Combined Geo XI NCERT

FUNDAMENTALS
OF
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XI
2019-2020
ISBN 81-7450-518-0
First Edition
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2019-2020
FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s

life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks
a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our
system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi
and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement
this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the
maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred
system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to
pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space,
time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the
information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as
the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and
sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we
perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed
body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
committee for textbooks in Social Sciences, at the higher secondary
level, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisor for this book,
Professor M.H. Qureshi for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers
contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals
for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations
2019-2020
iv
which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring
Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education,
Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of
Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and
contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and
suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of
Educational
20 December 2005 Research and
Training
2019-2020
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER

SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISOR
M. H. Qureshi, Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Indu Sharma, PGT, Geography, RIE Demonstration School, Ajmer
K. Kumaraswamy, Professor, Department of Geography, Bharatidasan
University, Tiruchirapalli
K. N. Prudhvi Raju, Professor, Department of Geography, Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi
K. S. Sivasami, Professor (Retd.), Centre for the Study of Regional Development,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
L. Cajee, Reader, Department of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong
P. K. Malik, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Tavru, Gurgaon
S. R. Jog, Professor (Retd.), Department of Geography, University of Pune, Pune
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Aparna Pandey, Lecturer, Geography, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
2019-2020
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

contribution of Ashok Diwakar, Lecturer, Geography, Govt. College, Sector-9,
Gurgaon in the development of this textbook.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the support of individuals and
organisations as listed below for providing various photographs, and other materials
such as articles used in this textbook : R. Vaidyanadhan (Fig. 6.3 and 7.1);
N. S. Saini (Fig. 6.4, 6.7 and 7.4); Y. Ramesh and Krishnam Raju, VSVG, (USA)
(Fig. 7.11); K.N. Prudhvi Raju (Fig. 7.2, 7.5, 7.7, 7.9, 7.12 and 7.15); ITDC/Ministry
of Tourism, Govt. of India, (Fig. 11.1 and 11.2); Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Govt. of India (Fig. 16.1, 16.2, 16.3 and 16.4); The Times of India, New
Delhi (Photograph on earthquake destruction, Collage on tsunami on page 25
and global warming on page 109); Social Science Textbook for Class VIII, Part II
(NCERT, 2005), (Photographs related to volcanoes on page 26-27).
Acknowledgements are due to Savita Sinha, Professor and Head, Department
of Education in Social Sciences and Humanties for her support and finalising
this textbook.
The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Ishwar Singh
and Arvind Sharma, DTP Operators; Sameer Khatana and Amar Kumar Prusty,
Copy Editors; Bharat Sanwaria, Proof Reader; Dinesh Kumar, Computer Incharge,
who have helped in giving a final shape to this book. The contribution of the
Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged.
2019-2020
C ONTENTS
FOREWORD iii
UNIT I : GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 1-12

1. Geography as a Discipline 2
UNIT II : THE EARTH 13-38

2. The Origin and Evolution of the Earth 14
3. Interior of the Earth 21
4. Distribution of Oceans and Continents 30
UNIT III : LANDFORMS 39-70

5. Minerals and Rocks 40
6. Geomorphic Processes 45
7. Landforms and their Evolution 55
UNIT IV : CLIMATE 71-106

8. Composition and Structure of Atmosphere 72
9. Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temperature 75
10. Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems 84
11. Water in the Atmosphere 94
12. World Climate and Climate Change 99
UNIT V : WATER (OCEANS) 107-121

