Laboratory

Testing
Manual

Soil
Mechanic
s Testing
Moisture Content
Objective
To determine the amount of water present in a soil expressed as a percentage of
the mass of dry soil. This is termed the moisture content of the soil.

Main Principles
The moisture content of a soil is assumed to be the amount of water
within the pore space between the soil grains which is removable by oven-
drying at a temperature not exceeding 110 °C. The moisture content has
aprofound effect on soil behaviour.

The oven-drying method is regarded as standard laboratory practice.

References
ASTM D2216-98 / ASTM D4643-00

Required equipment
 a drying oven with temperature of 105 °C to 110 °C
 a balance readable to 0,1 g
 a metal container

Test Procedure
Step 1: Clean and dry the container, then weigh it to the nearest 0.1 g (m )

Step 2: A representative sample shall be crumbled and loosely placed

inthe container.
 For fine-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 30 g.
 For medium-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 300 g.
 For coarse-grained soils the sample weight shall be min. 3 kg.
Step 3: The container with sample shall immediately be weighed
(m2) and placed in the oven to dry at 105 °C for minimum
12 hours.
Step 4: After drying, weigh the container and the contents (m3)

Calculations
Calculate the Moisture Content of the soil specimen, w, as a percentage
of the dry soil mass to the nearest 0.1%, from the equation:
W = m2 - m3 )x 100 (%)
(

m3 - ml

where
m1 is the mass of the container (in g)
m2 is the mass of the container and wet soil (in g)
m3 is the mass of the container and dry soil (in g)
Report
The test report shall include the following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test results, individual values and average value
d) The final moisture content (w) is reported to two significant figures.

Form for the test

The enclosed form "Moisture Content" shall be used.

Practical Considerations
One may control that the material is completely dry by holding a
beakerwith cold water directly above the sample. If the sample is not
dry, moisture will condense on the outside of the glass.

Maintenance
The balance and the drying oven shall be checked and calibrated regularly
(every month) with respect to weight and temperature.
It is important that the containers are kept clean and dry.
 Liquid Limit , Plastic Limit and Plasticity
Index

Objective
1. The liquid limit is the empirically established moisture content at
which asoil passes from the liquid state to the plastic state.

The liquid limit provides a means of identifying and classifying fine-

grained cohesive soils especially when also the plastic limit is
known.Variations in the moisture content in a soil may have significant
effect onits shear strength, especially on fine-grained soils.

2. The Plastic Limit is the empirically established moisture content at

which asoil becomes too dry to be plastic.

It is used together with the Liquid Limit to determine the Plasticity

Indexwhich when plotted against the Liquid Limit on the plasticity
chartprovides a means of classifying cohesive soils. The Plasticity Index
is thedifference between the Liquid Limit and the Plastic Limit. The
PlasticityIndex is the range of moisture content in which a soil is
plastic; the finerthe soil, the greater the Plasticity Index.

Main Principles
1. The Casagrandetest is essentially a static test depending on soil
shear strength.

This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a sample in its
natural state, or a sample from which material retained on a # 40
testsieve has been removed.

2. This method covers the determination of the liquid limit of a sample in

itsnatural state, or a sample from which material retained on a # 40
testsieve has been removed

References
ASTM D4318-00

Required equipment
 Liquid-limit device with grooving tool(Casagrande)
 Test sieves of sizes # 40
 An airtight container / moisture cups
 A fl at glass plate
 Two palette knives or spatulas
 An evaporating dish or a damp cloth
 Apparatus for moisture content determination
  A wash bottle containing clean water
 Balance sensitivity to 0.01g

Sample preparation
Step 1: Take a sample of the soil of sufficient size to give a test
specimen weighing about 400 g which passes the # 40 sieve.
This should be enough material for both Plastic Limit and Linear
Shrinkage tests in addition to the Liquid Limit test.
Step 2: Transfer the soil to a glass plate. Add water and mix
thoroughlywith two palette knives until the mass becomes a
thickhomogeneous paste.
Step 3: Place the paste in an airtight container and allow to stand for 16 -24
hours to enable the water
to permeate through the soil.

LIQUID LIMIT Test Procedure

Step 1: Thoroughly remix the specimen (soil) in its mixing cup, and, if
necessary, adjust its water content until the constancy requires
about 25 to 35 blows of the liquid limit device to close the
groove. Using a spatula, place a portion(s) of the prepared soil
in the cup of the liquid limit device at the point where the cup
rests on the base, squeeze it down, and spread it into the cup to
a depth of about 10 mm at its deepest point, tapering to form
an approximately horizontal surface. Take care to eliminate air
bubbles from the soil pat, but form the pat with as few strokes
as possible. Keep the unused soil in the mixing/storage dish.
Cover the dish with a wet towel (or use other means) to retain
the moisture in the soil.
Step 2: Form a groove in the soil pat by drawing the tool, beveled edge forward,
through the soil on a line joining the highest point to the lowest point on
the rim of the cup. When cutting the groove, hold the grooving tool against
the surface of the cup and draw in an arc, maintaining the tool
perpendicular to the surface of the cup throughout its movement.. In
soils where a groove cannot be made in one stroke without tearing the
soil, cut the groove with several strokes of the grooving tool.
Alternatively, cut the groove to slightly less than required dimensions with
a spatula and use the grooving tool to bring the groove to final dimensions.
Exercise extreme care to prevent sliding the soil pat relative to the
surface of the cup.
Step 3: Verify that no crumbs of soil are present on the base or the
underside of the cup. Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank
at a rate of 1.9 to 2.1 drops per second until the two halves of
the soil pat come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of 13 mm (1⁄2 in.)
Step 4: Verify that an air bubble has not caused premature closing of
the groove by observing that both sides of the groove have
flowed together with approximately the same shape. If a bubble
has caused premature closing of the groove, reform the soil in
the cup,
 adding a small amount of soil to make up for that lost in the
grooving operation and repeat step 1-.3. If the soil slides on the
surface of the cup, repeat step 1-.3 at a higher water content. If,
after several trials at successively higher water contents, the soil
pat continues to slide in the cup or if the number of blows
required to close the groove is always less than 25, record that
the liquid limit could not be determined, and report the soil as
nonplastic without performing the plastic limit test
Step 5: Record the number of drops, N, required to close the groove. Remove a
slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, extending from edge to
edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove and including that
portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together, place in a container
of known mass, and cover.
Step 6: Return the soil remaining in the cup to the dish. Wash and dry the cup
and grooving tool and reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for
the next trial
Step 7: Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to
increase the water content of the soil and decrease the number of blows
required to close the groove. Repeat 11.1-11.6 for at least two additional
trials producing successively lower numbers of blows to close the groove.
One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for
closure between 20 and 30 blows, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to
25 blows.
Step 8: Determine the water content, Wn, of the soil specimen from each trial
in accordance with Test Method D 2216.
Step 9: Determination of initial masses (container plus moist soil) should be
performed immediately after completion of the test. If the test is to be
interrupted for more than about 15 minutes, determine the mass of the
water content specimens already obtained at the time of the interruption.

