TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

l GENERAL

2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
2.1 THE CONCEPT OF CLASSIFICATION
2.2 DIVISION INTO CLASSES
2.3 DIVISION INTO TYPES

3 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

3.1 DESIGN VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS.
3.1.1 Vehicle Dimensions
3.1.2 Traffic Loading
3.2 DESIGN SPEED
3.3 TRAFFIC VOLUME
3.4 CAPACITY
3.4.1 General
3.4.2 Level of Service
3.4.3 Service Volume
3.4.4 Application
3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE
3.5.1 General
3.5.2 Reaction Time
3.5.3 Friction

4 CROSS SECTION
4.1 GENERAL
4.2 STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS
4.3 SLOPES AND SIDE DITCHES
4.4 CYCLE TRACKS
4.5 LAY-BYS

5' THE ALIGNMENT

5.1 GENERAL
5.2 SIGHT DISTANCE
5.2.1 Stopping Sight Distance
5.2.2 Headlight Sight Distance
5.2.3 Intersection Sight Distance
5.2.4 Meeting Sight Distance
5.2.5 Passing Sight Distance
5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
5.3.1 The Straight 1
5.3.2 The Circular Curve
5.3.3 The Transition Curve
5.3.4 Superelevation
5.3.5 Widening of Horizontal Curves
5.4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
5.4.1 Gradients
5.4.2 Vertical Curves
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

6 AUXILIARY LANES
6.1 PRINCIPLES
6.1.1 Climbing Lane
6.1.2 Descending Lanes
6.1.3 Overtaking Lanes
6.1.4 Level of Service Warrant
6.1.5 Divided Roads
6.1.6 Stopping Lanes
6.2 GEOMETRY OF AUXILIARY LANES
6.2.1 Starting Point
6.2.2 Diverging Taper
6.2.3 Lane Width
6.2.4 Shoulder Width
6.2.5 Crossfall
6.2.6 Termination Point
6.2.7 Merging Taper

7 INTERSECTIONS
7.1 General
7.2 Spacing of Intersections
7.3 Typical Intersections
7.3.1 Typical Intersection Type TI and F l
7.3.2 Typical Intersections Type T2 and F2
7.3.3 Typical Intersections Type T3 and F3
7.3.4 'I'yl)ic;~lInlesscclions 'fypc T4 and 14'
7.3.5 Additional Lanes and Triangle Islands
7.3.6 Island and Edge of carriageway Construction
7.4 GENERAL GEOMETRIC DESIGN
7.4.1 Vertical Alignment
7.5 DETAILED GEOMETRIC DESIGN
7.5.1 Lane Widths
7.5.2 Island Widths
7.5.3 Widening
7.5.4 Turning Lane Length
7.5.5 Turning Lane Tapers
7.5.5 Edge of Carriageway Design

8 STANDARD BRIDGES
8.1 GEOMETRY
8.1.1 Headroom and Clearance
8.1.2 Standard Bridge Cross Section
8.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
8.2.1 General
8.2.2 Design Loads
8.3 PONTOONS
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

- '2 9 DRAINAGE
9.1 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
9.1.1 Culverts
9.1.2 Diameter
9.1.4 Gradients
9.1.5 Headwalls
9.1.6 Haunching
9.1.7 Bedding
9.1.8 Selection of Culverts

-
APPENDICES AI'T'ENUIX I
APPENDIX 2
APPENDIX 3
-
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

The Group of Experts on Road Infrastructure within the Southern Africa Transport and
Communications Commission (SA'I'CC) is working on harmonization of standards and
specifications for road design, construction and maintenance within the me~iihercountries of
the Southern African Development Coordinalion C o n krence (SADCC).

Amongst the objectives of this work is development of Recommendations on Road Design

Standards and Standard Specification for Roads and Bridges.

The work commenced early 1985 with a study of existing standards which was presented ill
the fourth meeting of the Group of Experts, 3rd - 5th July 1985. '

The draft documents were issued May 1986 and presented in the second Joint meeting of the
SATCC working groups on Road Infrastructure and Road Traffic and Transport, held in
Arusha 1st - 4th September 1986.

After detailed discussions on the content of the documents with the road. authorities in each of
the SADCC member countries, a final version of the documents was prepared July 1987.

In the third joint meeting of the two SATCC working groups, held in Luanda, Angola. 20th -
22nd October 1987, the documents were adopted by the 9 SADCC countries as suitable for
incorporation in the national standards.

The present version of the documents, dated April 1990, is a reprint of the July 1987 version
with some alterations and addition of two more sections, Section G , "Auxiliary Lanes", and
Section 7, "Intersections".

The Recommendations on Road Design Standards are contained in two volumes:

Volume I Geometric Design of Rural Roads

Volume 11 Pavement Design Guide

For the geometric design standards special emphasis has been placed on the classification of
rural roads and the design controls and criteria, as this is considered the most important
parameters for harmoniza~ionof tlle regional trunk road nelwork.

For the pavement design guidelines efforts have been made to develop an easy adaptable
design methodology, applicable to all the SADCC countries. The design theory has been basetl
on well known empirical methods, which have been modified and extended to suit the pertinent
features of the region.

Each member country is expected to incorporate the content of these recommendations in the
national design standards when updating or revision is carried out.

The recommendations should also be followed- as far as possible in case of new road
construction or in case of rehabilitation and upgrading of the existing regional trunk road
network.

