Astronomy -is the scientific study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets,

comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere
(such as the cosmic background radiation).

*The Goals and Scope of Astronomy- Since the late 19th century astronomy has
expanded to include astrophysics, the application of physical and chemical knowledge to an
understanding of the nature of celestial objects and the physical processes that control their
formation, evolution, and emission of radiation.

*Theories About the Origin of the Solar System- Since the late 19th
century astronomy has expanded to include astrophysics, the application of physical and
chemical knowledge to an understanding of the nature of celestial objects and the physical
processes that control their formation, evolution, and emission of radiation.

*The Sun- The Sun, or Sol, is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect
sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a
dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth.

>The Parts of the Sun

1. Hydrogen and helium

2. The core
3. The radiative zone
4. The convective zone
5. The photosphere
6. The solar atmosphere
7. Neutrinos
8. Radio emissions
9. X-rays
10. Prominence
11. Flare

>The Life Expectancy of the Sun- Existing for about 4 and a half billion years, it has burnt up
about half of the hydrogen in its core. This leaves the Sun's life expectancy to 5 billion more years, at
which time, the Sun's elements will "swell" up, swallow Earth, and eventually die off into a small white
dwarf.

*The Moon- The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits the Earth as its only permanent
natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest satellite in the Solar System, and the largest among
planetary satellites relative to the size of the planet that it orbits (its primary).

>Phases of the Moon and Eclipses- Phases of the Moon are dependent on which side of
the moon is visible from Earth. ... A eclipse occurs when the Sun, Earth and Moon are in the same line.
For a lunar eclipse, the Earth is in between and its shadow is cast on the moon. However, for a full moon,
the sun, earth and the moon are in the same plane.

*Tides- Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth.

*Planets- A planet is an astronomical body orbiting a star or stellar remnant that is massive
enough to be rounded by its own gravity, is not massive enough to cause thermonuclear fusion,
and has cleared its neighbouring region of planetesimals.

>The Inner Planets/Terrestrial Planets- The four innermost planets in the Solar System
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are sometimes called the "terrestrial" planets because of their
proximity to Earth ("Terra" in Latin) and their similarity as compact solid bodies with rocky surfaces.

Mercury- is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System. Its orbit around the Sun takes
only 87.97 days, the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System. It is named after the Roman
deity Mercury, the messenger of the gods.

Venus- is the second planet from the Sun. It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty.
As the second-brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon, Venus can cast shadows and,
rarely, is visible to the naked eye in broad daylight

Earth- is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life.
According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence, Earth formed over 4.5 billion years
ago.[24][25][26] Earth's gravity interacts with other objects in space, especially the Sun and the Moon,
which is Earth's only natural satellite. Earth orbits around the Sun in 365.26 days, a period known as
an Earth year. During this time, Earth rotates about its axis about 366.26 times.

Mars- iis the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar
System after Mercury. In English, Mars carries a name of the Roman god of war and is often
referred to as the 'Red Planet'.[

>The Outer Planets/Jovian Planets- The four planets farthest from the Sun are the outer
planets. Figure below shows the relative sizes of the outer planets and the Sun. These planets are much
larger than the inner planets and are made primarily of gases and liquids, so they are also called gas
giants.

Jupiter- is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with
a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun, but two-and-a-half times that of all the other planets in the
Solar System combined. Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity.

Uranus- It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar
System. Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune, and both have bulk chemical compositions
which differ from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn.

Saturn- is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It
is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth.[14][15] It has only one-eighth the
average density of Earth; however, with its larger volume, Saturn is over 95 times more massive.
Neptune- is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun in the Solar System. In the Solar
System, it is the fourth-largest planet by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the
densest giant planet. Neptune is 17 times the mass of Earth, slightly more massive than its near-
twin Uranus. Neptune is denser and physically smaller than Uranus because its greater mass
causes more gravitational compression of its atmosphere. Neptune orbits the Sun once every
164.8 years at an average distance of 30.1 au (4.5 billion km; 2.8 billion mi)

Pluto- is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond Neptune. It was the first Kuiper
belt object to be discovered and is the largest known plutoid (or ice dwarf).
 Other Celestial Bodies- An astronomical object or celestial object is a naturally
occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable
universe.[1] In astronomy, the terms object and body are often used interchangeably.
However, an astronomical body or celestial body is a single, tightly bound, contiguous
entity, while an astronomical or celestial object is a complex, less cohesively bound
structure, which may consist of multiple bodies or even other objects with substructures.