Calculations
Plot the relationship between the water content, Wn, and the corresponding
number of drops, N, of the cup on a semilogarithmic graph with the water
content as ordinates on the arithmetical scale, and the number of drops as
abscissas on a logarithmic scale. Draw the best straight line through the three
or more plotted points.
Take the water content corresponding to the intersection of the line with the
25- drop abscissa as the liquid limit of the soil and round to the nearest whole
number. Computational methods may be substituted for the graphical method
for fitting a straight line to the data and determining the liquid limit .

Report
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Liquid Limit of the soil sample
 d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after
sieving e) Form for the test
The enclosed form shall be used.
Practical Considerations
Take care not to damage the point of the cone by accidentally dropping
the cone on the base plate.
To avoid corrosion on the cone, it must be kept clean at all times. The cone
corrodes easily, and rust could appear after just a few hours if it is
leftunclean.

Maintenance
Calibration of Apparatus
Inspection of Wear:
Liquid Limit Device—Determine that the liquid limit device is clean and in
good working order. Check the following specific points.
Wear of Base—The spot on the base where the cup makes contact should be
worn no greater than 10 mm (3⁄8 in.) in diameter. If the wear spot is greater than
this, the base can be machined to remove the worn spot provided the resurfacing
does not make the base thinner than specified in 6.1 and the other dimensional
relationships are maintained.
Wear of Cup—Replace the cup when the grooving tool has worn a depression in
the cup 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) deep or when the rim of the cup has been reduced to
half its original thickness. Verify that the cup is firmly attached to the cup
hanger.
Wear of Cup Hanger—Verify that the cup hanger pivot does not bind and is not
worn to an extent that allows more than 3 mm ( 1⁄8 in.) side-to-side movement of
the lowest point on the rim.
Wear of Cam—The cam shall not be worn to an extent that the cup drops
before the cup hanger (cam follower) loses contact with the cam.
Grooving Tools—Inspect grooving tools for wear on a frequent and regular basis.
The rapidity of wear depends on the material from which the tool is made, and
the types of soils being tested. Soils containing a large proportion of fine sand
particles may cause rapid wear of grooving tools; therefore, when testing these
materials, tools should be inspected more frequently than for other soils.
Adjustment of Height-of-Drop—Adjust the height-ofdrop of the cup so that the
point on the cup that comes in contact with the base rises to a height of 10 ±
0.2 mm. See Fig. 2 for proper location of the gage relative to the cup during
adjustment.
Keep the equipment clean at all times.
PLASTIC LIMIT Test Procedure
Step 1: Take the 40 g soil paste sample and place it on a glass plate.
Step 2: Allow the soil to dry partially until it becomes plastic enough
tobe shaped into a ball.
Step 3: Mould the ball of soil between the fingers and roll it between
thepalms of the hands until the heat of the hands has dried the
soilsufficiently for slight cracks to appear on its surface.
Step 4: Divide this sample into 2 sub-samples of about 20 g each
andcarry out separate determination on each portion. (Divide each
ofthe 2 sub- samples into 4 more or less equal parts).
Step 5: Mould the soil in the fingers to equalize the distribution
ofmoisture. Then form the soil into a thread about 6 mm
diameterbetween the first finger and thumb of each hand.
Step 6: Roll the thread between the fingers, from finger-tip to the
secondjoint, of one hand and the surface of the glass plate. Use
enoughpressure to reduce the diameter of the thread to about 3
mm in 5to 10 complete, forward and back, movements of the
hand.
Step 7: Pick up the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it
further,form it into a thread and roll it out again as specified
above.
Step 8: The procedure shall be repeated until the thread shears both
longitudinally and transversely when rolled to about 3 mm
diameter. The metal rod may be used to gauge the diameter.
Thefirst crumbling point is the Plastic Limit.
Step 9: Gather together the pieces of crumbled soil thread and
transfer them to a suitable container for determination of the
moisture content and replace the lid immediately.
Step 10: Repeat the rolling procedure on the other 3 portions of the sub-
sample, placing them all in the same container for
determinationof the moisture content.
Step 11: Repeat the rolling procedure on the 2ndsub-sample as
described above so that 2 completely separate determinations
are made.

Calculations
1) Calculate the moisture content of both samples. If the 2
resultsdiffer by more than 0.5 % moisture content, repeat the
whole test.
2) Calculate the average of the 2 moisture content values and
express the value to the nearest whole number. This is the
Plastic Limit (wy).

Report
The test report shall include the following:
 a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Test result, i.e. the Plastic Limit of the soil sample
d) Whether the material was tested in the natural state or after sieving
If it is not possible to perform the Plastic Limit, the soil is reported as non-
plastic (NP).

Derivation of Plasticity Index

The Plasticity Index (Ip) is defined as the difference between the LiquidLimit
(wL) and the Plastic Limit (wp ), and is calculated from the equation:
,

Ip = wl - w
, p

This value is also reported to the nearest whole number.

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used.

Practical Considerations
The hands of the operator should be clean and dry when performing the
test.

Maintenance
The equipment shall be kept clean at all times.
Particle Size Distribution- Mechanical Sieve
Analysis

Objective
A particle size distribution analysis is a necessary classification test for
soils, especially coarse soils, in that it presents the relative portions
ofdifferent sizes of particles. From this it is possible to determine
whether the soil consists of predominantly gravel, sand, silt or clay sizes
and, to alimited extent, which of these size ranges is likely to control
the engineering properties of the soil.

Main Principles
The procedure given involves preparation of the sample by wet sieving to
remove silt and clay sized particles. Followed by dry sieving of
theremaining coarse material.

This method covers the quantitative determination of particle

sizedistribution in an essentially cohesionless soil, down to fine sand size.
Thecombined silt clay can be obtained by difference. If the soil does
notcontain particles retained on a 2 mm test sieve in significant
quantity, thehydrometer method shall be used.