It is inevitable that the recommendations contain gaps in the documentation of certain design
variables and layout elements. This is not considered an impediment to the publication of the
recommendations because a successive follow-up of and adaption to applicational experience
will in any case have to he carried out.
 l / GENERAL

GENERAL

The criteria for formulating geometric design shall be pertinent with local conditions in respect
l
to management, finance and development trends. They shall further he economically feasible.
taking into consideration all relevant existing conditions such as the climate, topography and
gem-technical conditions encountered throughout the region.

The design standards shall not furnish any limits on the development of the society's need for
transportation and therefore the implementation shall be undertaken with due regard to all
relevant data, existing and forecast.

Severe economic constraints may justify adoption of a lower geometric standard than is
desirable, but economic constraints will not justify abandoning a balanced geometric design
by downgrading only some of the design elements as for example reducing the formation width
without adjustment of the design speed.

The recommendations for geometric design have been made for all types of rural roads. hut
with special emphasis on paved, two-lane rural roads.
 2 / CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

2.1 THE CONCEPT OF CLASSIHCATION

The proposed classification is based on the function of the roads, grouping the roads hy the
character of service they provide. Under this classification system the standard and level ol'
service vary according to the function of the road. and the traffic volumes serve to further
refine the standards for each class.

The functional concept is especially important to the design of new roads. but may he applied
to most existing road nets, and the concept is consistent with a systematic approach to design
and transportation planning.

The majority of the SATCC countries (7 out of 9) uses a functional or partly functional
classification system or has formulated a functional classification to their administrative or
geometrical classification.

2.2 DIVISION INTO CLASSES

The hierarchy of the functional system consists of principal arterials (for main movement).
minor arterials (distributors), collectors and local roads according to the foliuwing character
of service they provide:

A. Principal Arterial System

Connection between the national road system and those of the neighbouring countries.
* Linkage between the provincial capitals, main centres of population and production
centres.

B. Minor Arterial System

* Connection between local centres of population.

Linking districts, local centres of population and developed areas with the principal
arterial system.

C. Collectors

' Linking the locally important traffic 'generators with their rural hinterland.
Providing service to the smaller communities.

D. Local Road System

Provide access to land adjacent to the collector system.

The arterials should provide a high degree of mobility for the longer trip lengths. Therefore.
they should provide a high level of service with high design speed.

The collectors serve a dual function in accommodating the shorter trips and feeding the
arterials. They must provide some degree of mobility ant1 also serve i~h~itting
property. AI)
intermediate design speed and level of service is required.
 2 / CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

The local roads have relatively short trip lengths, property access being their main function.
A relatively low design speed is applicable to local roads.

2.3 DIVISION INTO TYPES

The division into road types is governed by the-design speed and the design traffic.

The roads may be differentiated into road types according to the design speed and the total
formation width as shown in table 2.3.1. The road class or classes which according to
international standards may be associated with the various types are indicated in the table.

In addition, the road classes which in the SATCC countries are normally associated with the
road types are indicated with an asterix.

Tahle 2.3.1 - Road Types (paved carriageway)

Type Number Formation Maximum design speed

of lanes width m flat rolling Mount
km/h km/h km/h
I 4 24 110 100 80

IA 2 13.5 100 1 00 80
IB 2 12.7 100 90 70
IC 2 - 10.5 100 80 60
I1 2 95 90 70 40
111 2 7.5 70 60 40

The following definitions apply to the different types of terrain referred to in Tahle 2.3.1 :

Flat terrain Flat or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the
construction of a road having continuously unrestricted horizont;il
ar?d vertical alignment (transverse terrain slop: around 5%).

Rolling terricin Rolling, hilly or foot-hill country where the slopes generally rise
and fall moderately geatly and where oc'casional steep slopes may
be encountered. It will offcr some restrictions in horizontal and
vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 20%).

Mountaino~lsterrain Rugged, hilly and mountsinous country with river gorges. This
class of terrain imposes definite restrictions ori the standard of
a ! l g i ~ ~ ~ ~obtainah!e
ent and often involves long steep grades and
limited sight distances (transverse terrain slope up to 70%).
 3 / DESIGN CONTROLS AN11 CRITERIA

3 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

3.1 DESIGN VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

3.1.1 Vehicle Dimensions

The physical characteristics of vehicles, mass, dimensions and opera!ing characteristics. and
the proportions of the various sizes itre used to estahlisll road design controls to accor~lrilorl;,tte
vehicles of the designated type.

The principal vehicle characteristics affecting geometric design are the minimum turning radius
of outer front wheel, the p:~tll of the inncr rear lyre. thc trc;\cl wirltll i~ndlllc whccl I);~si\.

The principal design elements affected are:

Lane widths on straights and curves.

Maximum lengths of gradients for different slopes.
Radii and widths in junctions.
Dimensions of turning bays.

For the purpose of geometric design the design vehicle should have dimensions and minirnl~~n
turning radii larger than almost all (95%) vehicles in its class. The design vehicies listed in
table 3.1.1 should be used as controls in geometric design.

