History of Life On Earth

A Brief History of Life on Earth
Geology Today
Dividing Earth History into Time
Intervals
Geologists have divided Earth's history

into a series of time intervals. These
time intervals are not equal in length
like the hours in a day. Instead the time
intervals are variable in length. This is
because geologic time is divided using
significant events in the history of the
Earth.
Examples of Boundary "Events“
For example, the boundary between

the Permian and Triassic is marked by
a global extinction in which a large
percentage of Earth's plant and animal
species were eliminated. Another
example is the boundary between the
Precambrian and the Paleozoic, which
is marked by the first appearance of
animals with hard parts.
Eons
Eons are the largest intervals of

geologic time and are hundreds of
millions of years in duration. In the
time scale, you can see the
Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent
eon and began more than 500
million years ago.
Eras
Eons are divided into smaller time

intervals known as eras. In the time
scale, you can see that the
Phanerozoic is divided into three eras:
Cenozoic, Mesozoic and Paleozoic.
Very significant events in Earth's
history are used to determine the
boundaries of the eras.
Periods
Eras are subdivided into periods. The

events that bound the periods are
widespread in their extent but are not as
significant as those which bound the eras.
In the time scale, you can see that the

Paleozoic is subdivided into the Permian,
Pennsylvanian, Mississippian, Devonian,
Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian periods.
Epochs
Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and

the periods of the Cenozoic are frequently
subdivided into epochs. Subdivision of
periods into epochs can be done only for
the most recent portion of the geologic time
scale. This is because older rocks have
been buried deeply, intensely deformed
and severely modified by long-term earth
processes. As a result, the history
contained within these rocks cannot be as
clearly interpreted.
Age of the Earth
a. The Earth has a very long history
— 4.6 billions of years of history.
b. The age of the Earth is based from
the radioactive isotopic dating of
meteorites.
c. The oldest dated rock from the
Earth is only ~3.8 billion years old.
Rocks and Fossils
a. The history of the Earth is recorded in rocks but the
rock record is inherently incomplete. Some of the
"events" do not leave a record or are not preserved.
Some of the rock record may have also been lost
through the recycling of rocks (Recall the rock cycle)
b. Preserved in rocks are the remains and traces of

plants and animals that have lived and died through-
out Earth's History — fossils. The fossil record
provides scientists with one of the most compelling
evidence for Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution.
(increasing complexity of life through
time).
Relative Proportion of the Major Subdivisions of Geologic Time.
PERFORMANCE TASK
• Create a pie chart that shows the

relative percentage of Geologic
Time.
a. One of the first to
recognize the
correspondence of
between rocks and time
is Nicholas Steno
(1638-1686).
Steno’s principles –
superposition, original
horizontality, and lateral
continuity became the
foundation of
stratigraphy – the study
of layered rocks.
Since the Geologic Time Scale is based on the rock record, the first order of
business is to establish the correct succession of rocks. Initially, this was
done using relative dating techniques.
One of the earliest attempts to
subdivide the rock record into
units of time was made by
Abraham Gottlob Werner, a
German geologist. Werner
divided the rock record into
the following rock-time units
(from oldest to youngest):
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary,
and Quaternary. Werner used
the Principle of Superposition
extensively to establish
temporal relationship among
the rock units.
Fossils are also useful in
determining relative ages of
rocks. William “Strata”
Smith (1769 – 1839), while
working in a coal mine,
observed that each layer or
strata of sedimentary rock
contain a distinct assemblage
of fossils which can be used
to establish equivalence
(correlation) between rock
units separated by long
distances. Moreover, he
observed that these fossils
succeed each other vertically
in a definite order.
Whereas William Smith
used fossils primarily to
identify rock layers,
Charles Lyell (1797 –
1875), British Lawyer and
Geologist, recognized the
utility of fossils in
subdividing Geologic Time
on the basis of fossils. He
was able to subdivide the
Tertiary by examining the
proportion of living vs.
extinct fossils in the rocks.
EVOLUTION OF EARTH’S HISTORY
a. Fossils are an essential part of subdividing the Geologic Time.
Biostratigraphy - a sub-discipline of stratigraphy which deals with
the use of fossils in correlation and establishing the relative ages
of rocks
Index Fossils - are
marker fossils
used to define
periods of
Geologic Time.
Ideally, index
fossils are
distinctive (can be
easily identified
and distinguished
from other fossils,
widespread
(distribution is not
confined to a few
locality) , and have
limited geologic
time range.
Ultimately, the Geologic Time Scale was assigned numerical dates
(absolute dating) through the radiometric dating of rocks.
A Brief History of Life on Earth
Geology Today
Horned dinosaurs, 70 m.y. ago