13. Water (Oceans) 108
14. Movements of Ocean Water 116
UNIT VI : LIFE ON THE EARTH 122-136

15. Life on the Earth 123
16. Biodiversity and Conservation 131
GLOSSARY 137-140
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CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.
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UNIT
I
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
This unit deals with
• Geography as an integrating discipline; as a science of spatial
attributes
• Branches of geography; importance of physical geography
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CHAPTER
GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
Y
ou have studied geography as one of the of the earth’s surface. The understanding and
components of your Social Science course the skills obtained in modern scientific
upto the secondary stage. You are techniques such as GIS and computer
already aware of some of the phenomena of cartography equip you to meaningfully
geographical nature in the world and its contribute to the national endeavour for
different parts. Now, you will study ‘Geography’ development.
as an independent subject and learn about the Now the next question which you may like
physical environment of the earth, human to ask is — What is geography? You know that
activities and their interactive relationships. earth is our home. It is also the home of many
Therefore, a pertinent question you can ask at other creatures, big and small, which live on
this stage is — Why should we study the earth and sustain. The earth’s surface is
geography? We live on the surface of the earth. not uniform. It has variations in its physical
Our lives are affected by our surroundings in features. There are mountains, hills, valleys,
many ways. We depend on the resources to plains, plateaus, oceans, lakes, deserts and
sustain ourselves in the surrounding areas. wilderness. There are variations in its social
Primitive societies subsisted on ‘natural means and cultural features too. There are villages,
of subsistence’, i.e. edible plants and animals. cities, roads, railways, ports, markets and
With the passage of time, we developed many other elements created by human beings
technologies and started producing our food across the entire period of their cultural
using natural resources such as land, soil and development.
water. We adjusted our food habits and This variation provides a clue to the
clothing according to the prevailing weather understanding of the relationship between the
conditions. There are variations in the natural physical environment and social/cultural
resource base, technological development, features. The physical environment has
adaptation with and modification of physical provided the stage, on which human societies
environment, social organisations and cultural enacted the drama of their creative skills with
development. As a student of geography, you the tools and techniques which they invented
should be curious to know about all the and evolved in the process of their cultural
phenomena which vary over space. You learn development. Now, you should be able to
about the diverse lands and people. You attempt the answer of the question posed
should also be interested in understanding the earlier as to “What is geography”? In very
changes which have taken place over time. simple words, it can be said that geography
Geography equips you to appreciate diversity is the description of the earth. The term
and investigate into the causes responsible for geography was first coined by Eratosthenese,
creating such variations over time and space. a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word has
You will develop skills to understand the globe been derived from two roots from Greek
converted into maps and have a visual sense language geo (earth) and graphos (description).
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GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 3
Put together, they mean description of the earth. changing earth and untiring and ever-active
The earth has always been seen as the abode human beings. Primitive human societies were
of human beings and thus, scholars defined directly dependent on their immediate
geography as, “the description of the earth as environment. Geography, thus, is concerned
the abode of human beings”. You are aware of with the study of Nature and Human
the fact that reality is always multifaceted and interactions as an integrated whole. ‘Human’
the ‘earth’ is also multi-dimensional, that is is an integral part of ‘nature’ and ‘nature’ has
why many disciplines from natural sciences the imprints of ‘human’. ‘Nature’ has influenced
such as geology, pedology, oceanography, different aspects of human life. Its imprints can
botany, zoology and meteorology and a be noticed on food, clothing, shelter and
number of sister disciplines in social sciences occupation. Human beings have come to terms
such as economics, history, sociology, political with nature through adaptation and
science, anthropology, etc. study different modification. As you already know, the present
aspects of the earth’s surface. Geography is society has passed the stage of primitive
different from other sciences in its subject societies, which were directly dependent on
matter and methodology but at the same time, their immediate physical environment for
it is closely related to other disciplines. sustenance. Present societies have modified
Geography derives its data base from all the their natural environment by inventing and
natural and social sciences and attempts their using technology and thus, have expanded the
synthesis. horizon of their operation by appropriating and
We have noted that there exist variations utilising the resources provided by nature. With
over the surface of the earth in its physical as the gradual development of technology, human
well as cultural environment. A number of beings were able to loosen the shackles of their
phenomena are similar and many are dissimilar. physical environment. Technology helped in
It was, therefore, logical to perceive geography reducing the harshness of labour, increased
as the study of areal differentiation. Thus, labour efficiency and provided leisure to
geography was perceived to study all those human beings to attend to the higher needs of
phenomena which vary over space. life. It also increased the scale of production
Geographers do not study only the variations and the mobility of labour.
in the phenomena over the earth’s surface The interaction between the physical
(space) but also study the associations with environment and human beings has been very
the other factors which cause these variations. succinctly described by a poet in the following
For example, cropping patterns differ from dialogue between ‘human’ and ‘nature’ (God).
region to region but this variation in cropping You created the soil, I created the cup, you
pattern, as a phenomenon, is related to created night, I created the lamp. You created
variations in soils, climates, demands in the wilderness, hilly terrains and deserts; I
market, capacity of the farmer to invest and created flower beds and gardens. Human
technological inputs available to her/him. beings have claimed their contribution using
Thus, the concern of geography is to find out natural resources. With the help of technology,
the causal relationship between any two human beings moved from the stage of
phenomena or between more than one necessity to a stage of freedom. They have put
phenomenon. their imprints everywhere and created new
A geographer explains the phenomena in possibilities in collaboration with nature. Thus,
a frame of cause and effect relationship, as it we now find humanised nature and
does not only help in interpretation but also naturalised human beings and geography
foresees the phenomena in future. studies this interactive relationship. The space
The geographical phenomena, both the got organised with the help of the means of
physical and human, are not static but highly transportation and communication network.
dynamic. They change over time as a result of The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all
the interactive processes between ever types and hierarchies) integrated the space and
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4 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
gradually, it got organised. As a social science The present world is being perceived as a global
discipline, geography studies the ‘spatial village. The distances have been reduced by
organisation’ and ‘spatial integration’. better means of transportation increasing
Geography as a discipline is concerned with accessibility. The audio-visual media and
three sets of questions: information technology have enriched the data
(i) Some questions are related to the base. Technology has provided better chances
identification of the patterns of natural of monitoring natural phenomena as well as
and cultural features as found over the the economic and social parameters.
surface of the earth. These are the Geography as an integrating discipline has
questions about what? interface with numerous natural and social
(ii) Some questions are related to the sciences. All the sciences, whether natural or
distribution of the natural and human/ social, have one basic objective, of
cultural features over the surface of the understanding the reality. Geography
earth. These are the questions about attempts to comprehend the associations of
where? phenomena as related in sections of reality.
Taken together, both these questions take Figure 1.1 shows the relationship of geography
care of distributional and locational aspects of with other sciences. Every discipline, concerned
the natural and cultural features. These with scientific knowledge is linked with
questions provided inventorised information of geography as many of their elements vary over
what features and where located. It was a very space. Geography helps in understanding the
popular approach during the colonial period. reality in totality in its spatial perspective.
These two questions did not make geography Geography, thus, not only takes note of the
a scientific discipline till the third question was differences in the phenomena from place to
added. place but integrates them holistically which
(iii) The third question is related to the may be different at other places. A geographer
explanation or the causal relationships is required to have a broad understanding of
between features and the processes and all the related fields, to be able to logically
phenomena. This aspect of geography integrate them. This integration can be
is related to the question, why? understood with some examples. Geography
Geography as a discipline is related to influences historical events. Spatial distance
space and takes note of spatial characteristics itself has been a very potent factor to alter the
and attributes. It studies the patterns of course of history of the world. Spatial depth
distribution, location and concentration of provided defence to many countries,
phenomena over space and interprets them particularly in the last century. In traditional
providing explanations for these patterns. It warfare, countries with large size in area, gain
takes note of the associations and inter - time at the cost of space. The defence provided
relationships between the phenomena over by oceanic expanse around the countries of
space and interprets them providing the new world has protected them from wars
explanations for these patterns. It also takes being imposed on their soil. If we look at the
note of the associations and inter-relationships historical events world over, each one of them
between the phenomena resulting from the can be interpreted geographically.
dynamic interaction between human beings In India, Himalayas have acted as great
and their physical environment. barriers and provided protection but the
passes provided routes to the migrants and
GEOGRAPHY AS AN INTEGRATING DISCIPLINE invaders from Central Asia. The sea coast has
Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It encouraged contact with people from East and
attempts spatial synthesis, and history Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa. Navigation
attempts temporal synthesis. Its approach is technology helped European countries to
holistic in nature. It recognises the fact that colonise a number of countries of Asia and
the world is a system of interdependencies. Africa, including India as they got accessibility
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through oceans. The geographical factors have econometrics. Maps are prepared through
modified the course of history in different parts artistic imagination. Making sketches, mental
of the world. maps and cartographic work require
Every geographical phenomenon undergoes proficiency in arts.
change through time and can be explained
temporally. The changes in landforms, climate, Geography and Social Sciences
vegetation, economic activities occupations and
cultural developments have followed a definite Each social science sketched in Figure 1.1 has
historical course. Many geographical features interface with one branch of geography. The
result from the decision making process by relationships between geography and history
different institutions at a particular point of have already been outlined in detail. Every
time. It is possible to convert time in terms of discipline has a philosophy which is the raison
space and space in terms of time. For example, d’etre for that discipline. Philosophy provides
it can be said that place A is 1,500 km from roots to a discipline and in the process of its
place B or alternately, it can also be said that evolution, it also experiences distinct historical
place A is two hours away (if one travels by processes. Thus, the history of geographical
plane) or seventeen hours away (if one travels thought as mother branch of geography is
by a fast moving train). It is for this reason, included universally in its curricula. All the
time is an integral part of geographical studies social science disciplines, viz. sociology,
as the fourth dimension. Please mention other political science, economics and demography
three dimensions? study different aspects of social reality. The
Figure1.1 amply depicts the linkages of branches of geography, viz. social, political,
geography with different natural and social economic and population and settlements are
sciences. This linkage can be put under two closely linked with these disciplines as each
segments. one of them has spatial attributes. The core
concern of political science is territory, people
Physical Geography and Natural Sciences
and sovereignty while political geography is
All the branches of physical geography, as also interested in the study of the state as a
shown in Figure 1.1, have interface with natural spatial unit as well as people and their political
sciences. The traditional physical geography behaviour. Economics deals with basic
is linked with geology, meteorology, hydrology attributes of the economy such as production,
and pedology, and thus, geomorphology, distribution, exchange and consumption. Each
climatology, oceanography and soil geography of these attributes also has spatial aspects and
respectively have very close link with the here comes the role of economic geography to
natural sciences as these derive their data from study the spatial aspects of production,
these sciences. Bio-Geography is closely related distribution, exchange and consumption.
to botany, zoology as well as ecology as human Likewise, population geography is closely
beings are located in different locational niche. linked with the discipline of demography.
A geographer should have some proficiency
The above discussion shows that
in mathematics and art, particularly in drawing
geography has strong interface with natural
maps. Geography is very much linked with the
and social sciences. It follows its own
study of astronomical locations and deals with
latitudes and longitudes. The shape of the earth methodology of study which makes it distinct
is Geoid but the basic tool of a geographer is a from others. It has osmotic relationship with
map which is two dimensional representation other disciplines. While all the disciplines have
of the earth. The problem of converting geoids their own individual scope, this individuality
into two dimensions can be tackled by does not obstruct the flow of information as in
projections constructed graphically or case of all cells in the body that have individual
mathematically. The cartographic and identity separated by membranes but the flow
quantitative techniques require sufficient of blood is not obstructed. Geographers use
proficiency in mathematics, statistics and data obtained from sister disciplines and
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6
FIELD OF GEOGRAPHY
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Figure 1.1 : Geography and its relation with other disciplines
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attempt synthesis over space. Maps are very BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (BASED ON
effective tools of geographers in which the SYSTEMATIC APPROACH)
tabular data is converted into visual form to
bring out the spatial pattern. 1. Physical Geography
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study