Tahle 3.1 . l - Design Vellicle Cll;tracteristic$

Design Vehicle Type

Passenger car Single unit Articulated
truck or hus truck
P T A'T
Wheel base m 2.9 6.5 X

Overhang m 0.9 2.0 1 .S

front
--p -
Overhang rear m 1.2 3.5 1.35
Overall length m 50 12.0 16.0 (1
Overall width m 1.9 2.5
m 4.6
R,,, outer
front wheel ~n 6.0 - 12.5
-- 12.5
- --
X Wheel base dimensions are shown in Figure 3.1.3
 - Z'C -
snq JO y3nll e eaJe ]dams pue p a y x l l - ~ - 1 . f a x L 3 ~
6'0' 6'2 ' Z-l' l
.'c. 1 .€ PUE 2.1 .€
' 1 ' 1 ' C a ~ n S ! dU! umoqs ale sapqaA uS!sap arp JOJ t a l e ]dams pue sale pay3e~lp ! d r C ~a l u
l
 .u%!sapa q inoq5nolip u ~ a i l e d;t~ais!suon e molloj
spaacls asoqi )eqi aJnsua o] puu spaacls pal clop^ a q au!m~a~ap I[!M q s y m sa!~o3aiesaql u!qi!m
p ~ eoj o ~uo!isas q3ea j o saJnie?j 311; >z!u$ona~ 01 S! Aay a i u .uo!ieni!s qnea jo iualussasse
Su!~aau!Zua ue j o s!seq ~111uo pai3alas aq JaqeJ plnoqs spaads uS!sap inq 'uo!r3a[as ~ o j
a;lu~p!nZ lesaua8 e se 1 . 2 . a\qeL
~ U! u a ~ ! Zale spads uZ!sap le3!dh aluos .peoJ e 31) lualu\r%!!e
~ W U J ~put
A (eiuoz!~oqaqi ~ o paldepe
j spJepueis ail1 j o iueu!lu~a~ap ~ o l e r ue S! p a d s uZ!saa
 3 1 DESIGN COKrROLS AND CRITERIA

With these modifications the design speed is defined as the 85th percentage speed, whict~i>
the speed exceeded hy only 15% of the nlotorists wlierl conditions are so favourable that thr
design features of the road govern.

Once the design speed has been selected, all permanent features of the road should he related
to the design speed to obtain a balanced design.

Some features, such as curvatures, superelevation and sight distance are directly related to s~iil
vary appreciably with design speed (exponential relationship). The cross-sectional elements ;ire
not directly related to design speed, by they affect the vehicle speed. and higher standarils
should be accorded these features for higher design speed. Thus, nearly all geometric desiyl
elements are affected hy the design speccl.

In order to attain a desired degree o f safety, mobility and efficiency the design speed sl~oulil
be selected as high as practicable under the constraints of environmental quality and
economics.

The selection of the design speed is influenced by the following factors:

a) the nature of the terrain

b) the classification of the road
c) the density aid character of the adjoining land use
d) the traffic volumes and composition expected on the road

As some of these factors usually vary along a route of some length. changes in the design
speed are required in order to minimize the sum of the construction costs and the discotinted
maintenance and road user costs.

A road carrying a targe volume of traffic may ,justify a higher design speed than a less
important road in similar topography. flowever, the design speed should he consistent with
the speed a driver is likely to expect, and a low design speed should not he assumed for a
secondary road, where the physical limitations and the traffic are such that a driver is likely
to drive at high speeds.

Chilnges in design speed sliould not be effected abruptly, but over sufficient distance to enahl:
the driver to change speed gradually. It is recommended that the variation of design s p e d for
two consecntive scctiorls I)c lirrlitcnl IO I0 k r t l l l l for tlcsigil sl)cctls uxcuctli~lg90 k l t ~ / l:III(I
~ 20
kmlh for design speeds lower than 90 kmlh.

It is important to note that the geometric design should he halanced so as to avoid application
of rninim"m values for one or a few of the geometric elelrients at a particular location when
other elements are considerahly above the minimum requirements. As a general rule for light
veliiclcs. tlic S, cc(l S L ~ I ~ Y ~ I L X I by IIIC, IO;I(I ~isi>i.sis (l(:Icri~~iil(~(l
i ~ i o ~ Ijy
, ( ; l l i i ~I ~ O I . ~ ~ , O I ~ IIII:III
; I I 'IIc-
vertical a l i g n r ~ n t .