N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Mark Marcuson; Nebraska State Museum
Organization of Life
Amino acids are the basic building blocks of proteins.
Biosynthesis is the linking together (or polymerization) of
small organic molecules (like amino acids) to form larger
ones, called biopolymers (like proteins).
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid - is a
double-chain biopolymer that
consists of two twisted chain-like
molecules held together by organic
molecules.
DNA contains all the genetic

information needed for organisms
to grow and reproduce.
DNA stores genetic information.
Fig. 15.7, p. 443
RNA - Ribonucleic acid - is a single-
strand molecule similar to one-half
of a DNA strand.
RNA contains the information

needed to construct an exact
duplicate of the protein molecule.
RNA transmits the genetic

information that DNA stores.
Fig. 15.7, p. 443
Metabolism is the set of

biochemical reactions by
which organisms produce
and extract food energy.
Short chain of fossil cyanobacteria cells,
1.0 b.y. Bitter Springs Chert, N. Australia
Fermentation is anaerobic
metabolism - without
oxygen.
Respiration is aerobic
metabolism - with oxygen.
Living cyanobacterium Oscillatoria
Oxygen in
Atmosphere
Photosynthesis - process
whereby plants use light
energy to cause carbon
dioxide to react with water.
Byproducts are:
Organic substances -
carbohydrates
and free oxygen
All free oxygen now in the

atmosphere originated by
photosynthesis.
Fig. 15.3, p. 439

Early Earth
Major events and trends
in Earth’s surface
environment during the
first 4.0 b.y.:
Ocean forms, 4.4 b.y.
Oldest bacteria, 3.8 b.y.
Blue-green algae, 3.0 b.y.
Iron formations, 2.2 b.y.
Oxygen buildup, 2.0 b.y.
Eukaryotes, 2.0 b.y.
Abundant multicelled
fossils, 0.6 b.y.
Fig. 15.1, p. 437

Early Earth The solar system coalesced 4.6 b.y. ago
4.6 b.y. from a cloud of cosmic dust and gas.
Gravitational compaction caused nuclear
fusion to begin in the sun.
Planetesimals gathered into larger
clusters to make planets; leftover
material formed asteroids and comets.
Asteroid Ida
Nebula M16
Early Earth
Probably molten at
4.5 b.y. first, Earth was
battered by repeated
impacts of
planetesimals.
The first atmosphere

was stripped away by
solar wind or impacts,
but was replenished by
volcanic eruptions.
It was too hot for water

to exist on the surface.
John Drummond; Time-Life Books

Early Earth
4.4 b.y.
As Earth cooled, water vapor in the atmosphere condensed

and rained out to form oceans - maybe as early as 4.4 b.y. ago.
Don Davis; Time-Life Books
Early Life
3.8 b.y.
Near the end of the intense bombardment period, about 3.8

b.y. ago, Earth still was wracked by meteorite impacts and
volcanic eruptions. It was a tough place to make a living.
Don Davis; Time-Life Books
Origin of Life
The first life required
chemosynthesis of
organic compounds -
such as amino acids -
from inorganic
materials like
atmospheric gases,
to make proteins.
Lightening bolts discharge through volcanic

gases, Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines
Fig. 15.4, p. 441
Origin of Life
One hypothesis
suggests simple
microbes first formed
in aerosols - tiny liquid
droplets or solid
particles suspended in
the atmosphere.
Could lightening
discharges have
provided the energy?
Lightening bolts discharge through volcanic
gases, Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines
Fig. 15.4, p. 441
Origin of Life
Black smoker
Galapagos Is.
Fig. 15.6, p. 443
Because of the adverse surface conditions, the most likely place

for life to develop might have been at deep ocean thermal
springs, protected from meteorite bombardment.
Both the raw materials and the heat needed for chemosynthesis would have
been available here.
Origin of Life
3.5 b.y. +?
The first life was
microbial.
Oldest fossils of microbes