of landforms, their evolution and related
Please study Figure 1.1 for recapitulation. It has processes.
very clearly brought out that geography is an (ii) Climatology encompasses the study of
interdisciplinary subject of study. The study of structure of atmosphere and elements
every subject is done according to some of weather and climates and climatic
approach. The major approaches to study types and regions.
geography have been (i) Systematic and (iii) Hydrology studies the realm of water
(ii) Regional. The systematic geography approach over the surface of the earth including
is the same as that of general geography. This oceans, lakes, rivers and other water
approach was introduced by Alexander Von bodies and its effect on different life
Humboldt, a German geographer (1769-1859) forms including human life and their
while regional geography approach was activities.
developed by another German geographer and a (iv) Soil Geography is devoted to study the
contemporary of Humboldt, Karl Ritter processes of soil formation, soil types,
(1779-1859). their fertility status, distribution and
In systematic approach (Figure 1.2), a use.
phenomenon is studied world over as a whole,
2. Human Geography
and then the identification of typologies or
spatial patterns is done. For example, if one is (i) Social/Cultural Geography encom-
interested in studying natural vegetation, the passes the study of society and its
study will be done at the world level as a first spatial dynamics as well as the cultural
step. The typologies such as equatorial rain elements contributed by the society.
forests or softwood conical forests or monsoon (ii) Population and Settlement Geography
forests, etc. will be identified, discussed and (Rural and Urban). It studies population
delimited. In the regional approach, the world growth, distribution, density, sex ratio,
is divided into regions at different hierarchical migration and occupational structure
levels and then all the geographical phenomena etc. Settlement geography studies the
in a particular region are studied. These characteristics of rural and urban
regions may be natural, political or designated settlements.
(iii) Economic Geography studies economic
region. The phenomena in a region are studied
activities of the people including
in a holistic manner searching for unity in
agriculture, industry, tourism, trade,
diversity.
and transport, infrastructure and
Dualism is one of the main characteristics
services, etc.
of geography which got introduced from the
(iv) Historical Geography studies the
very beginning. This dualism depended on the historical processes through which the
aspect emphasised in the study. Earlier scholars space gets organised. Every region has
laid emphasis on physical geography. But undergone some historical experiences
human beings are an integral part of the earth’s before attaining the present day status.
surface. They are part and parcel of nature. They The geographical features also
also have contributed through their cultural experience temporal changes and these
development. Thus developed human form the concerns of historical
geography with emphasis on human activities. geography.
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Figure 1.2 : Branches of geography based on systematic approach
(v) Political Geography looks at the space 3. Biogeography