References
ASTM D421-85 & ASTM D422-63

Required equipment
 Test sieves (Availability of the following sieves): 100 mm, 75 mm,
63 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 37 .5 mm, 31.5 mm, 25 mm, 19 mm,16
mm, 12.5 mm, 9.5 mm, 8 mm, 6.3 mm, 4.75 mm, 4 mm, 3.35
mm, 2.80 mm, 2.36 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.7 mm, 1.4 mm, 1.18 mm, 1.0
mm, 850 µm, 710 µm, 600 µm, 500 µm, 425 µm, 355 µm,
300 µm, 250 µm, 212 µm, 180 µm,
150 µm, 125 µm, 106 µm, 90 µm, 75 µm, 63 µm, 53 µm, 45 µm,
and 38 µm
 Lid and rec eiver .

 A balance readable and accurate to 0 .5 g .

 A drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 105°C to110°C
.
 Evaporating dishes.
 Met al tray s .
 Scoop.
 Sieve br ushes
 Sodium hexametaphosphate.
 Rubber tubing about 6mm bore.
 Mechanical sieve shaker (optional).
Sample preparation
The test sample shall be obtained by air-drying for at least 12 hours
depending on the type of the sample.
A representative sample shall be obtained by riffling or quartering to givea
minimum mass of about 2 .5 kg .

Test procedure
Step 1: Weigh the air-dried (or oven dried) test sample to 0 .1 % of
itstotalmass (m1) .
Step 2: Place the sample and sieve through a 25 mm sieve size,
brushany particles too coarse to pass through the sieve with
wirebrush
until the individual particles are clean of any finer material.
Step 3: Sieve the fraction retained on the 25 mm test sieve on
theappropriate larger test sieves and weigh the amount retained
oneach test sieve.
Step 4: Weigh the material passing a 25 mm test sieve (m2) .
Step 5: Riffle the sample to get a convenient fraction of about 0 .5 kg
andweigh that fraction (m3) .
Step 6: Spread the riffled fraction in the large tray or bucket and
coverwith water.
Step 7: If the soil is cohesive add sodium hexametaphosphate to
thewater first, at a concentration of 2 g/litre . Stir the mixture well
to
wet the soil, allow the soil to stand for at least 1hour in
thissolution stirring frequently.
Step 8: Wash the material through a 75 µm sieve, allowing the
materialpassing sieve 75 µm to run to waste. Ensure that neither
test sieveis overloaded in the process, either with material or with
water.
Step 9: Transfer all the material retained on the sieve into a tray
orevaporating dish and dry in an oven at 105°C to 110°C . Allow
itto cool and weigh (m4)
.
Step 10: Sieve the dried fractions through the appropriate sieves down tothe 75
µm test sieve. Weigh the amount retained on each sieveand any
fines passing the 75 µm test sieve and record.

Calculations
1 .For samples containing particles larger than 20 mm in size,
calculate the proportion by mass of material retained on each of
the coarsesieves as a percentage of m1 .

For example:
Percentage retained on 28 mm sieve
= m(28mm) 100
[ m1 ]
 2 .Calculate the corrected mass of material retained on each of
the sieves between 20 mm and 75 µm by multiplying by
m2/m3 ,then calculate this mass as a percentage of m1
For example:
Percentage retained on 10 mm sieve

= m(10mm) m2 100
( )( )
m3 1

3 .Calculate the cumulative percentage by mass of the sample

passing each of the sieves, from the general relationship:
(% passing this sieve ) = (% passing previous sieve) — (% retainedon this
sieve).
4 .Calculate the fraction passing the 75 µm test sieve by
difference.The mass of the fines lost by washing equals (m3 — m4)
. To this isadded the mass of any fine material (mF) passing the
75 pm when dry sieved, and the percentage finer than 75 µm is
equal to:

{ (m -m
m
3
} m( )
)+m x m x100
4

3
F

1
2

5 .Plot the grading as a curve on a semi-logarithmic chart.

Report
The test report shall include the following information:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) The particle size distribution curve

Form for the test

The enclosed form shall be used

Practical considerations
Take care to ensure that sieving is complete, the minimum period of
shaking should be 10 minutes.

Never put a sieve in the drying oven for drying the material, as this
willdestroy the sieve.

Maintenance
Test sieves should be inspected for defects before each use. A more
detailed examination should be made at regular intervals to discover
signs of wear, warping, tears, splits holes, blockages and any other
defects in the mesh.
 Particle Size Distribution- Hydrometer
Method

Objective
Hydrometer method combined with wet or dry sieving enable a continuous
particle size distribution curve of a soil to be plotted from the size of
thecoarsest particles down to clay sizes.

Main Principles
The Hydrometer method covers the quantitative determination of
theparticle size distribution in a soil from the coarse sand size to the clay
sizeby means of sedimentation. The test is normally not required if less
than 10% of the material passes the 75 µm test sieve in a wet or dry
sievinganalysis.

The analysis requires that the particle density of the soil specimen
isknown or can be assumed.

References
ASTM D421-85 & ASTM D422-63

Required equipment A

Hydrometer
 2 nos. 1L graduated measuring glass cylinders of about 60 mm
diameter
 Thermometer readable to 0 .5 °C
 Mixer
 Drying oven capable of maintaining temperature of 105 °C - 110 °C
 Distilled water
 Test sieves comprising at least 2 mm, 600 µm, 212 µm, 75 µm and
receiver.
 A balance readable to 0 .1 g
 Stopwatch
 Plastic wash bottle
 Evaporating dish
 Dispersing agent, Sodium Hexametaphosphate solution
 Nomographic Chart (ref. Stoke's law)

Sample preparation
The dry mass of soil required depends on the type of soil.
Appropriate quantities are about 100 g for a sandy soil and 50 g for
a clay or silt.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Weigh the sample to 0 .1 g to obtain its initial dry mass,m r
Step 2: Place the sample in a wide-mouthed conical flask

Dispersion

Step 3: Add 100 mL of the dispersant solution to the soil. Shake

the mixture thoroughly until all the soil is in suspension.
Step 4: Mix the suspension in the mixing machine for about 5
minutes until the soil is broken down to individual particles.
Step 5: Transfer the suspension from the flask to the 75 µm sieve
placed on the receiver, and wash the soil using a jet of
distilledwater from the wash bottle. The amount of water used
shall notexceed 500 mL .
Step 6: Transfer the suspension that has passed through the sieve to
the1 L measuring cylinder, and make up to the 1 L graduation
mark This suspension shall be used for the sedimentation
analysis.
Step 7: The material retained on the 75 µm sieve shall be transferred toan
evaporating dish and oven-dried.
Step 8: When cool, resieve thismaterial on relevant sieves down to 75 µm .
Weigh the material retained on each sieve to 0 .1 g .
Step 9: Add any material passing the 75 µm sieve to the measuring
cylinder.

