these
are sanidines twinned on the Baveno
law. In the group of crystals to the
right of the field, one of the crystals
showing hexagonal shape is almost
black and is nepheline cut almost
exactly perpendicular to the optic
axis, the other is cut slightly oblique
to the optic axis and shows very low
birefringence with slight zoning near
the margins. [285] [356]
Specimen from nosean phonolite,

Wolf Rock, Cornwall, England. 21X
78
LEUCITE
KAlSi2O6
Symetry - Tetragonal (Pseudocubic) (+)

RI η - 1.508 - 1.511

PP light, shows phenocrysts of
leucite together with
microphenocrysts of aegirine-augite
(greenish-brown) and nosean (zoned
brown crystals) in a fine-grained
groundmass mainly of plagioclase
but containing small leucite and
nosean crystals. Leucite sometimes
has radially or concentrically
arranged inclusions of glass but this
is not apparent here.
appearance of multiple twinning in
more than one orienteation is very
characteristic of leucite: very small
leucite crystals in the groundmass
appear isotropic. Leucite is
sometimes replaced by an
intergrowth of alkali feldspar and
nepheline while retaining the shape
of the leucite crystals and this is
termed pseudoleucite. [367]
Specimen from leucitophyre, Reiden,

Eifel, Germany. 20X
79
NOSEAN
6NaAlSiO4 . Na2SO4
Symetry - Cubic
RI η - 1.495
These photographs are from

different rocks and both are taken in
PP light only.
The upper photograph shows two
nosean phenocrysts with dark,
almost black, rims due to Fe oxide
inclusions: throughout the cores of
the crystals there are numerous
oriented inclusions. A few
microphenocrysts of leucite are
visible in the field and this is the
same rock as used to illustrate
leucite; there are also
microphenocrysts of nosean, dark
brown with inclusions similar to the
rims of the phenocrysts, green to
brown pyroxene in a fine
groundmass mainly of plagioclase
with some calcite shows weak
interference colours in this
photograph.
The lower photograph shows
nosean crystals, full of inclusions,
intergrown with sanidine which is
free from inclusions. The sub-stage
aperture has been opened wide but
closing it allows one to see the
difference in relief between the
nosean and the sanidine - nosean
has a much lower RI and is isotropic.
Upper specimen from leucitophyre,

Reiden, Eifel, Germany. 27X
Lower specimen from nosean
sanidinite, Laacher See, Germany.
53X
80
CANCRINITE
6NaAlSiO4 . Na2CO3

RI ε - 1.503
ω - 1.528
In the upper photograph, taken

in PP light, the objective was raised
slightly to show the Becke line. The
minerals which have the Becke line
within their boundaries are nepheline
and alkali feldspar which in this rock
have almost identical refractive
indices - the low refractive index
mineral is cancrinite.
cancrinite shows first-order colours,
except for the large crystal to the left
of the field which is a low second-
order bluish-red colour. In nepheline
syenites the appearance of a
colourless mineral with first- or
second-order interference colours
and a very low refractive index is
usually a good indication of the
presence of cancrinite and in turn this
leads the observer to look for the
presence of nepheline. [381]
Specimen from nepheline-syenite,

unknown locality. 72X
81
SCAPOLITE
3(NaAlSi3O8) . NaCl - 3(CaAlSi2O8) . CaCO3

RI ε - 1.540 - 1.564
ω - 1.546 - 1.600

PP light, shows mainly scapolite
(colourless) together with a pale
green clinopyroxene and one
crystal of biotite in the centre of the
field. A crystal at the lower left part of
the field shows two sets of cleavages
at right-angles to one another. Most
of the other crystals show at least
one cleavage.
under XP some of the crystals show
second-order colours but those
showing two cleavages have low
interference colours and are cut
nearly at right-angles to the optic axis
since the {100} cleavages are parallel
to the optic axis. The composition in
the scapolite series, from the
marialite end-member (Na-rich) to
the meionite end-member, is
obtained from either refractive index
determination or a measurement of
birefringence. [384]
Specimen from edge of phlogopite-

pegmatite, near MafilefY,
Madagascar. 20X
82
ANALCITE
NaAlSi2O6 . H2O
Symetry - Cubic
RI η - 1.479 - 1493