from the angle of political events and The interface between physical geography
studies boundaries, space relations and human geography has lead to the
between neighbouring political units, development of Biogeography which
delimitation of constituencies, election includes:
scenario and develops theoretical (i) Plant Geography which studies the
framework to understand the political spatial pattern of natural vegetation in
behaviour of the population. their habitats.
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(ii) Zoo Geography which studies the (c) Field Survey Methods
spatial patterns and geographic (d) Geo-informatics comprising
characteristics of animals and their techniques such as Remote
habitats. Sensing, GIS, GPS, etc.
(iii) Ecology /Ecosystem deals with the The above classification gives a
scientific study of the habitats comprehensive format of the branches of
characteristic of species.
geography. Generally geography curricula is
(iv) Environmental Geography concerns
taught and learnt in this format but this
world over leading to the realisation of
format is not static. Any discipline is bound
environmental problems such as land
gradation, pollution and concerns for to grow with new ideas, problems, methods
conservation has resulted in the and techniques. For example, what was once
introduction of this new branch in manual cartography has now been
geography. transformed into computer cartography.
Technology has enabled scholars to handle
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY BASED ON REGIONAL large quantum of data. The internet provides
APPROACH (FIGURE1.3) extensive information. Thus, the capacity to
1. Regional Studies/Area Studies attempt analysis has increased tremendously.
Comprising Macro, Meso and Micro GIS has further opened vistas of knowledge.
Regional Studies GPS has become a handy tool to find out exact
2. Regional Planning locations. Technologies have enhanced the
Comprising Country/Rural and Town/ capacity of attempting synthesis with sound
Urban Planning theoretical understanding.
3. Regional Development You will learn some preliminary aspects of
4. Regional Analysis these techniques in your book, Practical work
There are two aspects which are common in Geography – Part I (NCERT, 2006). You will
to every discipline, these are: continue to improve upon your skills and
(i) Philosophy learn about their application.
(a) Geographical Thought
(b) Land and Human Interaction/
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Human Ecology
(ii) Methods and Techniques This chapter appears in the book entitled
(a) Cartography including Computer Fundamentals of Physical Geography. The
Cartography contents of the book clearly reflect its scope.
(b) Quantitative Techniques/Statistical It is therefore, appropriate to know the
Techniques importance of this branch of geography.
Figure 1.3 : Branches of geography based on regional approach
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Physical geography includes the study of sea-food, oceans are rich in mineral resources.
lithosphere (landforms, drainage, relief and India has developed the technology for
physiography), atmosphere (its composition, collecting manganese nodules from oceanic
structure, elements and controls of weather bed. Soils are renewable resources, which
and climate; temperature, pressure, winds, influence a number of economic activities such
precipitation, climatic types, etc.), hydrosphere as agriculture. The fertility of the soil is both
(oceans, seas, lakes and associated features naturally determined and culturally induced.
with water realm) and biosphere ( life forms Soils also provide the basis for the biosphere
including human being and macro-organism accommodating plants, animals and micro
and their sustaining mechanism, viz. food organisms.
chain, ecological parameters and ecological
balance). Soils are formed through the process What is Geography?
of pedogenesis and depend upon the parent
rocks, climate, biological activity and time. Geography is concerned with the description
and explanation of the areal differentiation of
Time provides maturity to soils and helps in
the earth’s surface.
the development of soil profiles. Each element
Richard Hartshorne
is important for human beings. Landforms
provide the base on which human activities are Geography studies the differences of
located. The plains are utilised for agriculture. phenomena usually related in different parts
of the earth’s surface.
Plateaus provide forests and minerals.
Hettner
Mountains provide pastures, forests, tourist
spots and are sources of rivers providing water
to lowlands. Climate influences our house The study of physical geography is
types, clothing and food habits. The climate emerging as a discipline of evaluating and
has a profound effect on vegetation, cropping managing natural resources. In order to
pattern, livestock farming and some achieve this objective, it is essential to
industries, etc. Human beings have developed understand the intricate relationship between
technologies which modify climatic elements physical environment and human beings.
in a restricted space such as air conditioners Physical environment provides resources, and
and coolers. Temperature and precipitation human beings utilise these resources and
ensure the density of forests and quality of ensure their economic and cultural
grassland. In India, monsoonal rainfall sets the development. Accelerated pace of resource
agriculture rhythm in motion. Precipitation utilisation with the help of modern technology
recharges the ground water aquifers which has created ecological imbalance in the world.
later provides water for agriculture and Hence, a better understanding of physical
domestic use. We study oceans which are the environment is absolutely essential for
store house of resources. Besides fish and other sustainable development.
EXERCISES
1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following scholars coined the term ‘Geography’?
(a) Herodotus (c) Galileo
(b) Erathosthenese (d) Aristotle
(ii) Which one of the following features can be termed as ‘physical feature’?
(a) Port (c) Plain
(b) Road (d) Water park
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(iii) Make correct pairs from the following two columns and mark the correct
option.
1. Meteorology A. Population Geography