Sedimentation
Step 10: Make a separate solution in a 1 L measuring cylinder
consistingof 100 mL of the dispersant solution and dilute
with distilled
water to the 1 L mark. This cylinder shall be placed alongside
thecylinder with the soil suspension to achieve the same
temperature.
Step 11: Mix the soil suspension in the measuring cylinder by placing
thepalm of one hand over the open end and turn it vigorously
endover-end about 60 times in 2 minutes.
Step 12: Place the cylinder quickly on a table and start the timer.
Step 13: Immerse the Hydrometer in the suspension and allow it to
floatfreely.
Step 14: Take hydrometer readings at the upper ring of the meniscus
after periods of approximately V2 min, 1 min, 2 min and 4
min .without removing the Hydrometer.
Step 15: Remove the Hydrometer slowly, and rinse it in distilled
waterand place it in the other cylinder with the dispersant
solution.Record the top of the meniscus reading, R0.
Step 16: Reinsert the hydrometer in the soil suspension and record
readings after periods of approximately 8 min ., 15 min, 30
min,
 1 h, 2 h, 4 h, and 24 h from the start of sedimentation. Insert
and withdraw the hydrometer after each reading.
Step 17: Observe and record the temperature of the suspension once during
the first 15 min and then after each subsequent reading.

Calculations
Fine sieving

1 .Calculate the proportion of soil retained on each sieve as a percentage

of the dry mass of soil used, m (in g),

For example:
Percentage retained on the 600 µm sieve:

= m(600µm x 100
(
m
) )

2 .Calculate the cumulative percentages by mass passing each of

thesieves from the general relationship:

(Cumulative % passing this sieve) = (cumulative % passingprevious sieve) — (% retained on

this sieve)

Sedimentation

3 .Calculate the true hydrometer reading, Rh (in mm), from the equation:

Rh = Rh’ ± Cm
where Cm is the meniscus correction . Cm= 0 .5
Rh' is the observed hydrometer
reading. Enter the values in Table 1 .

‘4 .Obtain the effective depth, H1 (in mm), corresponding to the reading, Rh, from
the Hydrometer scale calibration curve. Enter thevalue of H1 Table 1

5 .The equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm), shall be determined by

using the nomographic chart for the application of Stoke's law. Each Hydrometer has
its own calibrated nomographic chart.

6.Calculate the modified hydrometer reading, Rd, from the equation:

 Rd=Rh ‘- R0 ‘

where
R0' is the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the
meniscus in the dispersant solution. Ro' = 1 .9 for 100 mL
dispersant solution.

Enter the value of Rd in Table 1

7 .Calculate the percentage by mass, K, of particles smaller than the

corresponding equivalent particle diameter, D (in mm) from
theequation:

100 ρs
K= (
m( ρs – 1) )R d

Wher
e
m mass of dry soil used ( in g)
ρs is the particle density ( in Mg/m 3
= ton/m3 )

Repor
t
The test report shall include the following:
a) Type of material and sample identification
b) Reference to this procedure
c) Results of the sedimentation analysis shall be reported and
plottedon a semi-logarithmic chart.
d) Results of the sieve analysis (if appropriate)
e) Form for the test
f) The enclosed form shall be used
g) Practical Considerations
h) The sodium hexametaphosphate solution is unstable and shall be
freshly prepared (not older than 1 month). The date of preparation
shall be writtenon the bottle.

Table 1 Hydrometer Test Data

t is the elapsed time from start of
sedimentation T is the temperature at that
time
Rh' is the hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus, consisting of the
decimal part only
(eg. a hydrometer reading of 1.0325 would be recorded as a value of 32.5)is the meniscus
correction
H is the effective depth corresponding to Rh, obtained from the calibration curve
~
 D is the equivalent particle diameter
Ro' is the Hydrometer reading at the upper rim of the meniscus in the dispersant
solution Rd is the modified Hydrometer reading
K is the percentage by mass of particles less than D

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Date Tim Elapsed Temperatur Reading Rh' + Hr D Rh' - Ro '= K

e time, t eT R h' Cm (mm) (mm) Rd %
(min) (°C) = Rh
 Consolidation- One Dimensional Properties
(Oedometer)

Objective
The oedometer consolidation test is used for the determination of
consolidation characteristics of low-permeability soils when subjected
to vertical loads. The results may be used to calculate and estimate
settlements of structural foundations when placed on the ground. The
two parameters normally required are:
 The compressibility of the soil: Coefficient of volumecompressibility, mv
 The time related parameter: Coefficient of consolidation, Cv

When structures are built on saturated soils, the load is presumed to

be carried initially by incompressible water within the soil voids. Due to
the additional load on the soil, water will tend to be squeezed out
from the voids causing a reduction in void volume and consequently
settlement of the structure.

In soils of high permeability (coarse grained soils), this process takes a

relatively short time for completion, with the result that almost all of
the settlement will occur during the construction period. These rarely
cause major problems. In low permeability soils (clays), this process
takes placeslowly and continuously over a long period of time -
months, years andeven decades - after completion of construction.

Main Principles
This method covers the determination of the magnitude and rate of the
consolidation of a saturated or near-saturated specimen of soil in the
formof a disc confined laterally, subjected to vertical axial pressure, and
allowedto drain freely from the top and bottom surfaces. The method is
concerned mainly with the primary consolidation phase, but it can also
be used to determine secondary compression characteristics.

In this test the soil specimen is loaded axially in increments of applied

stress.Each stress increment is held constant until the primary consolidation
hasceased.
During this process water drains out of the specimen, resulting ina
decrease in height which is measured at suitable intervals. These
measurements are used for the determination of the relationship
between compression(or strain) or voids ratio and effective stress, and
for the calculation ofparameters which describes the amount of
compression and the rate atwhich it takes place.
References

ASTM D2435-96

Apparatus
The consolidation apparatus, known as the oedometer, shall be of the
fixed ring type.

A consolidation ring which shall completely and rigidly support andconfine the
soil specimen laterally. The ring shall be of corrosion-resistant metal.
The ring shall be provided with a cutting edge to facilitate the
preparation of the specimen. The inner surface of the ring shall be
smooth.
The diameter of the consolidation ring shall be determined primarily bythe
nominal sizes of undisturbed tube samples received for test but alsowith
regard to the character of the soil and the maximum size of particlespresent in
the sample. The inside diameter of the ring used for fine siltsand clay soils
shall be at least 6 mm smaller than the undisturbed tubesample to permit
trimming off no less than 3 mm of soil all around whichmay have been
disturbed during the sampling operation.