PP light, shows a triangular area of
analcite bounded by elongated
crystals of plagioclase. The
refractive index of analcite is very low
so that, with the sub-stage diaphragm
closed, it stands out in relif against
the surrounding minerals.
under XP, shows that the analcite is
isotropic. Sometimes analcite shows
dark grey interference colours and
complex twinning and in such cases it
can be mistaken for leucite. In some
rocks leucite may be entirely replaced
by analcite but rarely are the two
minerals seen together. It may be
necessary to measure the refractive
index to distinguish analcite from
leucite. [389]
Specimen from crinanite, Howford

Bridge, Ayrshire, Scotland. 62X
83
CORUNDUM
Al2O3

RI ε - 1.760 - 1.763
ω - 1.768 - 1.772
The upper photograph shows a

number of corundum crystals
embedded in feldspar. Its high relief
is characteristic and when it shows a
slight bluish colour, as it does here,
this is an indication of the presence
of sapphire (blue variety of
corundum). The almost black
material is glass ful of inclusions.
under XP, the highest colours seen
are first-order yellow. Because of its
extreme hardness corundum crystals
may be thicker than the surrounding
minerals and so show slightly higher
colours than the birefringence
indicates. Multiple twinning is quite
common in corundum but is not
present in any of these crystals.
[405]
Specimen from buchite,

Rudh'a'Chromain Sill, Ross of Mull,
Scotland. 52X
84
RUTILE
TiO2
Symetry - Tetragonal (+)
RI ω - 2.605 - 2.613
ε - 2.899 - 2.901
Birrefringence - 0.286 - 0.296
The upper and middle photographs show

some fairly large crystals of rutile in a mass of
altered plagioclase feldspar. One of the crystals
shows two good cleavages at an angle of
approximately 60°. The deep golden-brown
colour is fairly characteristic of rutile. Under XP
(middle photograph) it can be seen that there are
twin lamellae parallel to the traces of the two
cleavages, which are probably {011}. This crystal
has been set near to the extinction position to
show the twinning. Because of the strong
absorption colour it is not possible to estimate the
birefringence which is very high nor to be aware
of the very high refractive indices. The other
crystal which does not show twinning appears to
be the same colour in PP light and under XP.
The lower photograph, taken in PP light,
shows needles of rutile within biotite. The
occurrence of rutile as needles in biotite and
quartz is fairly common but when the needles are
as fine as those illustrated here there is very little
that can be done optically to establish that they
are indeeed rutile. [415]
Upper and middle specimen from altered

anorthosite, Roseland, Virginia, USA. 20X
Lower specimen from unknown locality. 72X
85
PEROVSKITE
CaTiO3
Symetry - Monoclinic (pseudo-cubic) (+)
RI η - 2.30 - 2.38

in PP light, shows a few dark brown
crystals of perovskite intergrown
with melilite (colourless) and Fe ore
(black). Zoning of the brown colour of
the perovskite can be seen. The
relief is very high but the strong
absorption colour tends to obscure
this.
In the low photograph, taken
under XP, the perovskite crystals are
birefringent and show complex
multiple twinning. This cross-hatched
twinning is a characteristic of
perovskite and serves to distinguish it
from some other dark minerals. Its
occurrence along with melilite is
common. [422]
Specimen from melilite rock, Scawt

