PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The emission of electrons from a metallic surface when irradiated by electromagnetic radiation is called
the phenomenon of photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called as Photoelectrons.
For the investigation of the photoelectric effect a schematic diagram of the apparatus as used by
Lenard (1902) is shown in the figure below.

Monochromatic light from the lamp L illuminates a plate P in an evacuated glass enclosure. A battery
maintains a potential difference between P and a metal cylinder C, which collects the photoelectrons.
The potential C can be varied to be either positive or negative relative to P. When the collector is positive
with respect to the plate, the electrons are attracted to it and the ammeter (A) registers a current. Lenard
studied the dependence of photoelectric current on the following factors.
i. Intensity of incident radiation
ii. Potential difference between the plate and the collector
iii. Frequency of the incident radiation
The result of observations are as follows:
Effect of the intensity of Incident Radiation
When the collector is positive relative to the plate and the potential difference is kept fixed, then for a
given frequency of radiation, the photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of the light, as
shown in the figure. It shows that the number of emitted photoelectrons is proportional to the light
intensity. Furthermore, there is no threshold intensity.
Effect of Potential Difference
When the frequency and intensity of radiation are kept constant and the positive potential of collector
relative to plate is gradually increased, then the photoelectric current i increases with the potential
difference V. At some value of the potential difference, when all the emitted electrons are collected, thus
increasing potential difference has no effect on the current. The current has reached its maximum value,
called the saturation current.
When the polarity of the battery is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the most energetic ones
reach the collector, so the current falls. When the retarding potential difference reaches a critical value,
the current drops to zero. At this stopping potential V0, only those electrons with the maximum kinetic
energy are able to reach the collector.
1 2
𝑒𝑉0 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

For a given frequency of light, the saturation current depends on the intensity of light. Larger the
intensity; higher the saturation current. However, the stopping potential does not change with the
intensity. It is clearly shown in figure.
Effect of frequency
For a given intensity of radiation, the stopping potential depends on the frequency. Higher the frequency,
higher the value of stopping potential.
The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons depends on the light source and the plate material, but not
on the intensity of the source. Certain combinations of light sources and plate materials exhibit no
photoelectric effect.
For a metal plate, there exists a minimum frequency called threshold frequency (f0) below which no
electron is emitted however large the light intensity may be. The threshold frequency is a characteristic
of the metal plate.
The minimum condition for photoelectric effect:
(i) Threshold Frequency (f0): The minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will
produce a photoelectric effect i.e., ejection of photoelectrons from a metal surface is known as threshold
frequency for the metal. Its value, though constant for a specific metal, may be different for different
metals. If f = frequency of incident photon & f0= Threshold Frequency
Then
1. If f < f0 , there will be no ejection of photoelectron and, therefore, no photoelectric effect.
2. If f = f0 , photoelectrons are just ejected from metal surface, in this case the kinetic energy of electron
is zero
3. If f > f0, then photoelectrons will come out of the surface along with kinetic energy
(ii) Threshold Wavelength (λ0 ): emission of electrons (e-) a metal surface corresponding to a greatest
wavelength to incident radiation/light is known threshold wavelength . For wavelengths above this
threshold, there will be no photoelectron emission.
𝑐
𝜆0 =
𝑓0
For λ = wavelength of incident photon, then
1. If λ < λ0 then photoelectric effect will take place and ejected electron will possess kinetic energy
2. If λ = λ0 then just photoelectric effect will take place and kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron will
be zero
3. If λ > λ0there will be no photoelectric effect
(iii) Work Function or Threshold Energy (W)
1. The minimal energy of thermodynamic work that is needed to remove an electron from a conductor
to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the surface of the conductor is known as work
function/threshold energy of the
W = hf0
2. Work function is the characteristic of given metal
3. If E = energy of incident photon, then
4. If E < W, no photoelectric effect will take place.
5. If E = W, photoelectric effect will take place but the kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron will be
zero
6. If E > W, photoelectric effect will take place along with possession of the kinetic energy by ejected
electron.
Laws of Photoelectric effect:
1. For a light of any given frequency; (f > f0) photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity
of light
2. For any given material, there is a certain minimum (energy) frequency, called threshold frequency,
below which the emission of photoelectrons stops completely, no matter how high is the intensity of
incident light.