Guiding values for the selection of design speed for the different road classes and different
types of terrain are given in Table 3.2.1.
 .a~!sJel!ul!s e woy L a V V ay1 01 A H q l 0 ~ay] 30 O!IEJ aq, luo~.j
osl~:ur!~ba
S! >i alaq,it )I X .1.(1~ = AHa 10 )I X
L(IVV = AH(I sr! passa~dxauaql S! A H C ~
. A H q 1 0 ~. ~ o, , a ~ u n l o ~ - ~ n o d
-q]of,, ay] pallen 'awnloA s!q) h l e n ol speoJ uS!sap 01 an!]ne~dpunos pa~ap!suo3S! I! alnJ e sV
. l e ~ dlad smoq 61 Aluo papaa3xa arunlor\ 4pnoq ay] S! qs!ym ' ~ n o q~ s a ! ~ e aqyy ) ~ayl jo l e q ~
saqneo~ddeuayo alunloA ~ I J J ~ Jalp I ~ e a Lynea leyl pays!lqelsa uaaq sey I! ' ~ a ~ a m . ~oe a~dayl
lnorl8no~qlJnoq A J ~ aayA ~ uo!~saSuonaq 01 A]!l!sy E uS!sap 01 pnnos Allen!wouona IOU S! 11
'nIgeJ1 01 Su!l~adoJO 1eaA arll Jage 01 1eaA se palnalas Allensn S! ,,~eaAuZ!sap,, ayL
.,,~eaAuS!sap,, ay1 jo sq~uowyead at11 Supnp S! I O J I U O ~ul'f!sap ayl soo!le!~e~ leuoseas
aS~s1~ I ! MS ~ I I I JO-J
~ J ~ , , ~ e auS!sap,,
A a q ~U! L a V V S! I O J I U O ~uS!sap ay1 s p e o ~awnloA m01 JOJ
.sasod~ndu8!sap ~ o j
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',)~lr~lloA
k1.111olluY!w(l - A P ] ~'E
.popad 1ey1 U! sdep jo Jaqwnu ay) Aq pap!~!p (~eaAauo ueq, ssal) ..
po!~adaury u a ~ ! 9e Supnp MOD jo suo!l3a~!pyloq ~ o amnloA
j ~ I I J ~ lelol
J I aq, SE paugap
' ~ I J J R J Lbl!sa a h ~ a a y
- LaV
'S9E
,iq pap!A!p ~ e a aql
~ i Supnp MOU J O suo!~na~!pqioq J ~ J
auln[oA ~ I J J E J I [eloi ayl se paugap
.~,
' ~ J L ~ J J61!e<1
IRnrruV a ; f ~ ~ -aL~a V yV '1
.a~~poruruosse ua aAeq []!M
peoJ all] q " ! q ~ ' s a w n l o ~nr_uwiarll uo elep 1eninr:juodn paseq aq plnoqs peoJ e Jo uK!sap aq.1.
 .suo!l!puo:,
leap! lapun ino pa!~~e:, S! 'suo!l:,a~!p qloq 10j leloi 'lnoq lad slen la8uassed 0 9 j ~
o aunlolz v
qqeuosealun iar( IOU S! inajja s!q] q9noq1le 'uealis 3gjel) alp U! sapqalz l a q o Lq pai3age ale
slalz!lp ISON 'alzoqe 10 q / u 08
~ ale spaacis Su!ie~acio'MOH alqels j o Su!uu!Saq ayl 'a IaAal IV
.Lelap ou 10 a l w l
q]!~ apeu aq ue:, sallznaoueu Su!ssed pal!sap aqi j o luan latl SL Llaleu!xoldde 'saoue]sun3~!:,
asall1 lapuo 'paAa!qx aq L e u 's11o!13a~!pqloq N)J 1eloi 'lnoq lad sle:, ~aSuassed
OZP j o aiunlw t! suo!~!puon leap! 103 .!aqY!q JO rl/uy ~6 aq Isnu1 spaacis Su!~e~ado 'v IaAal IV
.suo!i!puon
Ieiuauuol!Aua 10 :,~&e~i 'n!l~au~oaY a ~ ! l n ! ~ i s aou
l se paugap ale suo!i!puo:, leap! alaqm
-sn\olloj se 01 paJJajaJ L ~ ~ e n sa.1ne an!lzJas j o slalzal arll speol auel-on11 pa2ejlns uauni!q l o ~
.speol ~ e ~aue1-omlnl l o j pp!Ie,i S! p a q ! ~ ~ aLBolopoylaru
p a u '(I)
~
5861 ' p ~ e oqNeasa8 u o ! l e l ~ o d s u eLq
~ ~panss! '602 iloda8 ~e!nadsf ( ~ 3 ,,lenueN ~ ) Li!nede3
LeniqS!~,, uodn paseq aJe suo!i:,as Zu!molloj ay] U! paq!nsap sida:,uos Lpede3 peoJ a u
.suo!l! puon
du!l!~:,m~cIat11 Jal)un uo!rnas I)I!OJ u.~!;7 I: Ja,\o ss~:tl 1ll:n 1 q 1 "uI!~j o i!un lad saln!qai\
j o laqLunu.LunLu!xeu ay] se paugap aq ue3 Li!3ede3 .sLemq%!q pue siaalls j o uo!le~adopue
&!sap .;7u!uueltl aqi U! uo!leJap!suon L ~ e u ~ !el dS! ngjell leln:,!qa~ aiepoiu~uo3:,e 01 L]!(!qe a u
~t level E, actual opel a t i q speeds will usually be in the neighl)ourllood of 50 I:rn/t~, ltul rn;q
vary considerably . Under ideal co~~ditions, s 110111 ic,
;I total volu~neof 2800 p;lssenger c i ~ per
accommodated.

Level F represents heavily congestet1 flow with traffic demand excretlir~gcapacity. .I l \ t .

volunies are lowrr th;~ril l ~ ccap;~city.nntl spilctls arc I,clonl ~ I I Lc.nltnc.it
~ y sl~~*tl

The six levels ol ser vi1.l. ;II c c s r ~ ~ ~ ti .rt l~the sllcctl flow tli;~gr;it11 ill I'ig111c. 3 . 4 1

Flow

S0 60 70 80 95
Speed
Ikrn/hl

Figure 3.4.1 - Speed Flow Diagrarl~

The primary measure of service quality is per cent of time delay, with speed i~ntlc;~p;lcit!l
utilization as secondary measures.

Level of service criteria for two-lane rural roads, extrxted from H C M , Tahle 8-3. are giver1
in Table 3 . 4 . l .