Short chain of fossil cyanobacteria cells,
found on Earth (so far) are 1.0 b.y. Bitter Springs Chert, N. Australia
nearly 3.5 b.y. old.
Rocks in Greenland
thought to have formed as
byproducts of microbial
activity are 3.8 b.y.
Living cyanobacterium Oscillatoria
Mars Life?
4.5-3.6 b.y.
Meteorite ALH84001 was
found in Antarctica in 1984.
It is 4.5 b.y. old.
Its chemistry is unlike Earth rocks - instead, it is like Mars

rocks analyzed by remote landers.
It is thought to have originated on Mars, but was “splashed”

into space by an impact near the end of the heavy
bombardment period. It remained in space until about 16,000
years ago, when it was attracted by Earth’s mass and fell onto
Antarctica.
Fig. 15.5, p. 442
Mars Life?
4.5-3.6 b.y.
In 1996, tiny tube-like
structures were discovered
inside the meteorite.
Some scientists have

interpreted these structures Fig. 15.5, p. 442
as fossils of microbes - if so,
they would be at least 3.6
b.y. old.
The debate is raging hotly -

stay tuned for further
developments.
Oxygen Chemical sediments from 2.0 to 1.8 b.y.
Atmosphere consist of oxygen-poor iron minerals
1.8 b.y. plus oxygen-rich iron minerals
Interlayering reflects a transition from oxygen-poor
atmosphere to oxygen-rich atmosphere during this time.
Brockman Formation, 2.0 b.y., W. Australia (Fig. 8.10, p. 227)
All organisms are composed of cells, a
Early Life
complex grouping of chemical compounds
enclosed in a membrane, or porous wall.
Prokaryotic cells store their DNA in a poorly defined part
of the cell, not separated from the cytoplasm - the main
body of the cell - by a membrane.
Prokaryotic cell
lacks a well-
defined nucleus
Fig. 15.8, p. 445
Early Life
Eukaryotic cells include a distinct nucleus surrounded by a

membrane, as well as other membrane-bounded organelles
- well defined parts that each have a specific function.
Eukaryotic cell has

a well-defined,
membrane-bound
nucleus
Fig. 15.8, p. 445
Early Life
Prokaryotic cells are the earliest Eukaryotic cells are larger and
and simplest cell forms; many more complex; most require
are anaerobic. oxygen.
Most advanced life forms are
Modern bacteria are prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes.
Fig. 15.8, p. 445 N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
How Fossils Form
Mineralization - bones and
other hard parts are
replaced by minerals
carried in solution by
groundwater.
Petrified wood has been

replaced by mineralization.
Even though its original woody

texture is preserved, it consists
entirely of minerals like
crystalline quartz, chalcedony, or
Petrified Forest Natl. Park, Arizona
agate.
Fig. 15.16, p. 455
How Fossils Form
Trace fossils are indirect
evidence of organisms:
tracks and trails
wormholes and burrows
nests
feces (coprolites)
calcite mounds (stromatolites)
Dinosaur tracks, 65 m.y.a.

Fig. 15.18, p. 455
How Fossils Form
Some organisms are frozen in permafrost, like this wooly

mammoth.
Some organisms are trapped and preserved whole in amber or
tar, like this Eocene to Oligocene age mosquito.
(Fig. 15.15, p. 454).
Evolution
Darwin’s Finches
Fig. 15.13
p. 451
Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands in 1832.

He observed many species of finches on the islands, whereas only
one lives on the nearby continent of South America.
Each finch species occupies a different environment, and eats
different food. Their beaks and their feeding behavior vary to
exploit the sparse resources as effectively as possible.
Evolution
Darwin’s Finches
Fig. 15.13
p. 451
To explain his observations, Darwin hypothesized that species

can adapt to new conditions through natural selection.
Individuals who are well-adapted are more likely to pass on
their characteristics to the next generation.
Individuals who are poorly adapted tend to be eliminated and
are less likely to produce offspring to perpetuate their genes.
Evolution
Darwin’s Finches
Fig. 15.13
p. 451
All natural populations have individuals with different

characteristics. In any setting, some features work better than
others, and these individuals will tend to reproduce more
successfully.
Over time, the entire population will evolve towards a better

adaptation.
Evolution
Darwin’s Finches
Fig. 15.13
p. 451
Back to Darwin’s Finches --