2. Demography B. Soil Geography
3. Sociology C. Climatology
4. Pedology D. Social Geography
(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A

(b) 1A,2D,3B,4C (d) 1C,2A,3D,4B
(iv) Which one of the following questions is related to cause-effect relationship?
(a) Why (c) What
(b) Where (d) When
(v) Which one of the following disciplines attempts temporal synthesis?
(a) Sociology (c) Anthropology
(b) Geography (d) History
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What important cultural features do you observe while going to school?
Are they similar or dissimilar? Should they be included in the study of
geography or not? If yes, why?
(ii) You have seen a tennis ball, a cricket ball, an orange and a pumpkin.
Which one amongst these resembles the shape of the earth? Why have
you chosen this particular item to describe the shape of the earth?
(iii) Do you celebrate Van Mahotsava in your school? Why do we plant so many
trees? How do the trees maintain ecological balance?
(iv) You have seen elephants, deer, earthworms, trees and grasses. Where do
they live or grow? What is the name given to this sphere? Can you describe
some of the important features of this sphere?
(v) How much time do you take to reach your school from your house? Had
the school been located across the road from your house, how much time
would you have taken to reach school? What is the effect of the distance
between your residence and the school on the time taken in commuting?
Can you convert time into space and vice versa?
(i) You observe every day in your surroundings that there is variation in
natural as well as cultural phenomena. All the trees are not of the same
variety. All the birds and animals you see, are different. All these different
elements are found on the earth. Can you now argue that geography is
the study of “areal differentiation”?
(ii) You have already studied geography, history, civics and economics as
parts of social studies. Attempt an integration of these disciplines
highlighting their interface.
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Project Work
Select forest as a natural resource.
(i) Prepare a map of India showing the distribution of different types of forests.
(ii) Write about the economic importance of forests for the country.
(iii) Prepare a historical account of conservation of forests in India with focus
on Chipko movements in Rajasthan and Uttaranchal.
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UNIT
II
THE EARTH
• Origin and evolution of the earth; Interior of the earth; Wegener’s
continental drift theory and plate tectonics; earthquakes and
volcanoes
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CHAPTER
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

OF THE EARTH
argument. At a later date, the arguments
D
o you remember the nursery rhyme
“…Twinkle, twinkle little star…”? considered of a companion to the sun to have
been coexisting. These arguments are called
Starry nights have always attracted us since binary theories. In 1950, Otto Schmidt in
the childhood. You may also have thought of Russia and Carl Weizascar in Germany
these stars and had numerous questions in somewhat revised the ‘nebular hypothesis’,
your mind. Questions such as how many stars though differing in details. They considered that
are there in the sky? How did they come into the sun was surrounded by solar nebula
existence? Can one reach the end of the sky? containing mostly the hydrogen and helium
May be many more such questions are still along with what may be termed as dust. The
there in your mind. In this chapter, you will friction and collision of particles led to formation
learn how these “twinkling little stars” were of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
formed. With that you will eventually also read formed through the process of accretion.
the story of origin and evolution of the earth. However, scientists in later period took up
the problems of origin of universe rather than
that of just the earth or the planets.
EARLY THEORIES
Origin of the Earth MODERN THEORIES
A large number of hypotheses were put forth Origin of the Universe
by different philosophers and scientists The most popular argument regarding the origin
regarding the origin of the earth. One of the of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also
earlier and popular arguments was by German called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin
philosopher Immanuel Kant. Mathematician Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the
Laplace revised it in 1796. It is known as universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies
Nebular Hypothesis. The hypothesis considered move further and further apart. You can
that the planets were formed out of a cloud of experiment and find what does the expanding
material associated with a youthful sun, which universe mean. Take a balloon and mark some
was slowly rotating. Later in 1900, Chamberlain points on it to represent the galaxies. Now, if
and Moulton considered that a wandering star you start inflating the balloon, the points marked
approached the sun. As a result, a cigar-shaped on the balloon will appear to be moving away
extension of material was separated from the from each other as the balloon expands.
solar surface. As the passing star moved away, Similarly, the distance between the galaxies is
the material separated from the solar surface also found to be increasing and thereby, the
continued to revolve around the sun and it universe is considered to be expanding.
slowly condensed into planets. Sir James Jeans However, you will find that besides the increase
and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this in the distances between the points on the
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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 15
balloon, the points themselves are expanding. The expansion of universe means increase
This is not in accordance with the fact. Scientists in space between the galaxies. An alternative
believe that though the space between the to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It
galaxies is increasing, observations do not considered the universe to be roughly the same
support the expansion of galaxies. So, the at any point of time. However, with greater
balloon example is only partially correct. evidence becoming available about the
expanding universe, scientific community at
present favours argument of expanding
universe.
The Star Formation