The capacity of two-lane roads vary depending on terrain and the degree of passing
restrictions. T o sin~plifythe conlllutations the Volun~e-C:apacity(V/C) rations are given in
terms of the constant "ideal capacity" of 2800 passenner cars per hour. for level terrain wit11
ideal geometrics and 0 per cent no passing zones. total in hoth directions of tlow.

For each level of service A t l ~ s o u g lU.

~ is s11ow11time del;~yand the r ~ i a x i n ~ uvalues
~n OI ~ l r c
V/C ratio for the different types of terrain.
 LC'O 9P'O 8S'O OX
OP'O 8P'O 65'0 09
SP'O ZS'O 09.0 OP
OS'O LS'O Z9'0 OZ
85.0 z9.0 ~ 9 . 0 o SL r a
OZ'O OE'O EE'O 08
t'Z.0 5C.0 PE.0 09
82'0 SE'O 9E'O OP
EE'O 6E'O 6E'O OZ
61'0 ZP'O EP'O 0 09 5 3
-
21'0 LI'O 61'0 09
91 .O 61'0 12.0 OP
05'0 LZ.0 PZ'O 02
SZ'O 9Z'O LZ'O 0 SP 5 8
L0'0 L0'0 (fi.0 0P
60'0 0I '0 21'0 02
171 'O SI '0 SI '0 o OE r v
( [ ) sauoz
rr!e~~al u!e~~ai lr!l?JJai Su!ssed Ae~apaw!i a?!uas
snou!eiuntqq Su!lloa 1el.J ou luan lad iuan lad 30 1aAa-I
-p-
. . - .- - - .- ...- .- -
--.
.p
(2) ( 3 1 ~ uo!Jea
) i(~!neden-awnlo~
. -- ~ -
 19'0 SL'Z
EL'O OO'E
68 '0 SE.€
00'1 5.E
.... .-
-- .- .. ..- -- - .. -- - . .-
m LII
J
.1o).7ed q l p ! ~aueq'
. - ... .. . .. ~. -
'JOIN?J leuo!isa~!a = ('4
. ~ o i s eyj s n ~ 1= 4'
' ~ o i s qq i p ! ~aueq = "4
.! as!AJas 4 0 lam1 ~ i oy ! l e ~Li!sedes-aurn(o~= ! ( 3 / ~ )
aulnloA as!Alas lelo1 =
ad sal3!1la~U! ! a 3 y a s jo IaAal ~ i q !AS
~1
' ~ u e a 3~ 1~ 4s ~ aql
~ i uo!inq!~is!p leuo!~sa~!pa q ' a u r n l o ~
U! sasnq pue sysnJi 4 0 u o ! l ~ o d o ~ad q pue MOU s 1 1 ~ eJO
.il.~noqL ~ M - o aql
~ i apnpu! aurnloA a 3 p l a s aqi Su!u!ur~alap JOJ p a ~ ! n b a e~~ e pq ~ e a ~ u i
.as!AJas jo [aAal pal3alasaJd arp molaq 8u!lly lnorp!m suo!i!puos Yu![!e~aldaql Japun aAlas
01 alqe S! peoJ aqi let{] s w e J i JO aurnloA urnur!xem ayl se paugap S! 'AS ' a u r n p a3!~.1asa u
a U a speoa le3oq :a
a 3 3 sJolsal103 :3
p
-,
2 8 8 s l e ! ~ a u v : g pue v
.- -- -.-p.
II!I!.I I,]) SIIOIIII:~III~O~~ 111v.112) 811!110>1 ~ I ! I ? ~w. Il :J ~~ s s e p peoa
- -- --
VlliZtl1H3 (INV S 1 0 H L N 0 3 N31S3CI / €
 3 1 DESIGN CONI'ROLS AND CRITERIA

l
B Truck Factor

The truck factor, fT, is dependent on the level of service, the type of vehicle and the type of
terrain.

The truck factor is determined fioln the relationship:

f = -
l
T
1 4 P , (E,. -- I) -t PR (ER -- 1)

where '

1' I = 111ol)orlio11
01 tlucks iu tlie traffic s l r e ; ~ ~ cx1)ressrd
!~. i15 ;I dc.ci~ii;il

PR = proportion of buses in the traffic stream. expressed as a decimal.

ET = passenger car equivalent for trucks, obtained from Table 3.4.4.
EB = passenger car equivalent for buses, ohtained from Table 3.4.4.

Tahle 3.4.4 - Average passenger car equivalents for truck$ and buses on two-lane roads
-- .
'l'ypc- O S I ~ , I . U : I ~ I I
p -- .

Vehicle type Level of Flat Rolling Mountainous

service
Trucks, E, P, 2 .O 4.0 7.0
B ancl C 2.2 5.0 10.0
D and E 2.0 5.0 12.0
Buses, E,, A 1.8 3.0 5 . .7
B arid C 2.0 3.4 6.0
D and E 1.6 2.9 6.5

C Directional Factor

All of the VIC values given in Table 3.4.2 are for 50150 directional distribution of traffic on
a two-lane road. For (.)ther directional distributions, the factors sh!)1l!il in Tahle 3.4.5 shall he
applied.