*Comets- These are small chunks of ice and rock that come from the outer edge of the solar
system. When its orbit brings it closer to the sun, the ice on them vaporizes creating a beautiful
tail behind them.

*Asteroids- These are small chunks of ice and rock that come from the outer edge of the solar
system. When its orbit brings it closer to the sun, the ice on them vaporizes creating a beautiful tail
behind them.

*Meteors- These are objects from space that enter our atmosphere as they are pulled by the
earth’s gravity. Meteors usually are small and burn up in the atmosphere as they enter the earth.
This creates streaks in the sky as though a star has fallen. They are commonly called shooting
stars. If a meteor is large enough it can reach the ground and create a crater. Such objects are
called meteorites.

*Stars- Stars are giant balls of hot gases that can produce their own light. Stars give out energy
by converting Hydrogen gas into Helium in their cores. Stars are gigantic in size and have
immense gravitational attraction. The sun is a medium-sized star that gives us energy and makes life
possible on earth.

*Galaxy- Galaxies are large groups of stars held together by gravity. The sun and the solar
system is part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way. Other galaxies are usually so far away that they
look like stars in the night sky. The Andromeda galaxy and the Large Magellanic Cloud are galaxies
that can be seen with the naked eye on a clear night.

>Name of Stars- Most stars have scientific names, but some have common names that have
been passed down through history. Some astronomers use the scientific name, while others use
the common name. Here’s a list of the brightest stars in the sky:

1. Sirius
2. Canopus
3. Arcturus
4. Alpha Centauri A
5. Vega
6. Rigel
7. Procyon
8. Achernar
9. Betelgeuse
10. Hadar (Agena)
11. Capella A
12. Altair
13. Aldebaran
14. Capella B
15. Spica
16. Antares
17. Pollux
18. Fomalhaut
19. Deneb
20. Mimosa

>Properties of Stars-

1. BRIGHTNESS. This is not a fundamental property, but a combination of the luminosity

and distance to a star (and in some cases also dependent on the amount of absorption
in the direction of a star).
2. DISTANCE. From trigonometric and spectroscopic parallaxes. Determining distances to
stars is how we figure out the scale of things in the Galaxy and is CRUCIAL to
understanding stars because we can use the inverse square law for light dimming along
with apparent brightness of stars to figure out how much energy is being produced and
radiated away.
3. LUMINOSITY. This is the amount of energy generated in the star and released as
electromagnetic radiation.
4. RADIUS ``Size''. From Stephan's Law.
5. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. From the absorption line spectra. This one is tied up in a
semi-complicated way with the next one.
6. TEMPERATURE. We have talked about Wien's Law and using colors to derive stellar
temperatures, but, there are some complications. To REALLY get to surface
temperatures of stars, we need to learn about and understand stellar Spectral Types.

>Star Groupings- Constellations are imaginary groupings of stars on the celestial sphere,
but some of the more familiar "constellations" are technically not constellations at all. For
example, the grouping of stars shown in the adjacent figure that is known as the Big Dipper is
probably familiar to most, but it is not actually a constellation. The Big Dipper is part of a larger
grouping of stars called the Big Bear (Ursa Major) that is a constellation. A well-known grouping
of stars like the Big Dipper that is not officially recognized as a constellation is called
an asterism. In the adjacent figure the Big Dipper is an asterism contained in the constellation
Ursa Major.

>The Milky Way- The Milky Way is the galaxy[nb 1] that contains the Solar System, with the
name describing the galaxy's appearance from Earth: a hazy band of light seen in the night
sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye.

>Constellations- Constellations are typically grouped around asterisms, patterns formed

by prominent, relatively bright stars that appear to be close to each other in the night sky.
Geology- is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also
include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such
as Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other earth sciences,
including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so is treated as one major
aspect of integrated earth system science and planetary science.