Preparation of sample
The sample may be built in (extruded into the consolidation ring) from
thefollowing type of samples:
 Cylinder samples, U100 or 54 mm samples
 Block samples cut from test pits
 In-situ specimen built in directly from the bottom of test pits
The soil is carefully trimmed away outside the consolidation ring. Checkthat
there is no gap between the ring and the sample. If there is, a newsample
should be prepared.

Specimen measurements
Step 1: Measure the height of the specimen to 0,05 mm (Ho) in its ring.
Step 2: Place the specimen in its ring on the watch glass or tray
andweigh immediately to 0.1 g, m1. Determine the initial mass
of the specimen,m0
m0 = m1 – mring -
mtray
Step 3: Take a sample of soil similar to that in the ring for the
determination of initial moisture content, and if required, the
particle density. The trimmings from the sample preparation are
suitable.

Preparation and assembly of apparatus

Porous plates. Before using the porous plates in a test they shall be
prepared as follows.
Step 1: Clean the surface using natural bristle or nylon brush.
Step 2: Ensure that the pores are not clogged by fine soil particles,
 and that the plates are readily permeable to water.
Step 3: Saturate the pores by boiling in distilled water for at least 20
min, either over heat at atmospheric pressure, or in a vacuum
desiccator in which the pressure has been reduced to about 20
mm of mercury.

Step 4: For saturated soils, or for soils that do no exhibit a high

affinity for water, keep the plates saturated in de-aerated
water until
required for use. Immediately before assembly in the
consolidationcell remove free surface water with a tissue,
ensuring that thepores remain saturated.
Step 5: For soils that readily absorb water, allow the plates to air dry.

Assembly of consolidation cell

Step 1: Place the bottom porous plate centrally in the consolidation cell.
Step 2: Place the specimen contained in its ring centrally on top of
the porous plate.
Step 3: Assemble the cell components so that the consolidation ring
is laterally confined and in correct alignment.
Step 4: Place the top porous plate and loading cap centrally on top of the
specimen.

Assembly in load frame

Step 1: Place the consolidation cell in position on the bed of the
loading apparatus.
Step 2: Adjust the counterbalanced loading beam so that when the
load- transmitting members just make contact with the loading
cap the beam is slightly above horizontal position.
Step 3: Add a small weight to the beam hangar, sufficient to
maintain contact between the load-transmitting
members while final adjustments are made. The
resulting seating pressure on the specimen shall not
exceed 2 kN/m2 (kPa).
Step 4: Clamp the compression gauge securely into position so that
it can measure the relative movement between the loading cap
and the base of the cell. Arrange the gauge to allow for
measurement ofa small amount of swelling of the specimen,
while the greaterpart of the range of travel allows for
compression. Record theinitial reading of the gauge.

Test procedure
Loading sequence. A range of pressures selected from the following
sequence has been found to be satisfactory.
6, 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kN/m 2 (kPa).
The loadings of 1600 and 3200 kN/m 2 should be considered only for
stiffand
 overconsolidated clays.
A typical test comprises four to six increments of loading, each held
constant for 1 h, and each applied stress being double that of the
previous stage. The last increment of loading shall be held for 24
hours.

Table 1. Suggested initial pressures for consolidation test

Initial pressure
Soil Consistency

Stiff Equal to p'0 or the next higher recommended

pressureif p'0 is less than ps
Firm Somewhat less than p'0 preferably using the nextlower
recommended pressure.
Soft Appreciably less than p'0 usually 25 kN/m2 (kPa) or
Very soft less. low, typically 6 kN/m2 (kPa) or 12 kN/m2 (kPa).Initial
Very
consolidation under a small load will give addedstrength
to prevent squeezing out under next loadincrement.

p'0represents the estimated present vertical effective stress in

situ at the horizon from which the specimen was taken.

psrepresents the swelling pressure.

Application of pressure
Step 1: Record the compression gauge reading as the initial reading
forthe load increment stage d.
Step 2: Apply the required pressure to the specimen at a convenient
moment (zero time) by adding the appropriate weights to
thebeam hanger without jolting. Remove the weight used for
theseating load.
Step 3: Fill the consolidation cell with water after applying the pressure.If
the specimen begins to swell, or if the compression virtuallyceases
within a short time, proceed to the next higher
pressure.Alternatively, if required, determine the swelling pressure.
Step 4: Take readings of the compression gauge at suitable intervals oftime.
The following periods of elapsed time from zero areconvenient. A
suitable form for recording the readings is shownas form
"Settlement Readings".
0, 8, 15, 30 seconds
1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30 minutes and 1 hour
(2, 4 and 24 hours for the last load increment)
Step 5: Plot the compression gauge readings against square root
time,while the test is in progress, either manually or by an
automaticrecorder.
Step 6: Maintain the pressure for 1 hour and plot the readings to
confirm that t90 have been reached.
Step 7: Record the time and compression gauge reading at the
termination of the load increment stage d. This readingbecomes
the initial reading for the next stage
Step 8: Increase the pressure to the next value in the selected sequence.
Step 9: Repeat further stages of the sequence of loading, making at
least four stages in all. The maximum pressure applied to the
specimen shall be greater than the effective pressure which
willoccur in situ due to the overburden and proposed
construction.
The last stage of load increment shall stay on for 24 hours, and
readings be taken at suitable intervals including 2, 4 and 24
hours.

Unloading
Normally unloading is done in one step (to p'0 or to the initial applied
pressure). Record and plot the final reading, and proceed to
"Dismantling".
If the unloading curve is required, the specimen shall be unloaded from
the maximum pressure in steps as follows:
Step 1: Reduce the pressure to a value not less than the last but
one value of the loading sequence at a convenient moment
(zero time).
Step 2: Record reading of the compression gauge at convenient
intervals. Step 3: Plot the reading so that the completion of swelling can
be identified. Step 4: Record the final reading of the compression
gauge.

Step 5: Repeat point 1 to 4 at least twice more, finishing with an

applied pressure equal to the swelling pressure (if applicable) or to
theinitial applied pressure.
Step 6: When the compression gauge indicates that equilibrium
under the final pressure has been reached, proceed to
"Dismantling".

Dismantling
Step 1: Drain off the water from the cell. Allow to stand for 15 min
toenable free water to drain from the porous plates.
Step 2: Mop up any excess water from within the cell.
Step 3: Remove the load from the specimen and remove the
consolidation cell from the apparatus.
Step 4: Dismantle the cell, and weigh the specimen in its ring on the
weighed watch glass or tray.
Step 5: Transfer the specimen and ring on the watch glass or tray to
the oven maintained at 105° C to 110° C, dry the specimen to
constant
mass and determine the dry mass of the specimen to 0.1 g (m d).
Calculations and plotting
General data. (See form "Specimen Details").