Table 3.4.5 - Directional Factor

)I Directorial distribution 80120 70130 60140 50150 1

Directorial factor. f, 0.83 0.89 0.94 I .OO
 .sire!)! ~ N U ) J Il:.ln.l JOJ p u m s s e uaall
sell S [ 'Qj o j.aVV 01 A H q i o ~jo O!IEJ v .Alalz!isatlsal u!ellal snou!e~unompue Su![lo~' i e ~
-10.1 iuas ~;:tl0') puwuaa lad 09 'iuas lad 02 jo sauoz Su!ssed ou luas lad pue i!lds leuo!i?al!p
()p/()c) r! 'sy?nl] iuas lad 40 X!LII sl+.je11e auinsse c ) . ~ . alcleL
t: U! pasn e!la~!l:, 8u!uuelcl aqL
'u!ellal jo sad./ci
lualaN!p pue as!Alas jo slalzal iuala#!p OI alqexlddt! s j , a v v ulnui!xem a q ~salz!8'alqei aqL
.au!lap!nS e se
pas11 all ,<em 9.t.t: alileL U! paiuasa~dspeol lelnl auel-ohzi ~ o s j . a v v mnm!xem pa~em!isa
at11 sa.rnpasold ;711!1111i!ltl .1o:1 ' p ! ~ ! s s e ~AllelauaS
s 34 A~uol l ! ~ eiq) u!ellai pue 3!liamtuS
aql pue leaA ~ s e s a l o jamos jo L a v v j o smlai U! pssaldxa aq II!M puemap s1~3e11a u
!
5 ! h ~ ~ l ~J O~ ll)U!q I O ~ bU! l ) J U ! [ l l l O
h!IlJ JOJ 0 1 [)JJJ2.jaJ Jl[ ~ ~ ~ I NJ[{
\~1111)asofiI a10 pl~i! 'ha1;7!11.>~apelSdn ,lo iio!ie~atlo ;7u!~(olzu! 'xaltlulos slow S! peol auel
o , ~ Hi uo saoe~Yn!l!:)~ds j o s!sAleuv 'q1Yua1 mq S iseal i t jo suo!j3as peal OJ pa!ltlde Allensii
S! pue .suo!l!puos s y j e ~pue ~ s!liamoa% 'u!ellai a8elalze uo paseq S! s!sAleue lelaua8 a u
uo!ixs U! pauyap uaaq seq A H a alaqm ' A H a 'amnlolz A~lnoqu%!sap 1se2aloj
JO Su!~s!xa aqi CI]!M sanlelz asaq, alerim03 pue a s p l a s j o [alzal q x a ~ o uo!isas
j peol u a q 8
j 'samnlolz a s p a s ayl aindluos 01 S! s!sAleue leuo!ielado 01 q s e o ~ d d e~elaua%a u
~ o 'AS
.suo!l!puos Su!l!elzald 1~301ayl oi Ai!l!qe3!ldde si! 01 l ~ a d s a ly l ! ~paienlelza
all s,.(eh\le plnoqs put .asua!ladxa Su!ielado ue3!~aluv q l l o ~i 3 a ~ aJ /~V ~ U!H saJnpa3oJd ayl
1ei11 pu!m U! uloq aq .lalzaMoq *plnoqs 11 '(J/vc)H) , , 1 m u e ~Ai!3ecIe~)AemqZ!~,,U! paq!~ssap
.izolopoqlalu ail1 Su!sn 'pzAleue pue palap!suos aq Aeui suo!ltlo auel!ilnm snopelz 'spueluap
1)al'aIi)~d J O Su!ls!xa l o j alenbape IOU S! peol auel-OM]e ieqi alexpu! suo~ieindmo3alaqM
.iualuu%!le le3!11alz pue leiuoz!~oq
~uol,jsuo!~elado x ~ ~ e . uo
l i ~ x d u l !a111 iuauin3ol) 01 suY!sao alz!ir?ulaile ~ o pj w l o j ~ a daq
plno~{ss!siileue leuo!ie~atlo'peal aq, j o Ai!sede:, wnm!xem atp o] asap samnlolz u81sap JO-J
 3 1 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA

3.5 SIGHT DISTANCE

3.5.1 General -

The sight distance is the length o f road, which a driver is able to see ahead of him. l'he sigt~t
distance is one of the most important individual design features with respect to safe arid
efficient traffic flow.

The following values should Ile usctl for control of sight lines:

Drivers eye height (crest c l ~ r v r s )

Drivers eye height (sag curves)
Object height for stopping sight distance
Object height for meeting and passing sight distance
Headlight height

Given a certain vehicle speed, the distance required for stopping the vehicle is dependent o11
the reaction time ancl the friction that can be obtained between the tyres ar~tlthe road surf;~cc:

3.5.2 Reaction Time

The total reaction tirne, comprising the perception time and tli,e brake reaction time. is
dependent on the driver alld the traffic and road condition. The reaction time varies froni I-:!
s at urhan contlitions ; ~ n t liligll tr.;~fficintensity to 2--4 s ;II r11r;ll c.ontlitiorls. wlic~rcIorl)! c-:~c\,
sections with low tral'lic are exljeriencecl to create l o ~ l greactio~ltinles.

A reaction time of 2.5 s will he used as an average value for calculation ol'sight distances.

3.5.3 Friction

The coefficient of friction between the tyre and the road surface is depende~lton the followirlg:

'The type and texture of the wearing course.

'The condition of the road surface.
The type and condition of the tyres.
Thevehiclespeed.
The method of hraking.

7 h e coefficient of friction related to design is established for wet pavemeni, and for design
purposes only the dependency of the vehicle speed is considered.

Coefficients of friction are used for calculation of sight distances and rninirnunl radii of
horizontal curves.