The distribution of matter and energy was not
even in the early universe. These initial density
differences gave rise to differences in
gravitational forces and it caused the matter
to get drawn together. These formed the bases
for development of galaxies. A galaxy contains
a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over
vast distances that are measured in thousands
of light-years. The diameters of individual
galaxies range from 80,000-150,000 light
years. A galaxy starts to form by accumulation
Figure 2.1 : The Big Bang of hydrogen gas in the form of a very large
The Big Bang Theory considers the cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing
following stages in the development of the nebula develops localised clumps of gas. These
universe. clumps continue to grow into even denser
gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of
(i) In the beginning, all matter forming the
stars. The formation of stars is believed to have
universe existed in one place in the form
taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.
of a “tiny ball” (singular atom) with an
unimaginably small volume, infinite A light year is a measure of distance and
temperature and infinite density. not of time. Light travels at a speed of
(ii) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded 300,000 km/second. Considering this,
violently. This led to a huge expansion. the distances the light will travel in one
It is now generally accepted that the year is taken to be one light year. This
equals to 9.461×10 12 km. The mean
event of big bang took place 13.7 billion
distance between the sun and the earth
years before the present. The expansion is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light
continues even to the present day. As it years, it is 8.311minutes.
grew, some energy was converted into
matter. There was particularly rapid
Formation of Planets
expansion within fractions of a second
after the bang. Thereafter, the The following are considered to be the stages
expansion has slowed down. Within first in the development of planets :
three minutes from the Big Bang event, (i) The stars are localised lumps of gas
the first atom began to form. within a nebula. The gravitational force
(iii) Within 300,000 years from the Big within the lumps leads to the formation
Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K of a core to the gas cloud and a huge
(Kelvin) and gave rise to atomic matter. rotating disc of gas and dust develops
The universe became transparent. around the gas core.
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(ii) In the next stage, the gas cloud starts in the same period sometime about 4.6 billion
getting condensed and the matter years ago. Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was
around the core develops into small- also considered a planet. However, in a meeting
rounded objects. These small-rounded of the International Astronomical Union, a
objects by the process of cohesion develop decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial
into what is called planetesimals. objects (2003 UB313)discovered in recent past
Larger bodies start forming by collision, may be called ‘dwarf planet’. Some data regarding
and gravitational attraction causes the our solar system are given in the box below.
material to stick together. Planetesimals
are a large number of smaller bodies. Why are the inner planets rocky while
(iii) In the final stage, these large number of others are mostly in gaseous form?
small planetesimals accrete to form a
fewer large bodies in the form of planets. The difference between terrestrial and jovian
planets can be attributed to the following
OUR SOLAR SYSTEM conditions:
(i) The terrestrial planets were formed in the
Our Solar system consists of eight planets. The close vicinity of the parent star where it
nebula from which our Solar system is supposed was too warm for gases to condense to
to have been formed, started its collapse and core solid particles. Jovian planets were
formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago and formed at quite a distant location.
the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years
(ii) The solar wind was most intense nearer
ago. Our solar system consists of the sun (the the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust
star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller
from the terrestrial planets. The solar winds
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge
were not all that intense to cause similar
quantity of dust-grains and gases. removal of gases from the Jovian planets.
Out of the eight planets, mercury, venus,
(iii) The terrestrial planets are smaller and
earth and mars are called as the inner planets
their lower gravity could not hold the
as they lie between the sun and the belt of
escaping gases.
asteroids the other four planets are called the outer
planets. Alternatively, the first four are called
The Moon
Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are made
up of rock and metals, and have relatively high The moon is the only natural satellite of the
densities. The rest four are called Jovian or Gas earth. Like the origin of the earth, there have
Giant planets. Jovian means jupiter-like. Most been attempts to explain how the moon was
of them are much larger than the terrestrial formed. In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested
planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of that initially, the earth and the moon formed a
helium and hydrogen. All the planets were formed single rapidly rotating body. The whole mass
The Solar System
Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Distance* 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058
Density@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66
Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88
Satellites 0 0 1 2 about 53 about 53 about 27 13
* Distance from the sun in astronomical unit i.e. average mean distance of the earth is 149,598,000
km = 1 @ Density in gm/cm3
# Radius: Equatorial radius 6378.137 km = 1
Source: http://ptanetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/page/planets
2019-2020
became a dumb-bell-shaped body and started getting separated depending on their