1) Calculate the initial moisture content, w0 (in %), from the

specimentrimmings.

2) Calculate the initial bulk density, (in Mg/m3 = ton/m3), from

p

theequation

ρ= mo1000 [1 Mg/m3 = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 ton/m3]

AHo
where
mo is the initial mass of the specimen (in g)
A is the area of the specimen (in mm 2)
Ho is the initial height of the specimen (in mm ).

3) Calculate the initial dry density,ρd (in Mg/m3), from the equation

ρd = 100 ρ
100+wo

4) If it is required to plot void ratio against pressure calculate

theinitial voids ratio eo from the equation
 eo = ρs -1
ρd

where

ρs is the particle density (in Mg/m3).

5) The initial degree of saturation So may be calculated as a

percentage from the equation

So= wo -ρs [ in % ]
eo
This value can be used to indicate whether the test specimen is fully
saturated initially.

Compressibility characteristics
The compressibility characteristics may be illustrated by plotting the
compression of the specimen as ordinate on a linear scale against the
corresponding applied pressure p (in kPa), as abscissa on a
logarithmicscale
.Compression is usually indicated in
terms
of voids w 0 = mo - m d x 100 % ratio, but the actual thickness of the
specimen or the strain expressed as apercentage reduction in
thickness referred to the initial thickness, may beused as alternatives.
1) Calculate the equivalent height of solid particles, Hs (in mm),
from the equation:

2) Calculate the height of the specimen, H (in mm), at the end of

each loading or unloading stage from the equation:

H = Ho— ∆H

where

∆H is the cumulative compression of the specimen (reduction in height)

from the initial height as recorded by the compression gauge:

3) Calculate the Voids ratio, e, at the end of each loading or

unloading stage, if required, from the equation:
 e= ( H.H
Hs
s
)
4) Calculate the Coefficient of volume compressibility, m,, (in
m2/MN), for each loading increment from the equation
(H 1 – H 2 ) 1000
mv= . [1_M N=_1_0_0_0_K_N ]
H1 (p2 – p1)

H1 is the height of the specimen at the start of a loading increment (in mm):
H2 is the height of the specimen at the end of that increment (in mm):
pl is the pressure applied to the specimen for the previous loading stage (in kN/m 2 =
kPa).
p2 is the pressure applied to the specimen for the loading stage being considered (in kN/m2
= kPa).

5) If required plot values of voids ratio as ordinate against

applied pressure on a logarithmic scale as abscissa (see
form 5. C). Draw
smooth curves through the points for both the loading and the unloading
portions. If the swelling pressure was measured, the curves will start and
terminate at the swelling pressure. Indicate the value of the initial voids ratio,
eo, on the vertical axis.
Coefficient of consolidation (see form "Calculations"). General. Two curve fitting
methods are recognized for evaluating the Coefficient of consolidation, Cv, namely

 The logarithm-of-time curve-fitting method, and

 Th Ho square root time curve-fitting method.
H s =
e
The two fitting methods generally show reasonable agreement.
In this procedure only the Square root time curve-fitting method is
included.
Square root time curve-fitting method (See figure 14.)
1. Draw the straight line of best fit to the early portion of curve
(usuallywithin the first 50% of compression) and extend it to
intersect theordinate of zero time. This intersection represent the
corrected zeropoint, denoted by do.
2. Draw the straightline through the do point whichat all points
hasabscissae
1.15 times as great as those on the best fit line. Theintersection
of this line with the laboratory curve gives the 90%compression
point doo.
3. Read off the value of t90 from the laboratory curve corresponding
tothe d90 point and calculate the value of C, (in m2/year), from
theequation

C, = 0.112 11 / t90 [in m2/year]

where

His the average specimen thickness for the relevant load

increment (in mm), i.e.
HI + H2
H= 2

t90 is expressed in minutes.

Coefficient of secondary compression

The Coefficient of secondary compression, Cse., may be derived from the
laboratory logarithmic of time curve. The duration of the load
incrementsmay have to be extended to up to 1 week, however. The
derivation is notincluded in this procedure.

Reporting results
a) Reference to this procedure
b) The initial dimensions of the specimen
c) The initial moisture content, bulk density and dry density
d) The particle density whether measured or assumed
e) The initial void ratio and degree of saturation (if required)
f) A plot of the voids ratio or the vertical compression against
thelogarithm of applied pressure for the complete load-unload
cycle
g) Plots of compression against time (log time or square root time
orboth as appropriate), for each load increment, if required
h) the calculated values of the Coefficient of volume
2
compressibility, my (in m /MN), and Coefficient of consolidation,
2
Cv (in m /year), to two significant figures, for each load increment,
in the form of a table
i) the location and depth of the test specimen within the original sample.
Practical considerations
The consolidation apparatus must be firmly fixed to the concrete table.

Maintenance

The consolidation ring must be regularly inspected for

cuts. The weight of the weights must be checked
regularly.
The dial gauge must be checked regularly to control that the needle
runs freely.
 Triaxial test - Undrained Shear Strength
(total stress)

Objective
The Triaxial test is primarily designed to determine the shear strength
parameters of a soil sample either in terms of total stresses, i.e. the
angleof shear resistance (φ), the cohesion (c) and the undrained shear
strength(cu). Or in terms of effective stresses, i.e. the angle of shear
resistance (φ')and the cohesion (c ').
These values may be used to calculate the bearing capacity of a soil
and the stability of slopes.

The described test is an undrained test without measurement of pore

pressure. This method covers the determination of the Undrained Shear
Strength (cu), the Cohesion (c) and the Angle of internal friction (φ) of a
specimen of cohesive soil when it is subjected to a constant confining
pressure and to straincontrolled axial loading, when no change in total
moisture content is allowed. Tests are usually carried out on a set of
3similar specimens, subjected to different confining pressures.

Main Principles
This test is carried out in the Triaxial apparatus on specimens in the
formof cylinders of height approximately equal to twice the diameter.
Specimens diameter range from 38 mm to about 110 mm.

In this test the specimen is confined in an impervious membrane

between impervious end caps in a triaxial cell which can be
pressurized by water.The axial load is increased by applying a constant
rate of strain until thespecimen fails, normally within a period of 5 min.
to 15 min.