A study of DNA released in mid-1999 showed that all the
Galapagos finches are closely related to each other.
They probably were derived from the South American finch

that Darwin hypothesized was their common ancestor.
Evolution
The iguana problem:
Galapagos Islands are only 3
m.y. old.
DNA from Galapagos iguanas

shows that they have evolved
about 7 m.y. since splitting off
from their South American
cousins.
BUT -- The islands did not even

exist when the iguanas left
Galapagos Iguana
South America 7 m.y. ago.
Fig. B15.1, p. 452
Evolution
The iguana problem (Cont.):
The Galapagos Islands are a
hot spot chain like Hawaii, in
which the older volcanoes have
subsided below sea level.
Hypothesis: the ancestral

iguanas swam from South
America to the easternmost
island. As time passed and each
island in the chain subsided,
they moved west to the next
one. It took them 7 m.y. to Galapagos Iguana
make the trip. Fig. B15.1, p. 452
Fossil Record - Archean
3.5 b.y.: The oldest known fossils are

chains of prokaryotic cells from a
chert in W. Australia.
Notice how similar they are to the possible

microbes in Mars meteorite ALH84001
Fossil Record -
Precambrian
Stromatolites are layers of
calcium carbonate that
form in warm, shallow seas
by the activities of
photosynthetic bacteria.
Fossil stromatolites > 1.5

b.y. are evidence of
microbial activity during
the Proterozoic and
Archean (as far back as 3.0
b.y. or earlier).
Stromatolites, Shark’s Bay, W. Australia (Fig. 15.10, p. 447)

Fossil Record -
Proterozoic
About 1.4 b.y.a. - oldest eukaryotes
By 1.0 b.y.a. - eukaryotes common
600 m.y. - Ediacara fauna: oldest
fossils of larger, multicellular, soft-
bodied marine animals.
Named for Ediacara Hills, Australia.
Dickinsonia
costata -
worm-like, 7.5
cm across Mawsonia spriggi - a floating,
disc-shaped animal like a
Fig. 15.11
jellyfish, 13 cm across.
p. 448
Fossil Record - Late Proterozoic
Ediacaran Fauna are still poorly understood.
Some are simple blobs, others are like jellyfish, worms, or soft-
bodied relatives of the arthropods.
They appear worldwide in strata about 600 m.y. old, suggesting a
relatively sudden explosion of soft multicelled forms.
Fossil Record - Late Proterozoic
Plants: Land plants probably evolved from green algae about 600
m.y. ago. Life on land may have looked like this.
In the seas, bacteria and green algae were common at the end of
the Precambrian.
Green algae
(Fig. 15.22, p. 458)
Fossil Record -
Cambrian
545-505 m.y.a. - beginning of
period of great diversification:
Higher atmospheric oxygen

affected skeletal biochemistry
Trilobite, Utah (Fig. 15.20)
and supported larger organisms.
Ozone developed to level where

it blocked ultraviolet radiation.
Eukaryotes invented sexual

reproduction.
Hard parts appeared. Soft-bodied arthropod, B.C.

N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 (Fig. 15.21, p. 457)
Fossil Record -
Cambrian
545-505 m.y.a.:
Hard external skeletons
protected trilobites, clams,
snails, and sea urchins from
predators. Trilobite, Utah (Fig. 15.20)
Soft-bodied animals diversified

from Ediacaran fauna into the
Burgess Shale fauna.
Gills, filters, efficient guts, circulatory
systems, and other features of more
advanced life forms developed.
Soft-bodied arthropod, B.C.
Fossil Record - Cambrian
545-505 m.y.a.: reconstruction of Burgess Shale fauna
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 J. Wiley & Sons, The Blue Planet

Fossil Record - Ordovician
490-443 m.y.a.: Seas held abundant marine invertebrates with
sophisticated adaptations to different conditions.
Straight-shelled cephalopods, trilobites, snails,
brachiopods, and corals in a shallow inland sea.
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 The Field Museum, Chicago

Fossil Record - Silurian
438-408 m.y.a.: This was the “Golden Age” of cephalopods and

brachiopods (a clam-like shellfish).
The first land plants developed, and the first arthropods

(scorpion-like invertebrates) ventured onto land.
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 The Milwaukee Museum