On straights the tangential coefficient of friction, f,, if; used for calculation of sight distances.
Hy hraking in curves a radial as weii 2s a tangential coeffirient of friction are active. As the
.topping sight distance for curves should be approximately the same as for straights, the ri~tli;tl
coefficient of friction, f,, for calculation of minimum radii of horizontal curves is norrnally
determined as not more than half of the t;rrlgential coefficient of frictio~l.

7 h c coefiicients of friction to be applied to geometric design are shown in 'Tahle 3.5.1.

-
' 60'0 ZE'O OZ 1
I 1'0 PE'O 00 1
E l '0 9E '0 08
0 l '0 8t"O 09
OZ'O OP'O OP
n3 l3
s a ~ ~ nl enl u o z ! ~ o ~ anuels!p ~qZ!s p a d s uZ!saa
Vl'tlYLl'tl3 QNV S10'tl.LN03 N 3 I S Y Q / E
 NOIL38S SS0293 QHVCINVLS Z'P . .
.sa;7p!~qJalzo pau!eiu!eiu aq hllelu~oulleqs hemaSe!~~e3 a q jo VP!M 1 1 " ~aq]
~
1)1111 S I I . J , \ I I ~l;li\o 1);111!1!111!11111;l([LIII:[II1011 llc~lsLI:M;I~I!! 11113 3111 10 I~II)!M1111.1 2111 pue slJalzln3
l.>.\O I);)U!\!]U!&!LU ~
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;3q /(II\:UIJOU Il&:IISSJ31)(11011S( ) U K . ~ u M ~ ~ I ; ' ! J JOJ IEUO!]3aS SSOJ3 ayL
.[)J"U\!IS peoJ palzed 01 Su!pe~Sdn~ a l e l
e aiel!l!xy o~ speol palzed se p~epueis;7!~1awoa8awes alp o] pauS!sap aq Leur speol laAel9
.suo!l3as %u!molloj aq) U! paq!nsap se umop p!el
uaaq sell speol JOJ suo!jnas sso~:, plepuels peol palzed j o ]as e 'sp1epue)s U! Ll!uloj!un
a l o u ~ o ~puc
d sluaulala uoynas s s o ~ naql jo uS!sap pue uo!lxqas a q ICJ!ldru!s 01 lap10 u~
.I)eoJ aq] U! L~!nu!]uons!pa q j o s1s!~o~oru ulem 01 pJ!nbaJ S! s9u!y~eur
peoJ put su;7!s n g e ~jo ] uo!len!lddr! ladold e sasen qnns u~ .1! anelda~01 a[q!seaj h1@3!ruouo3a
IOU S! I! asnenay pau!eiaJ ay 01 seq a~runrulsmoJJeu Su!]s!xa ue uaqm aldurexa ~ o 'spJepueis j
JJ
110!1.72sSSOJJ II! S L I O ! I ~ I ~ ~1)31&:1os!
~classt:ol A~essa3auaq hew )! 'lalzaMoq 'sase3 u!el~a;7u~
.q]Sual uo!l!sueJ) e
. J ~ A OAlle3!3ol pue Lllellpe~Spa13aga aq lleqs uoy3as s s o n a q jo saSueqs hue 1eq pue alnoJ
a111j o uo!13asyns q3w UIIII!M wloj!un ay ~ l e q ssplepueis uo!]3as SSOJJ aq) l e q 'Ll!lessanauun
apew acl IOU llerls spjepuels uo!]nas sso~:,U! sa;iuet[:, lelp 'JaAaMoq 'a.w s~uaural!nbaln!seq ay_L
.du!/llelz ale s ~ o ~Su!llo~iuon
ql aql asne3ay ainoJ ~ejn3!uedE JaAo LJVA heru uo!inas sso~:,a43
1
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oI I~
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~
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(u1m) (~!UI)
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pn,a UL)!IEUUOJ UC!PakY ~>p[n<lqs d99 aPr~ iwnd8que.) wp!m slnl nuq JO 'ON pWU
l I_
I ~
~ol~uo:, J ~ I WJOI ua!sap le~nlnnllsI I I I J X) n!llauroaS ol ~na!Qnslou ale s p e w p a j ! s s e p u n ( I )
speol Mau jo uo!l~nllsuonay] l o j p s n aq 01 S! , , e , alqeL
P211!S
(1) (I S'S sapun
-
.p- .-
(~!m)
001 S'L I S'S S'S I 111
00 1 S'h S'I S'9 SZ'E Z 11
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00 1 S'0 I O'Z S'9
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00 l L.Zl s.z O'L
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00 1 l 0'6 SZ ' 0 S'L 5'1: Z V1
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09 X Z 0'PZ O'E O'E Z'0 S'L X Z S'E P I
I"' qlpkn
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p ..,!,r.u... , ur,p.*fi 1 n u w.uq .o, ptma
I . 1 .
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 4 / CROSS SECTION

7.
Wos , WS W* 2.3.50
Wm ' ,
PAVED 1 ' LANES
SMJLOER

ROAD TYPE I AND I1 - DUAL CARRIAGEWAY

Paved shoulder
Figure 4.2.1 - 'Typical cross section

100 zm a20 2 3.50

Ga ~ ~ G L7 D E R LANES HEDI AN
Q P
W c U
a 5'
W 3
W

D
W 8
- -.
->5- %
U1
--
10% I
. -. -. - .... .. .
. .
L -1.