eventually it broke. It was also suggested that densities. This allowed heavier materials (like
the material forming the moon was separated iron) to sink towards the centre of the earth
from what we have at present the depression and the lighter ones to move towards the
occupied by the Pacific Ocean. surface. With passage of time it cooled further
However, the present scientists do not and solidified and condensed into a smaller size.
accept either of the explanations. It is now This later led to the development of the outer
generally believed that the formation of moon, surface in the form of a crust. During the
as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of ‘giant formation of the moon, due to the giant impact,
impact’ or what is described as “the big splat”. the earth was further heated up. It is through
A body of the size of one to three times that of the process of differentiation that the earth
mars collided into the earth sometime shortly forming material got separated into different
after the earth was formed. It blasted a large layers. Starting from the surface to the central
part of the earth into space. This portion of parts, we have layers like the crust, mantle,
blasted material then continued to orbit the outer core and inner core. From the crust to the
earth and eventually formed into the present core, the density of the material increases. We
moon about 4.44 billion years ago. shall discuss in detail the properties of each of
this layer in the next chapter.
EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
Do you know that the planet earth initially was Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere
a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin The present composition of earth’s atmosphere
atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. This is is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.
far from the present day picture of the earth. You will be dealing with the composition and
Hence, there must have been some events– structure of the earth’s atmosphere in Chapter 8.
processes, which may have caused this change There are three stages in the evolution of
from rocky, barren and hot earth to a beautiful the present atmosphere. The first stage is
planet with ample amount of water and marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere.
conducive atmosphere favouring the existence
In the second stage, the hot interior of the earth
of life. In the following section, you will find
contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
out how the period, between the 4,600 million
Finally, the composition of the atmosphere was
years and the present, led to the evolution of
modified by the living world through the
life on the surface of the planet.
process of photosynthesis.
The earth has a layered structure. From
The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and
the outermost end of the atmosphere to the
helium, is supposed to have been stripped off
centre of the earth, the material that exists is
as a result of the solar winds. This happened
not uniform. The atmospheric matter has the
not only in case of the earth, but also in all the
least density. From the surface to deeper
terrestrial planets, which were supposed to
depths, the earth’s interior has different zones
have lost their primordial atmosphere through
and each of these contains materials with
different characteristics. the impact of solar winds.
During the cooling of the earth, gases and
How was the layered structure of the water vapour were released from the interior
earth developed? solid earth. This started the evolution of the
present atmosphere. The early atmosphere
largely contained water vapour, nitrogen,
Evolution of Lithosphere carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia and very
The earth was mostly in a volatile state during little of free oxygen. The process through which
its primordial stage. Due to gradual increase the gases were outpoured from the interior is
in density the temperature inside has called degassing. Continuous volcanic
increased. As a result the material inside eruptions contributed water vapour and gases
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Geological Time Scale

Eons Era Period Epoch Age/ Years Life/ Major Events
Before Present
Quaternary Holocene 0 - 10,000 Modern Man
Pleistocene 10,000 - 2 million Homo Sapiens
Cainozoic Tertiary Pliocene 2 - 5 million Early Human Ancestor
(From 65 Miocene 5 - 24 million Ape: Flowering Plants
million years and Trees
to the Oligocene 24 - 37 million Anthropoid Ape
present Eocene 37 - 58 Million Rabbits and Hare
times)
Palaeocene 57 - 65 Million Small Mammals :
Rats – Mice
Mesozoic Cretaceous 65 - 144 Million Extinction of Dinosaurs
65 - 245
Jurassic 144 - 208 Million Age of Dinosaurs
Million
Mammals Triassic 208 - 245 Million Frogs and turtles
Permian 245 - 286 Million Reptile dominate-replace
amphibians
Carboniferous 286 - 360 Million First Reptiles:
Palaeozoic Vertebrates: Coal beds
245 - 570 Devonian 360 - 408 Million Amphibians
Million Silurian 408 - 438 Million First trace of life on land:
Plants
Ordovician 438 - 505 Million First Fish
Cambrian 505 - 570 Million No terrestrial Life :
Marine Invertebrate
Proterozoic 570 - 2,500 Million Soft-bodied arthropods
Archean 2,500 - 3,800 Million Blue green Algae:
Pre- Unicellular bacteria
Cambrian
Hadean 3,800 - 4,800 Million Oceans and Continents
570 Million
- 4,800 form – Ocean and
Million Atmosphere are rich in
Carbon dioxide
Origin of 5,000 Million Origin of the sun
Stars 5,000 -
13,700
Supernova Million 12,000 Million Origin of the universe
Big Bang 13,700 Million
to the atmosphere. As the earth cooled, the that the oceans are as old as 4,000 million
water vapour released started getting years. Sometime around 3,800 million years
condensed. The carbon dioxide in the ago, life began to evolve. However, around
2,500-3,000 million years before the present,
atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the
the process of photosynthesis got evolved. Life
temperature further decreased causing more
was confined to the oceans for a long time.
condensation and more rains. The rainwater Oceans began to have the contribution of
falling onto the surface got collected in the oxygen through the process of photosynthesis.
depressions to give rise to oceans. The earth’s Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen,
oceans were formed within 500 million years and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
from the formation of the earth. This tells us flood the atmosphere.
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Origin of Life inanimate matter into living substance. The

record of life that existed on this planet in
The last phase in the evolution of the earth
different periods is found in rocks in the form
relates to the origin and evolution of life. It is
of fossils. The microscopic structures closely
undoubtedly clear that initially the earth or related to the present form of blue algae have
even the atmosphere of the earth was not been found in geological formations much older
conducive for the development of life. Modern than some 3,000 million years. It can be
scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of assumed that life began to evolve sometime
chemical reaction, which first generated 3,800 million years ago. The summary of
complex organic molecules and assembled evolution of life from unicellular bacteria to the
them. This assemblage was such that they modern man is given in the Geological Time
could duplicate themselves converting Scale on page 18.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following figures represents the age of the earth?
(a) 4.6 million years (c) 4.6 billion years
(b) 13.7 billion years (d) 13.7 trillion years
(ii) Which one of the following has the longest duration?
(a) Eons (c) Era
(b) Period (d) Epoch
(iii) Which one of the following is not related to the formation or modification
of the present atmosphere?
(a) Solar winds (c) Degassing
(b) Differentiation (d) Photosynthesis
(iv) Which one of the following represents the inner planets?
(a) Planets between the sun and the earth
(b) Planets between the sun and the belt of asteroids
(c) Planets in gaseous state
(d) Planets without satellite(s)
(v) Life on the earth appeared around how many years before the present?
(a) 13.7 billion (c) 4.6 billion
(b) 3.8 million (d) 3.8 billion

(i) Why are the terrestrial planets rocky?
(ii) What is the basic difference in the arguments related to the origin of the
earth given by :
(a) Kant and Laplace
(b) Chamberlain and Moulton
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(iii) What is meant by the process of differentiation?