Astronomical Studies About the Earth-

1. AGE OF THE EARTH

 Estimated age for the Earth and the rest of the solar system is about 4.55 billion
years comes from Lead isotope measurements.
 The oldest Earth rocks: 3.8 to 3.9 billion years
 Oldest Earth minerals (zircons): 4.2 billion years
 Oldest Moon rocks: 4.44 billion years Early Earth Timeline
• About 5.5-6 billion years ago (BYA), the solar nebula begins to collapse • About 4.6
BYA, Sun begins fusion
• About 4.5-4.56 BYA, Proto-Earth formed from planetesimals.
• 4.44+ BYA, Earth-Moon formed by giant impact. Earth melts, Magma Ocean.
• 4.2 BYA, Earth was completely differentiated.
• 4 BYA, earliest oceans formed, thick atmosphere exists
• 3.8 BYA, life develops
• 2.5-3 BYA, photosynthesis leads to O2 in ocean
• 2 BYA, O2 hits atmosphere 2. THE SIZE AND SHAPE OF THE EARTH A.
Evidence that Earth is Spherical
1. The mast of a ship is the 1st part to appear over the horizon & the last to
disappear.
2. Photographs of Earth from space
3. An eclipse of the moon occurs when Earth's shadow falls on the moon The
shadow is always an arc of a circle.
4. Ships sailing north or south observed changes in the nighttime sky.  North Star
appears higher in the sky as a ship travels north  Ships sailing south lose sight of
the Big Dipper & begin to see the Southern Cross B. Oblate Spheroid  Sphere that
is slightly flattened at the poles & bulged at the equator  Caused by Earth's rotation
II. Earth’s Density A. Density – The amount of matter (mass) in a given space
(volume)  Average density = 5.5 g/cm3 III. Measuring Earth's Circumference 
Eratosthenes (er uh Tos thuh neez) Believed the sun's rays hit the Earth as parallel
lines  Eratosthenes figured Scene was due south of Alexandria (He was slightly off
on this one)  Distance between Syene & Alexandria (925km) slightly off  Thought
both cities were on the same line of longitude (off on this by 30)  Believed the sun's
rays hit the Earth as parallel lines  Eratosthenes figured Syene was due south of
Alexandria (He was slightly off on this one)  Distance between Syene & Alexandria
(925km) slightly off  Thought both cities were on the same line of longitude (off on
this by 30) IV. Types of Data  Qualitative – data that is relative but not numeric. –
Ex. The color of an object or stating someone is tall or taller than another person 
Quantitative – data where a numeric measurement or a count of objects has been
made
 3. PROOFS ABOUT THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH What is Earth’s shape?
Is it flat like a coin or spherical like a ball? Perhaps it’s like a tin can, flat on the ends
and round in the middle?  Describe the evidence that best supports you answer.
Spherical Earth?  Scientists claim that Earth is much like a slightly flattened ball - an
oblate spheroid.  How do they know or do the merely have faith in the claim?  What is
the evidence that supports a scientific belief in a roughly spherical Earth? Ships appear
to sink gradually below horizon from bottom up. Polaris, the North Star  Is located
practically over the North Pole of planet Earth.  If you stood at the North Pole, Polaris
would be almost directly overhead. Why do observations of Polaris help determine
Earth’s shape?  The North Star gradually appears lower and lower in the sky as you
travel toward the equator.  When the North Star is visible at the horizon, you are
located at the equator.  South of the equator the North Star is not visible at all.  These
observations are possible only for a roughly spherical Earth. Many other indications… 
Circumnavigation of the globe.  Existence of time zones.  Earth-orbiting satellites. 
Photographs from space.  Eyewitness reports of astronauts.  Other objects - sun,
moon, planets - are roughly spherical. Is Earth perfectly spherical?  The Earth is NOT a
perfect sphere  It is flattened at the poles and bulges at the equator due to its spinning.
 Earth is very slightly out of round or OBLATE.  Saturn is an even better example of
being oblate. What proof is there that the Earth is slightly oblate?  Gravity
measurements. Gravity is the force of attraction between any two objects. Increase
mass of objects = increase gravity Decrease distances = increase gravity  If Earth were
a perfect sphere, it would be expected to exert an equal force on objects at equal
distances from the center of earth. The Oblate Sphere  The difference with a sphere is
small  We cannot see it with the naked eye Earth still appears like a sphere 4.
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH Earth’s Rotation • Rotation is the spinning of the Earth on its
axis. • The time for one rotation is 24 hours. • The speed of rotation 24,855 miles/24 hr
or 1,038 miles/hr Earth’s Revolution • A revolution occurs as the earth moves around the
sun. • Time for one revolution = 365 1/4 days = 8,766 hours • The speed of earth’s
revolution is about 18 miles per second. Earth’s Orbit • The path an object takes as it
revolves around another object. Around and Around We Go • Every second that you sit
in this classroom the Earth's orbital motion carries you about 18 miles through space.

Geological Forces That Shape the Earth-