3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is found to increase with increase in the frequency
of incident light, provided the frequency exceeds the threshold limit (f > f0). The maximum kinetic
energy is independent of the intensity of light.
4. The photo-emission is an instantaneous process. When light with required frequency metal falls on a
metal surface, item its electron and it taken 10-9 s
Semiconductors Physics
On the basis of electrical conductivity, the materials can be divided into three categories:
(1) Conductors (e.g., Cu, Al, Fe, etc.),
(2) Insulators (e.g., wood, diamond, mica, etc.), and
(3) Semiconductors (e.g., Ge, Si, GaAs, … etc.)
At room temperature (300 K), the conductivity of conductors is in the range 106 – 108 S/m, and that of
insulators, 10-8 to 104 S/m. The conductivity of semiconductors lies in between that of conductors and
insulators.
Electronic devices (such as diodes, transistors, ICs) are made from silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). In
the early days (around 1950), mostly germanium was used, because it was comparatively easier to purify
germanium. However, it was found that the devices made from silicon are more stable and their
functioning is less dependent on temperature variations. Now, we have much improved metallurgical
processes to purify silicon. So, nowadays mostly the devices are of Si. An integrated circuit (IC) is made
from a silicon chip or wafer.
Energy Bands in Solids
The electrons in an isolated atom have discrete energy levels. However, in a crystal an atom is
surrounded by a large number of other atoms. Due to interatomic interactions, the energy levels are
modified. This modification is more prominent for the electrons in the outermost shell. (The electrons
in the inner shells are shielded by the electrons in outer shells and are not much affected by the electric
fields of the neighbouring atoms.) Due to this modification, each energy level splits into a very large
number of levels (~ 1023) lying close to one another. We can regard a bunch of these energy levels as a
continuous energy distribution, and call it energy band.
The energy bands, which are completely filled at 0 K are called valence bands (VB). The bands with
higher energies are called conduction bands (CB). We are generally concerned with the highest valance
band and the lowest conduction band.
Note that a conduction band is either completely empty or partially filled.
The difference between the highest energy in a valence band and the lower energy in the next higher
conduction band is called forbidden energy gap (E).
As an example, consider a specimen of sodium (Na) containing N atoms. Its atomic number is 11 (1s 2,
2s2, 2p6, 3s1). The details of its energy bands are shown in the table.
As temperature is raised, the electrons may collide with each other and with ions to exchange energy.
The order of energy exchanged is kT. At room temperature (300 K), kT is 0.026 eV. Ordinarily, the
energy gaps are much larger than kT. An electron in a completely filled band (i.e., a valence band) does
not find an empty state with a slightly higher or lower energy. Hence, it cannot accept or donate any
energy of the order of kT. However, the outermost electrons, which are in the highest occupied energy
band, may take up this energy kT provided some empty states are available in the same band.
Similar thing happens when a piece of sodium is connected to a battery. The electric field can supply
only a small amount of energy to the electrons. Only the electrons in the highest occupied band can
accept this energy and then move according to the field. This gives rise to an electric current. The
electrons in the inner (valence) bands cannot accept this small amount of energy and hence cannot take
part in electric conduction.
Why Materials Have Different Conductivities
There can be four broad types of energy band structures, as shown.
(A) The highest occupied energy band is only partially filled at 0 K. (Such is the case with sodium,
copper, etc.) When electric field is applied, the electrons in the partially filled band can accept
energy from the field and can drift accordingly. Hence, such materials are good conductors of
electricity.
(B) The highest occupied energy band (VB) is completely filled at 0 K and next higher band is
completely empty (CB). But the two are overlapping. (Zinc has such energy band structure.)
Therefore, there are empty energy stats close to the occupied states. Hence, such solids are also
good conductors.
(C) The highest occupied energy band (VB) is completely filled and the next higher band is completely
empty (CB). There is a large gap (Eg > 5 eV) between these two bands. (Diamond is of this type.) The
electrons in VB refuse to accept any energy from electric field, because there is no empty state nearby.
Only when the energy supplied (either by applied field or by raising the temperature) is more that Eg (~
5 eV), an electron from VB can jump to CB, after which it can take part in electrical conduction.
Therefore, at ordinary temperatures, these materials behave as insulators.
(D) The VB and CB are separated by small gap at 0 K (Eg ~ 1 eV). [For Ge, Eg = 0.72 eV; and for Si,
Eg = 1.12 eV.] At 0 K, an ordinary battery cannot supply even this much energy. Hence electrical
conduction cannot take place. That is, at 0 K, these materials behave as perfect insulators. However, at
room temperature, thermal energy pushes some of these electrons in VB to CB. Thus, small conduction
becomes possible. Such solids are therefore called semiconductors.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
To make a diode or a transistor, the first step is to obtain a sample of semiconductor in its purest form.
This is called intrinsic semiconductor. The impurity content is less than one-part impurity in 100 million
parts of semiconductor.
Crystal Structure of Semiconductors
Each atom of an intrinsic semiconductor (Ge or Si) has four valence electrons. These four electrons of
each atom form covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms. Thus, the semiconductor has
tetrahedral lattice structure. A simplified two-dimensional representation of this crystalline structure is
shown in figure. The core represents the nucleus and all the orbiting electrons except the four valence
electrons. Therefore, the core has +4 charge. A covalent bond consists of two electrons, one from each
adjacent atom. At 0 K, all the valence electrons are tightly bound to the parent atoms. No free electrons
are available for electrical conduction. Hence, the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at 0 K.