Hill, County Antrim, Ireland. 43X
86
SPINEL
(Fe, Mg) Al2O4
Symetry - Cubic
RI η - 1.719 - 1.835
The spinel group covers a wide

range of chemical composition but
the common varieties are aluminous
with Fe and Mg substitution. The
range of RI given does not cover the
ferric ion and chromium-rich
varieties. The characteristic colours
are dark green brown and the two
microphotographs, both taken in PP
light, show two different occurrences.
The upper photograph shows dark
green spinel together with olivine.
The spinel crystals are subhedral in
shape and their colour is zoned so
that some of the crystals show
brownish cores.
In the lower photograph the spinel
is an even darker olive-green colour.
The shapes of the crystals are
determined by the calcic
plagioclase with which it is
intergrown. Some of the dark regions
in this field of view consist of glass
crowded with inclusions but these
can be readily distinguished from the
spinel because of the high relief of
the spinel. [424]
Upper specimen from spinel-

forsterite-xenolith, Vesuvius, Italy.
43X.
Lower specimen from buchite,
Rudh'a'Chromain Sill, Ross of Mull,
Scotland. 20X.
87
BRUCITE
Mg (OH)2
RI ω - 1.560 - 1.590
ε - 1.580 - 1.600

PP light, shows brucite (clear areas)
intergrown with dolomite (darker
areas). These are probably
pseudomorphs after periclase
(MgO).
In the view under XP (lower
photograph), the brucite areas
consist of aggregates of fibres with
low birefringence. A few regions
which show anomalous blue colours
are of serpentine. [434]
Specimen from brucite marble,

Ledberg, Assynt, Scotland. 72X
20X.
88
CALCITE
CaCO3
RI ε - 1.486
ω - 1.658
Most of the field of view is occupied by

calcite and the upper and middle photographs
taken in PP light show the change in relief
produced by rotating the polarizer through 90°.
This is referred to as 'twinkling' and is most easily
seen by rotating the polarizer as has been done
here. Because of the perfect rhombohedral
cleavage most crystals show at least one good
cleavage.
Under XP (lower photograph) the interference
colours can be seen to be of very high order: this
section may be slightly less than the normal 0.03
mm in thickness since in sections of standard
thickness the interference colour produced is a
high-order white. Twinning can be seen in a few
crystals and this can be useful in distinguish
calcite from dolomite. [476]
Specimen from diopside-forsterite marble, Loch

Duich, Scotland. 44X
89
DOLOMITE
CaMg (CO3)2
RI ε - 1.500
ω - 1.679
This section contains both calcite and

dolomite and, since the two minerals are
difficult to distinguish the thin section has been
stained. Most of the staining techniques used
depend on the fact that calcite is readily soluble
in dilute HCl whereas dolomite is not, so that
the material which is stained red in these
photographs is the calcite. In the upper and
middle photographs, taken in PP light, it can be
seen that there are lamellae of dolomite within
the stained calcite. The change in relief of the
dolomite caused by rotating the polarizer
through 90° is clearly shown.
The lower photograph (tanken under XP)
shows the high birefringence associated with
dolomite. The crystal showing a yellow colour to
the right of the field of view is forsterite. [489]
Specimen from forsterite marble, Sri Lanka.

43X
90
DOLOMITE
CaMg (CO3)2
RI ε - 1.500
ω - 1.679
These photographs were taken

from an unstained section of the
same rock used for the previous
photographs of dolomite. In the upper
photograph (taken under PP light)
two rhombohedral cleavages can be
seen at 120° in the crystal in the
upper part of the field.
under XP, twin lamellae are seen to
bisect the obtuse angle between the
cleavages, i.e. parallel to the short
diagonal of the rhomb shape formed
by the cleavages. Both dolomite and
calcite may have twin lamellae to the
long diagonal and parallel to the
rhombohedral cleavages themselves,
but only dolomite has twin lamellae in
the position shown here. [489]
Specimen from forsterite marble, Sri