ROAD 'TYPE I1 - DUAL CARRIAGEWAY

Grave1 shoulder
Figure 4.2.2 - Typical cross section

ROAD TYPE 111, IV ANT) V

Paved shoulder
Figure 4.2.3 - Typical cross sectio~i
 W 1 alaq~ S.l:l ((!OS)
I 5 Jl~ a ~ a q ~ 2 : I in:, jo a d o ~ sa u (z
:i11:1jo qldap S! 'v pue [[g30 iqZ!aq S! Jq aJaqM ' s ~ o l [ c y
se aq ~ l q (111s)
s adois q:,eq aql pue (i[~aluqueqlua) ap!s j o atlols Jauu! JO adols ap!s a u
. ( ) - l ' p 118110lll1
I ' l ' P 31lla!.J 'SUO!J3aS
s s o ~ plepueis
s aql uo Vaiexpu! S! uo!ir?[rrlo~pue sJap[noqs bi(e~aSe!l~e:, j o l ~ e ss013
j a u
.slaplnoils palzed oi pa!ldrle aq plnoqs alnixai J O lnolo:, iualajyp j o Su!3ejlns
10 sau!l a3p3 , 1 1 1 ~
pue 1 1 ']A
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palsadxa aq hew slaplnoqs ail) j o JeaM alzlssasxa alaqM pue scale paielndod hlasuap ul
.JaleM a:,qJns j o j j o - I ~ ladold
J alnsua oi llej ssol:, 1aY~el
ua,i!5 uaaq seq laplnoqs Jalno a u 'ssel:, pew ayl y l ! ~pale!sosse p a d s uS!sap ~aqS!q
aql aiepc~uluo:,:,e oi q l p ! ~pew 1e1o1ayl sasea~su!Japlnoqs lain0 a u .-raplnoqs lewlou
aql ap!slno pap!lzo~d uaaq seq laplnoqs lalno ue 'sapqalz Yu!ddols alepourur033e oi 10
pa,ied uaqM auel i(:,uaY~au~a ue se ~ a q ~ !pasn
a aq Leur laplnoqs ayl alaqM speol ~o[euru o
.pJemil anpurl i n o q i y auel lewlou
.>ill oi 1r.rnial oi ~sn.11aqj i!iu~ad ~l!ni ierll paads e u!el~c 01 q3n.11le:,!tli(i e JOJ iua!sljJns
asuels!p e J ~ Ji s a ~ sa111 puohaq papualxa aq plnoqs pue ape~Ydnaql j o Yu!uu!Yaq ayl
puoLaq a:,uels!p awos 1e ape15 ayl uo pasnpo~lu!aq he111auel Su!qlu!l:, a q 1 -3gjeJi ~ o l s
ail1 JOJ auel Yu!qw!i:, ~ I ! M p a p ~ ~ oaq
~ tplnoqs
l spew ~ o k wayl 'siua!pe.15 daais Suol uo
'scl!~lsaZpa a41 Ir! a ~ n l x a 10
] lnolos iuarajJ!p j o Su!:,ej~ns e asn ~o saw1 aSpa Su!iu!ed hq
pap!,io~daq plnoqs sd!.~]saSpa leu!pn~!Suol ' q l p ! ~auel
~ ay] pa3xa q i p ! ~palzed ayl alaqM
.saSpa m a w a ~ e dayl ]E uo!)e~lua:,uos laaqm atp uassal
I)UR a ~ u w ~ a ~ u ! elaplnoqs
lu jo is03 aql ampal 01 lap10 U! v p ! auel ~ aqi paasxa h l q e ~ a j a ~ d
~)l~iorls q ~ p p;7nv~I
! ~ J I I , L '3[(11:111;7m~;rcl /(n[[r ru S L ' ; j o q ~ p auel ! ~ R sals~qalzirlS!1 iC~lsolu
,IO s!l.leli alunlolz mol loci .l>aq!~:,sa.ldS! UI J O i ~ i p auel
! ~ e peol jo sassq3 ~aq5!q
1 0 . 1 '111 j't-0.t:F)cl S
I ) I I I I ) ~ [III[)!M 311111 3111 '111 S'l S!
;)(;>!II;)AI! JO llll)!hi IlIIliII!XII1Il 3111 SV
 4 1 CROSS SECTION

'The type of side ditches sliall not.lnally he trapezoidill ditches, tlie rnininiulri depth as show^.
in Figures 4.2.1 through to 4.2.5. ? h e bottom width of the ditches shall he determined in each
case after calculations of the expected flows.

4.4 CYCLE TRACKS

Cycle tracks shall be constructed to a minimum width of 1 m one way, and 2 m two ways ;incl
shall be increased in multiples of 1 m as necessary to carry the volume of cyclists. I t i s
preferahle that the shoulder he constructed to the outside and not closer to the side drains th;ln
I m. In conditions that do not permit tliis, there stiould he a ~iiini~iiu~ii
ilistance Iwtwre~itlic
cycle track and carriageway of 3 m.

4.5 LAY-BYS

Where it is necessary to construct lay-bys, e.g. at bus stops and for rest purposes. they shorll(1
be constructed with either of figures 4.5.1 through 4.5.3.

Surfacing of lay-bys should be similar to that of the road tliey serve. Screening from the road
should be provided where possible.

Any lay-by shall not be constructed closer than 250 rn to any intersectiori.