Charge Carriers in Intrinsic Semiconductors

At room temperature, thermal energy is sufficient to make a valence electron jump to the conduction
band. It starts orbiting the nucleus at a larger radius, and frequently it jumps from one nucleus to the
other. It has become free electron.

When an electron breaks a covalent bond and moves away, a vacancy is created in the bond. A positive
charge is associated with this vacancy. This vacancy is called a hole. Free electrons and holes are always
generated in pairs. At any time, the concentration of free electrons is same as the concentration of holes
in an intrinsic semiconductor,
ni = pi
Just as free electrons move randomly in the crystal, so do the holes. An electron from the neighbouring
bond can make a jump to fill the vacancy, thereby shifting the vacancy (or the holes) to new location.
Much energy is not needed to induce such a transfer, as all the electrons in the valence band have roughly
the same energy. A free electron carries negative charge (–1.6 x 10-19 C) with it. A hole carries a positive
charge (+1.6 x 10-19 C) with it.
A metal (such as Cu, Al, etc.) has only one type of charge carriers, namely, free electrons.
But a semiconductor has two types of charge carriers, free electrons and holes.
When an electric field is applied, the free electrons (in the conduction band) drift opposite to the field
and the holes drift along the field. Thus, both types of carriers contribute to electric conduction.

In a semiconductor, not only the thermal generation of electron-hole pairs takes place, but also there is
simultaneous pair recombination. When a free electron encounters a hole, during their random motion,
the electron occupies the vacancy, re-establishing the covalent bond. The individual identity of both is
lost. In this recombination process, same amount of energy is given out as was taken to generate electron-
hole pair. At equilibrium the rate of pair recombination is equal to the rate of pair generation. If
temperature increases, more bonds are broken, that is, the rate of generation increases. This increases
the concentration of free electrons and holes, which in turn increases the rate of recombination.
Equilibrium is again established.
Note that Eg is more in silicon (Eg = 1.12 eV) than in germanium (Eg = 0.72 eV). Therefore, at a given
temperature, less number of electron-hole pairs will be generated in silicon than in germanium. Hence,
the conductivity of silicon is less than that of germanium.