Lanka. 43X
91
APATITE
Ca5(PO4)3 (OH,F,Cl)
RI ε - 1.624 - 1.666
ω - 1.629 - 1.667
In the upper photograph, taken

in PP light, needles and small
hexagonal crystals of apatite stand
out in relief against nepheline
(clear); the opaque mineral is
ilmenite, some of the ilmenite
crystals having rims of sphene.
under XP, shows that the
birefringence of apatite is about the
same as that of the nepheline, and
this taken along with the high RI is
useful for identification. The one grain
showing a blue-green interference
colour is aegirine-augite. [504]
Specimen from apatite-nepheline

rock, Lovozero, Kola, USSR. 40X
92
FLUORITE
CaF2
Symetry - Cubic
RI η - 1.433 - 1.435
These two photographs were

both taken in PP light. The upper
photograp shows a number of purple
crystals of fluorite intergrown with a
rare mineral of weberite. A few
crystals at the top of the photograph
show signs of the perfect {111}
cleavage. Fluorite has the lowest
refractive index of all the common
minerals and hence shows
considerable relief against most other
minerals. In this case the purple
colour gives a useful clue to its
identity.
The lower photograph shows
fluorite as small anhedral grains
intergrown with muscovite. Here
again the pale purple colour which is
unevenly distributed is useful for
identification: its isotropic character
and very low refractive index would
confirm the identification. [511]
Upper specimen from cryolite

deposit, Ivigtut, West Greenland. 32X
Lower specimen from granite,
Rostowrack, Cornwall, England. 44X
93
DEERITE
Fe(+2)12Fe(+3)6Si12O40 (OH)10
Symetry - Monoclinic
RI ß - 1.85

PP light, shows needle-shaped
deerite crystals intergrown with
quartz. The brown mineral at the
corners of the field is stilpnomelane.
The deerite crystals are slightly
transparent and show a brown
colour. There is a suggestion of a
diamond shape in some of the
section due to the development of
the {110} form.
Under XP (lower photograph) no
interference colours can be seen
because of the intense absorption.
Specimen from metamorphosed

siliceous ironstone, Laytonville,
California, USA. 43X
94
HOWIEITE
Na(Fe,Mn)10 (Fe,Al)2 Si12 (O, OH)44
Symetry - Triclinic
RI ß - 1.720
Most of the field of view is occupied by

howieite crystals and the pleochroism from
yellow to green to a lilac-grey can be seen in
different crystals by comparing the upper and
middle photographs. In most of the orientation
present, there are signs of cleavage.
Under XP (lower photograph), the
interference colours are second-order, but are
masked to some extent by the absorption
colours. The almost black mineral intergrown
with howieite is deerite.
Specimen from metamorphosed siliceous

ironstone, Laytonville, California, USA. 24X
95
ZUSSMANITE
K (Fe, Mg, Mn)13 Al2Si17 (O,OH)56
RI ε - 1.623
ω - 1.643
Comparision of the upper and middle

photographs, taken in PP light, shows
zussmanite, which is pleochroic from pale
yellow to pale green, occupying most of the field.
A very good cleavage is present in some crystals
and the relief against quartz is high.
reveals that the crystals showing the lowest
interference colours are those not showing a
cleavage. Sections cut nearly parallel to the
perfect cleavage show uniaxial interference
figures.
The brown mineral accompanying zussmanite
is stilpnomelane.
Specimen from metamorphosed siliceous

ironstone, Laytonville, California, USA. 43X
96
YODERITE
Al3MgSi2O8 (OH)
Symetry - monoclinic (+)
RI β - 1.691
The spetacular pleochroism of yoderite

from purple to a brownish colour can be seen by
comparing the two photographs taken in PP light
(upper and middle photographs). Its relief
against the surrounding quartz is high. The
purple colour is similar to that seen in
'glaucophane or crossite.
interference colour seen is a combination of the
absorption colour and a colour close to first-
order red. Because only one orientation is
represented here we cannot see the full range of
pleochroism or interference colours.
In this rock the yoderite occurs along with
quartz and talc and yoderite crystals usually
contain a core of kyanite which is not seen in
this sections.
Specimen from quartz-kyanite-talc schist, Mautia