References
ASTM D4767-95 & ASTM D2850-95

Test Conditions
The following test conditions shall be specified by the Engineer
before starting a series of tests:
(a) Size of test specimen
(b) Number of specimens to be tested (minimum 2 - 3)
(c) Cell confining pressures
(d) Whether undisturbed or remoulded specimens are to be
tested For remoulded specimens the moisture content, and either
the drydensity to
be achieved or the compactive effort to be applied.
Required equipment
•Triaxial cell, of dimensions appropriate to the size of the test
specimen, suitable for use with water at internal working
pressuresrequired to perform the test. (A gas shall not be used
forpressurizing the cell.)

The main features of the cell are as follows:

(a) Cell top plate of corrosion resistant material fitted with an air
bleed plug and close-fitting piston guide bushing.
(b) Loading piston for applying axial compressive force to the specimen.
Lateral bending of the piston during a test shall be negligible.
Friction between the piston or seal and its bushing shall be small
enough to allow the piston to slide freely under its own weight
when the cell is empty. The clearance between the piston and its
bushing or seal shall minimize leakage from the cell.
(c) Cylindrical cell body which shall be removable for inserting the
specimen, and shall be adequately sealed to the top plate and
base plate.
(d) Cell base of corrosion resistant rigid material
incorporating a connection port as shown.

 Apparatus for applying and maintaining the desired pressure on

water within the cell to an accuracy of ± 5 kPa with a gauge of
test grade for measuring the pressure. CML is using Controls
pressure system. Oil and water pressure range is 0 <1.700 kPa.
 Machine capable of applying axial compression at a uniform rate to
the specimen at a convenient speed within the range 0.05
mm/min to 4 mm/min. The machine shall be capable of applying
an axial deformation of about one-third the height of the
specimen tested.
 Means of measuring the axial deformation of the specimen,
readable to 0.01 mm.
 Calibrated loading ring, supported by the crosshead of
the compression machine so as to prevent its own
weight being transferred to the test specimen.
 Rigid corrosion resistant or plastic end caps of the same diameter
as the test specimen. A self-aligning seating shall be provided
between the top end cap and the loading ram.
 Tubular membrane of high density latex to enclose the
specimen and provide protection against leakage from the
cell fluid.
 Membrane stretcher, to suit the size of the specimen.
 Two rubber 0-rings, for sealing each end of the membrane on to
the top cap and base pedestal.
 Extruder for vertical extrusion of sample from U-100 tubes
 Sample tubes 38 mm internal diameter and about 230 mm
long, with sharp cutting edge and cap
 Trimming knife, wire saw, spatula
 Steel rule
 Vernier calipers
 Apparatus for Moisture Content determination.

Sample preparation
The specimen shall have a height equal to about twice the diameter,
with plane ends normal to the axis. The size of the largest soil particle
shall not be greater than one-fifth of the specimen diameter.

Step 1: Remove the soil from its sampling tube or container and make a
careful inspection to ascertain the condition. Report any indication
of local softening, disturbance, presence of large particles, or
other non
-uniformity. If these features cannot be avoided use an alternative
sample for preparing the test specimens.
Step 2: Protect the soil from loss of moisture during preparation.
Step 3: When a set of specimens is required for testing at different
confining pressures, select the specimens so that they are similar.
Record the location and orientation of each specimen within
the block sample.
Step 4: Measure the length Lo (in mm), diameter Do (in mm) and mass
m (in g) of each prepared specimen with sufficient accuracy
toenable the bulk density to be calculated to an accuracy off 1
-2%.
Step 5: Place the specimen that is to be tested first between end caps
in the membrane as quickly as possible to prevent loss of
moisture.Seal the specimens that are not to be tested
immediately toprevent loss of moisture.
Step 6: After preparing the test specimens, break open the
remainder of the sample and record a detailed description of
the soil fabric.

Test Procedure
Step 1: Place the specimen on the base end cap and place the top cap
on the specimen. Filter stones may be used on top and bottom of
the specimen.
Step 2: Fit the membrane evenly on the stretcher.
Step 3: Place the membrane around the specimen while applying
suction to the stretcher.
Step 4: Seal the membrane to the end caps by means of rubber 0-
rings (or the stretcher), without entrapping air.
Step 5: Place the specimen centrally on the base pedestal of the triaxial
 cell, ensuring that it is in correct vertical alignment.
Step 6: Assemble the cell body with the loading piston well clear of the
specimen top cap. Check alignment by allowing the piston toslide
down slowly until it makes contact with the bearing surface
on the top cap, then retract the piston. If necessary remove
thecell body and correct any eccentricity.
Step 7: Fill the triaxial cell with water, ensuring that all the air is
displacedthrough the air vent. Add some oil on top.
Step 8: Pressurize the triaxial cell and make final adjustments.
Step 9: Raise the water pressure in the cell to the desired value with
the loading piston restrained by the load frame or force-
measuring device. The pressure should be kept on for about V2
hour before proceeding with the test. The cell pressure shall be
determined bythe Engineer.
Step 10: Adjust the loading machine to bring the loading piston to within
a few mm of its seating on the specimen top cap. Record
thereading of the force-measuring device during steady motion
asthe initial reading.
Step 11: Adjust the machine further to bring the loading piston just
incontact with the seating of the top cap. Record the reading of
theaxial deformation gauge.
Step 12: Select a rate of axial deformation such that failure is
producedwithin a period of 5 min to 15 min. Engage the
appropriate gearon the compression machine. The rate of axial
deformation shallbe decided by the Engineer.
Step 13: Start the test by switching on the machine.
Step 14: Record readings of the force-measuring device and
thedeformation gauge at regular intervals of the latter, so that at
least15 sets of readings are recorded up to the point of failure.
Step 15: Verify that the cell pressure remains constant.
Step 16: Continue the test until the maximum value of the axial stress
hasbeen passed and the peak is clearly defined, or until an
axialstrain of 20 % has been reached.
Step 17: Stop the test and remove the axial force.
Step 18: Drain the water from the cell, dismantle the cell and remove the
specimen.
Step 19: Remove the rubber membrane from the specimen and record
the mode of failure with the aid of a sketch.
Step 20: Break open the specimen and record a description of the soil
including its fabric.
Step 21: Determine the moisture content of the whole specimen, or of
representative portions. If there are surfaces of failure,
moisturecontent specimens should be taken from zones adjacent
to them.
Plotting and Calculations
1) From each set of readings calculate the axial force, P (N), applied
tothe specimen by multiplying the difference between that reading
and the initial reading of the gauge on the force-measuring device by
itscalibration factor (in N per divisions).
2) Calculate the cross-sectional area, A (mm), of the specimen,
on the assumption that it deforms as a right cylinder, from
the equation:
 A= Ao
where 1-ε

A0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen (in mm2)

calculatedfrom the initial diameter Do
ε is the axial strain, equal to ∆L/Lo
A

where

L0 is the initial length of the specimen (in mm)