Conduction in Intrinsic Semiconductor

When a battery is connected across a semiconductor, the free electrons drift towards +ve terminal and
holes drift towards –ve terminal. The total current I is summation of the current due to electron flow I
and the current due to hole flow. The current in the connecting wire is due to electron flow.
Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of a Semiconductor
When temperature is raised, more electron-hole pairs are generated. The higher the temperature, the
higher is the concentration of charge carriers. Because of this, the conductivity increases with
temperature. In other words, the resistivity ( ρ = 1/σ) decreases with rise in temperature. That is, the
semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductors are of little use. For making a semiconductor device, we deliberately
add a tiny and controlled amount of desired impurity to the highly purified semiconductor. This process
is called doping. A doped semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. The proportion of impurity
added is about 1 in 106.
N-type, or Donor Type
Pentavalent impurity (from group V, such as phosphorous, arsenic, or antimony) is added so that an
impurity atom substitutes for a silicon atom in the crystalline structure. Four of its valence electrons
make four covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms. The fifth electron remains unpaired, and is quite
loosely bound to the nucleus. It needs very little energy (0.01eV in Ge, 0.05 eV in Si) to free itself from
the attractive force of the nucleus. At room temperature, the thermal energy is enough to do this job for
all the impurity atoms added. Since each impurity atom donates one electron to the conduction band,
this type of impurity is called donor type.
After donating an electron, the impurity atom becomes +ve ion. However, this +ve charge is immobile
as the ion is held in its place by covalent bonds. In addition to the free electrons donated by impurity
atoms, there are some more due to breaking of covalent bonds. Thus, a few holes are also produced. If
ND is the concentration of donor (impurity) atoms, n that of free electrons and p that of hole, we have

Type equation here.

ND + p = n
(+ve ions) (holes) (electrons)
As a whole, the N-type semiconductor is neutral. It has electrons in majority and holes in minority (n
>> p).
P- type, or Acceptor Type
Here, trivalent impurity (from group III, such as boron, aluminium, gallium and indium) is added. The
three valence electrons make only three covalent bonds with neighbours. The fourth bond remains
incomplete. There exists a vacancy of an electron in this bond.
Note that this vacancy is not a hole, as no charge is associated with it. However, the single electron in
the incomplete bond has a great tendency to snatch an electron from neighbouring bonds. Only a little
(about 0.01 eV) additional energy is needed by the electron in adjacent bond to jump and occupy the
vacancy around the impurity atom. When this happens, a hole is now formed in the adjacent bond. This
hole goes on moving around randomly in the crystal carrying +ve charge with it.
When impurity atom accepts an electron to complete fourth bond, it becomes –ve ion (immobile). At
room temperature, all impurity atoms (concentration NA ) convert into –ve ions. In addition to the holes
created due acceptor impurity atoms, there will be some covalent bonds broken due to thermal energy.
NA + n = p
(–ve ions) (electrons) (holes)
The holes are in majority (p >> n).
Doping Level
If the doping level (i.e., the impurity concentration) is increased in an extrinsic semiconductor, the
concentration of majority carriers increases. As a result, the chances of their recombining with minority
carriers increase; and hence the concentration of minority carriers decreases. In fact, in an extrinsic
semiconductor, we have
np = 𝑛𝑖2
where n is the intrinsic concentration of free electrons (or of holes).

Effect of Temperature on Extrinsic Semiconductor

The number of charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor is much larger than that in intrinsic
semiconductor. Hence, its conductivity is also many times that of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Consider an N-type semiconductor. All the donors have already donated the electrons to the crystal at
room temperature. If the temperature is raised further, more covalent bonds are broken. As a result, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. Eventually a temperature is reached when the concentration
of minority carriers becomes almost same as that of majority carriers. It will then behave like an intrinsic
semiconductor (with higher conductivity). Any device made of P- and N-type semiconductor will fail at
such a temperature. This critical temperature is about 85 °C for Ge and 200 °C for Si.