Hill, Tanzania. 32X
97
INDEX
Actinolite 45 Muscovite 54
Aegirine-augite 39 Myrmekite 72
Aenigmatite 51 Nepheline 76 - 78
Allanite 25 Nosean 80
Analcite 83 Olivine 1-2
Andalusite 13 - 15 Orthite 25
Anorthoclase 67 Orthopyroxene 35
Anthophyllite 43 Pectolite 42
Apatite 92 Perovskite 86
Arfvedsonite 50 Perthite 65
Astrophyllite 52 Piemontite 24
Augite 36 - 37 Plagioclase 68 - 69
Axinite 34 Prehnite 63
Biotite 55 - 57 Pumpellyite 27
Brucite 88 Pyrophyllite 58
Calcite 89 Quartz 70 - 71
Cancrinite 81 Rutile 85
Chlorite 60 - 61 Sanidine 66 - 78
Chloritoid 19 Sapphirine 20
Chondrodite 4-5 Scapolite 82
Cordierite 30 - 31 Serpentine 62
Corundum 84 Sillimanite 10 - 11, 15
Cristobalite 75 Sphene 7
Cummingtonite 44 Spinel 87
Deerite 94 Staurolite 18
Dolomite 90 - 91 Stilpnomelane 57
Epidote 23 Talc 59
Eudialyte 21 Topaz 17
Fayalite 1-2 Tourmaline 32 - 33
Ferroactinolite 45 Tremolite 45
Fluorite 93 Tridymite 74
Forsterite 1-2 Vesuvianite 9
Garnet 8 Wollastonite 41
Gedrite 43 Yoderite 97
Glaucophane 49 Zircon 6
Granophyric texture 73 Zoisite 22
Grunerite 44 Zussmanite 96
Hornblende 46-47
Howieite 95
Idocrase 9
Jadeite 40
Kaersutite 48
Kyanite 16
Lamprophyllite 53
Lawsonite 26
Leucite 79
Melilite 28 - 29
Microcline 64
Monticellite 3
Mullite 12

Atlas of Rock-Formingminerals in Thin Sections

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atlas of Rock-Formingminerals in Thin Sections

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atlas of Rock-Formingminerals in Thin Sections

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Atlas of

W. S. MacKenzie and C. Guilford

Longman Scientific & Technical

Symetry - Orthorhombic (+) (-)

The olivines form a complete

Specimen from ankaramite, Mauna

Symetry - Orthorhombic (+) (-)

The olivines form a complete

Specimen from gabro picrite, Border

Symetry - Orthorhombic (-)

In the upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from monticellite-spinel-

Symetry - Monoclinic (+)

In this section a concentration of

Specimen from marble, Kilchrist,

Symetry - Tetragonal (+)

Zircon commonly occurs in rather

Specimen from segregation in

Symetry - Monoclinic (+)

Sphene is a relatively easy mineral to identify

Specimen from sphene-rich rock, Kola

A considerable range of compositions is

Upper and middle specimen frm garnet-mica

Symetry - Tetragonal (-)

In the upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from unknown locality. 25X

Symetry - Orthorhombic (+)

In the upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from garnet-cordierite-

Symetry - Orthorhombic (+)

These photographs show lath-like

Specimen from cordierite-sillimanite

Symetry - Orthorhombic (+)

Mullite usually occurs in very

Specimen from buchite.

Symetry - Orthorhombic (-)

The upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from chiastolite slate,

Symetry - Orthorhombic (-)

In thin section andalusite

Specimen from contact rock, Ardara

In the upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from contact rock,

Symetry - Triclinic (-)

In these photographs kyanite

Specimen from kyanite gneiss, Glen

Symetry - Orthorrombic (+)

The upper photograph, taken in

Specimen from topaz-tourmaline-

Symetry - Monoclinic (+)

The upper and middle photographs show

Specimen from staurolite schist, Waddy Lake,

Symetry - Monoclinic or triclinic (+) or (-)

The upper and middle photographs, taken in

Specimen from schist, Île de Grois, Brittany,

Symetry - Monoclinic (+) or (-)

In the upper and middle photographs, the

Specimen from schist, Val Codera, Italy. 27X

Symetry - Trigonal (+) or (-)