Fossil Record - Devonian
408-360 m.y.a.: The
“Golden Age” of fishes
Lutgens and Tarbuck, 1999
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 American Museum of Natural History, New York

Fossil Record - Devonian
408-360 m.y.a.: Land plants
became common. Vascular
plants developed - club
mosses and ferns.
Modern fern leaf with dark
These plants had structural spores on underside
support from stems and

limbs and a vascular
system providing an
internal plumbing system
for water.
Fossil fern in shale, 350 m.y. (Fig. 15.23, p. 459)

Fossil Record - Late Devonian
380-360 m.y.a. - First seed plants - the naked-seed plants -
developed. Gymnosperms like Glossopteris developed.
Ginkgos are long-lived relics of the ancient family of naked-
seed plants, so are conifers.
Modern and fossil ginkgo leaves (Fig. 15.24, p. 459)

Fossil Record - Carboniferous
360-286 m.y.a.: Age of amphibians; first winged reptiles and
first winged insects. Widespread forests and swamps.
Ichthyostega had features like a tail that it inherited from fish; and legs that
allowed it to move around on land.
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Fig. 3.9, p. 65 Michael Rothman; John Wiley & Sons
Fossil Record - 320-290 m.y.a.: peat swamps common,
with scale trees, seed ferns, scouring
Pennsylvanian rushes, and large dragonflies
The Field Museum, Chicago

Fossil Record - Permian
286-248 m.y.a.: Amphibians decline; reptiles and insects
increase; first mammal-like reptiles appear. Nonseed plants
decline.
Eryops, a carnivorous amphibian -The Field Museum, Chicago

Fossil Record - Triassic
225 m.y.a.: First dinosaurs and mammals; explosive radiation
of dinosaurs. (Primitive Ornithischia, an early dinosaur)
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 National Museum of Natural Sciences, Canada

Fossil Record - Jurassic
213-144 m.y.a.: The Age
of dinosaurs; forests of
gymnosperms and ferns
cover most of Earth
J.R. Griffin, 1999 Smithsonian Natural History Museum

Fossil Record - Jurassic
213-144 m.y.a.: Age of dinosaurs
American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y.
Fossil Record - Jurassic and Cretaceous
213-65 m.y.a.: Age of dinosaurs. Birds appear.
Dragonfly, Brazil
7 cm (3 in.) long
Fig. 15.26, p. 460
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Fig. 3.9, p. 65 Breck Kent; John Wiley & Sons
Fossil Record -
Jurassic -Cretaceous
175-65 m.y.a. :
This nesting mother, a birdlike
dinosaur called Oviraptor, was found
curled protectively around a nest
containing at least 20 eggs - evidence
that dinosaurs cared for their young.
Archaeopteryx: an early bird, has

skeleton and teeth very similar to
those of dinosaurs as well as
detailed impressions of feathers.
Fig. 15.27, p. 462
Fossil Record - Cretaceous
144-65 m.y.a.: Plesiosaurs infested the beaches
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Smithsonian Natural History Museum

Fossil Record - Cretaceous and Tertiary
144-65 m.y.a. - first flowering plants appear.
After the K-T boundary, flowering plants diversify and spread
explosively over the planet, as do mammals.
Fossil sweet gum, 1.5 m.y., Idaho - next to modern sweet gum fruit
Fossil Record - K-T Boundary
65.0 m.y.a.:
Cretaceous -Tertiary
Boundary
Many species and genera,

including the dinosaurs,
died out at end of
Cretaceous
One hypothesis: Earth was

hit by a meteorite - at
Chixulub, in the Yucatan
area of Mexico
Planetary Society, J.R. Griffin, 1999
Fossil Record - Tertiary: Paleocene
65-54.9 m.y.a.: Beginning of modern life forms following the
K-T Boundary extinctions.
Age of mammals began, grasslands spread.
U.S. Geological Survey

54.8-38 m.y.a.
Fossil Record - Tertiary: Eocene

Fossil Record - Tertiary: Oligocene
38.0-24.6 m.y.a.: horses, antelopes, cats, oreodonts
American Museum of Natural History, New York