∆L is the change in length measured by the axial deformation
gauge(in mm).
3) Calculate the Principal Stress difference, i.e. the Deviator Stress
2 2
(inkPa = kN/m ): (σ1-σ3) = (P/A)x 1000 [ kPa = N/mm x 1000 =
2
kN/m ]
4) Plot the stress-strain relationship for each specimen, i.e. the
deviatorstress
against axial strain. Curves for all three specimens may beplotted on
the same graph.
5) The values at failure should be tabulated as shown below:

6) Using these values of and , , the Mohr circle at failure for each
63 cs

specimen can be drawn on the same graphical plot. The scale on

the vertical axis (shear stress axis) and the horizontal axis
(principalstress axis) must be the same. Draw the best line fit to
touch thecircles. This tangential line is the Mohr-Coulomb
envelope representing failure. The angle of inclination (φ degrees)
of the envelopeto the horizontal is measured, and the intercept
(c) on the shearstress axis is read off.
7) Calculate the value of the Undrained Shear Strength, cu (in
kPa),from the equation:

Cu = 1/2 (σ1-σ3)
8) Calculatethe Bulk Densityof thespecimen p (in Mg/m3),
from the equation:

ρ = 1000m 3 3 3
AoLo [Mg/m = 1000 g/mm = tone/m ]
o

where

m0 is the mass of the specimen (in

g).Report The test report shall include the
following:

a) Type of material and sample identification

b) Reference to this procedure
c) Initial specimen dimensions
d) Whether undisturbed or remoulded specimens, and
method of specimen preparation
e) Initial moisture content, bulk density and dry density of the specimen
f) Set of stress-strain curves for the three
specimens g) Tabulated values of σ1 , σ2 and (
σ1-σ3)
h) Mohr circle diagrams
i) Angle of shear resistance, φ (to the nearest 0,5°)
j) Cohesion intercept, c (to the nearest 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
k) The Undrained Shear Strength value, cu = 1/2 (σ1-σ3)f (to the
nearest1 kPa = 1 kN/m2)
l) Strain at failure (in %) for each specimen
m) Depth and orientation of test specimen within the original sample
n) Rate of strain (in %/min) applied during the test
o) Mode of failure A suitable form for reporting
data is shown below:

Form for the test

The enclosed forms shall be used.
Practical considerations
Use dry filter stones. The use of filter stones is not mandatory, but it
makesthe handling of the samples easier.

Maintenance
Clean the cell after running the test.Wash and
powder the rubber membrane.Clean the filter
stones.
 Unconfined Compressive Strength (Soil)

Objective:
The primary purpose of this test is to determine the unconfined
compressive strength, which is then used to calculate the
unconsolidated undrained shear strength of the clay under unconfined
conditions.
According to the ASTM standard, the unconfined compressive strength
(qu) is defined as the compressive stress at which an unconfined
cylindrical specimen of soil will fail in a simple compression test. In
addition, in this test method, the unconfined compressive strength is
taken as the maximum load attained per unit area, or the load per unit
area at 15% axial strain, whichever occurs first during the performance
of a test.

Main Principles
For soils, the undrained shear strength (su) is necessary for
the determination of the bearing capacity of foundations, dams, etc.
The undrained shear strength (su) of clays is commonly determined
from an unconfined compression test. The undrained shear strength
(su) of a cohesive soil is equal to one-half the unconfined compressive
strength (qu) when the soil is under the f = 0 condition (f = the angle
of internal friction). The most critical condition for the soil usually
occurs immediately after construction, which represents undrained
conditions, when the undrained shear strength is basically equal to
the cohesion (c). This is expressed as:
su = c = qu / 2
Then, as time passes, the pore water in the soil slowly dissipates, and the
intergranular stress increases, so that the drained shear strength (s),
given by s = c + s‘tan f , must be used. Where s‘ = intergranular
pressure acting perpendicular to the shear plane; and s‘ = (s - u), s =
total pressure, and u = pore water pressure; c’ and ϕ’ are drained shear
strength parameters. The determination of drained shear strength
parameters.

Reference:
ASTM D 2166
Required equipment
 Compression device, Load and deformation dial gauges, Sample
trimming equipment, Balance, Moisture can.

Test Procedure:
Step 1: Extrude the soil sample from Shelby tube sampler. Cut a soil
specimen so that the ratio (L/d) is approximately between 2 and
2.5.Where L and d are the length and diameter of soil specimen,
respectively.
Step 2: Measure the exact diameter of the top of the specimen at
three locations 120° apart, and then make the same
measurements on the bottom of the specimen. Average the
measurements and record the average as the diameter on
the data sheet.
Step 3: Measure the exact length of the specimen at three locations
120° apart, and then average the measurements and record the
average as the length on the data sheet.

Step 4: Weigh the sample and record the mass on the data sheet.
Step 5: Calculate the deformation (ÄL) corresponding to 15% strain (å).

ΔL
Strain (e) =
Lo

Where L0 = Original specimen length (as measured in step 3).

Step 6: Carefully place the specimen in the compression device and

center it on the bottom plate. Adjust the device so that the upper
plate just makes contact with the specimen and set the load and
deformation dials to zero.
Step 7: Apply the load so that the device produces an axial strain at a
rate of 0.5% to 2.0% per minute, and then record the load and
deformation dial readings on the data sheet at every 20 to 50
divisions on deformation the dial.
Step 8: Keep applying the load until (1) the load (load dial) decreases on
the specimen significantly, (2) the load holds constant for at least
four deformation dial readings, or (3) the deformation is
significantly past the 15% strain that was determined in step 5.
Step 9: Draw a sketch to depict the sample failure.
Step 10: Remove the sample from the compression device and obtain a
sample for water content determination. Determine the water
content as in Experiment 1.

Calculations:
(1) Convert the dial readings to the appropriate load and length units,
and enter these values on the data sheet in the deformation and
total load columns. (Confirm that the conversion is done correctly,
particularly proving dial gage readings conversion into load)

(2) Compute the sample cross-sectional area A

2
o = (π/4) x (d)

(3) Compute the strain, e = ?L/ L0

(4) Computed the corrected area, A’ = Ao / (1-e)

(5) Using A’, compute the specimen stress, sc = P/A’

(Be careful with unit conversions and use constant units).

(6) Compute the water content, w%.

(7) Plot the stress versus strain. Show qu as the peak stress (or at 15%
strain) of the test. Be sure that the strain is plotted on the
abscissa.
(8) Draw Mohr’s circle using qu from the last step and show the
undrained shear strength, su = c (or cohesion) = qu/2. See
the example data.