Fossil Record - Tertiary: Miocene
24.6-5.1 m.y.a.: horses, antelopes, and other mammals.
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Fig. 3.9, p. 65 Breck Kent; John Wiley & Sons
Fossil Record - Tertiary: Miocene
24.6-5.1 m.y.a.: horses, rhinoceri, and elephants.
American Museum of Natural

History, New York
Fossil Record - Quaternary: Pleistocene
2.0-0.1 m.y.a.:
deer family
and elephant
family

2.0-0.01 m.y.a.: horses, cats, elephants, bison, dire wolves
American Museum of Natural History, New York

2.0-0.01 m.y.a.: mammals successfully colonized all
environments
J.R. Griffin, 1999 Larson, Illinois State Museum

2.0-0.01 m.y.a.:
subglacial
areas,
La Brea tar
pits, S. CA

< 0.1 m.y.a.: Western Nebraska when first humans were appearing
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999 Mark Marcuson, Nebraska State Museum

Fossil Record - Quaternary
4.4-0 m.y.a.: Hominids diverged from an early ape-like family.
(Poor fossil record and missing transitional forms complicate the story and
leave many gaps, but new fossils are being found each year.)
Ardipithecus ramidus - 4.4 (bipedal, erect forest dweller)

Ardipithecus anamensis - 4.2-3.9 (bipedal, apelike skull)
Australopithecus afarensis (“Lucy”) - 3.9-2.8 (bipedal, apelike face with
sloping forehead, human-like bodies. Lived together in family groups.)
and other species of Australopithecus - 3.0-1.1
Homo habilis - 2.2-1.6 m.y.a. (used stone tools, so

may be related to Homo sapiens, but skull is like
australopithecines)
Homo habilis
www.onelife.com
Fossil Record - Quaternary
Hominids (Cont.)
Homo erectus - 1.8-0.4 m.y. (Peking man,
Java man: developed large brains, tools,
weapons, fire, and learned to cook food.)
Homo sapiens archaic - 500-200 t.y.a.

(Skulls intermediate between Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens sapiens)
Homo sapiens neandertalensis -200-30 t.y.a

(teeth and brain similar to ours,
but DNA different, burial sites suggest
they practiced some form of religion.) Neandertal
www.onelife.com
Fossil Record -
Quaternary: Holocene
Homo sapiens sapiens -
120,000-present

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A Brief History of Life on Earth

Geologists have divided Earth's history

For example, the boundary between

Eons are the largest intervals of

Eons are divided into smaller time

Eras are subdivided into periods. The

In the time scale, you can see that the

Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and

b. Preserved in rocks are the remains and traces of

• Create a pie chart that shows the

Horned dinosaurs, 70 m.y. ago

DNA contains all the genetic

DNA stores genetic information.

Fig. 15.7, p. 443

RNA contains the information

RNA transmits the genetic

Fig. 15.7, p. 443

Metabolism is the set of

All free oxygen now in the

Fig. 15.3, p. 439

Fig. 15.1, p. 437

The first atmosphere

It was too hot for water

John Drummond; Time-Life Books

As Earth cooled, water vapor in the atmosphere condensed

Near the end of the intense bombardment period, about 3.8

Lightening bolts discharge through volcanic

Because of the adverse surface conditions, the most likely place

Oldest fossils of microbes

Its chemistry is unlike Earth rocks - instead, it is like Mars

It is thought to have originated on Mars, but was “splashed”

Some scientists have

The debate is raging hotly -

Eukaryotic cells include a distinct nucleus surrounded by a

Eukaryotic cell has

Petrified wood has been

Even though its original woody

Dinosaur tracks, 65 m.y.a.

Some organisms are frozen in permafrost, like this wooly

Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands in 1832.

To explain his observations, Darwin hypothesized that species

All natural populations have individuals with different

Over time, the entire population will evolve towards a better

Back to Darwin’s Finches --

They probably were derived from the South American finch

DNA from Galapagos iguanas

BUT -- The islands did not even

Hypothesis: the ancestral

3.5 b.y.: The oldest known fossils are

Notice how similar they are to the possible

Fossil stromatolites > 1.5

Stromatolites, Shark’s Bay, W. Australia (Fig. 15.10, p. 447)

Named for Ediacara Hills, Australia.

Higher atmospheric oxygen

Ozone developed to level where

Eukaryotes invented sexual

Hard parts appeared. Soft-bodied arthropod, B.C.

Soft-bodied animals diversified