(iv) What was the nature of the earth surface initially?
(v) What were the gases which initially formed the earth’s atmosphere?
(i) Write an explanatory note on the ‘Big Bang Theory’.
(ii) List the stages in the evolution of the earth and explain each stage in
brief.
Project Work
Collect information about the project “Stardust” (website: www.sci.edu/public.html
and www.nasm.edu) along the following lines.
(i) Which is the agency that has launched this project?
(ii) Why are scientists interested in collecting Stardust?
(iii) Where from the Stardust is being collected?
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CHAPTER
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
W
hat do you imagine about the nature SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR
of the earth? Do you imagine it to be The earth’s radius is 6,370 km. No one can
a solid ball like cricket ball or a reach the centre of the earth and make
hollow ball with a thick cover of rocks i.e. observations or collect samples of the material.
lithosphere? Have you ever seen photographs Under such conditions, you may wonder how
or images of a volcanic eruption on the scientists tell us about the earth’s interior and
television screen? Can you recollect the the type of materials that exist at such depths.
emergence of hot molten lava, dust, smoke, fire Most of our knowledge about the interior of
and magma flowing out of the volcanic crater? the earth is largely based on estimates and
The interior of the earth can be understood only inferences. Yet, a part of the information is
obtained through direct observations and
by indirect evidences as neither any one has nor
analysis of materials.
any one can reach the interior of the earth.
The configuration of the surface of the earth Direct Sources
is largely a product of the processes operating The most easily available solid earth material
in the interior of the earth. Exogenic as well as is surface rock or the rocks we get from mining
endogenic processes are constantly shaping areas. Gold mines in South Africa are as deep
the landscape. A proper understanding of the as 3 - 4 km. Going beyond this depth is not
physiographic character of a region remains possible as it is very hot at this depth. Besides
mining, scientists have taken up a number of
incomplete if the effects of endogenic processes
projects to penetrate deeper depths to explore
are ignored. Human life is largely influenced
the conditions in the crustal portions. Scientists
by the physiography of the region. Therefore, world over are working on two major projects
it is necessary that one gets acquainted with such as “Deep Ocean Drilling Project” and
the forces that influence landscape “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The
development. To understand why the earth deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic Ocean, has so
shakes or how a tsunami wave is generated, it far reached a depth of 12 km. This and many
is necessary that we know certain details of the deep drilling projects have provided large
interior of the earth. In the previous chapter, volume of information through the analysis of
you have noted that the earth-forming materials collected at different depths.
materials have been distributed in the form of Volcanic eruption forms another source of
obtaining direct information. As and when the
layers from the crust to the core. It is interesting
molten material (magma) is thrown onto the
to know how scientists have gathered
surface of the earth, during volcanic eruption
information about these layers and what are it becomes available for laboratory analysis.
the characteristics of each of these layers. This However, it is difficult to ascertain the depth of
is exactly what this chapter deals with. the source of such magma.
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Indirect Sources information about the interior of the earth.

Hence, we shall discuss it in some detail.
Analysis of properties of matter indirectly
provides information about the interior. We
Earthquake
know through the mining activity that
temperature and pressure increase with the The study of seismic waves provides a complete
increasing distance from the surface towards picture of the layered interior. An earthquake
the interior in deeper depths. Moreover, it is in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is a
also known that the density of the material also natural event. It is caused due to release of
increases with depth. It is possible to find the energy, which generates waves that travel in
rate of change of these characteristics. Knowing all directions.
the total thickness of the earth, scientists have
estimated the values of temperature, pressure Why does the earth shake?
and the density of materials at different depths. The release of energy occurs along a fault. A
The details of these characteristics with fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
reference to each layer of the interior are Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite
discussed later in this chapter. directions. As the overlying rock strata press
Another source of information are the them, the friction locks them together. However,
meteors that at times reach the earth. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of
it may be noted that the material that becomes time overcomes the friction. As a result, the
available for analysis from meteors, is not from blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide
the interior of the earth. The material and the past one another abruptly. This causes a
structure observed in the meteors are similar release of energy, and the energy waves travel
to that of the earth. They are solid bodies in all directions. The point where the energy is
developed out of materials same as, or similar released is called the focus of an earthquake,
to, our planet. Hence, this becomes yet another alternatively, it is called the hypocentre. The
source of information about the interior of the energy waves travelling in different directions
earth. reach the surface. The point on the surface,
The other indirect sources include nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is
gravitation, magnetic field, and seismic activity. the first one to experience the waves. It is a point
The gravitation force (g) is not the same at directly above the focus.
different latitudes on the surface. It is greater
near the poles and less at the equator. This is Earthquake Waves
because of the distance from the centre at the
equator being greater than that at the poles. All natural earthquakes take place in the
The gravity values also differ according to the lithosphere. You will learn about different
mass of material. The uneven distribution of layers of the earth later in this chapter. It is
mass of material within the earth influences sufficient to note here that the lithosphere refers
this value. The reading of the gravity at different to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the
places is influenced by many other factors. surface of the earth. An instrument called
These readings differ from the expected values. ‘seismograph’ records the waves reaching the
Such a difference is called gravity anomaly. surface. A curve of earthquake waves recorded
Gravity anomalies give us information about on the seismograph is given in Figure 3.1. Note
the distribution of mass of the material in the that the curve shows three distinct sections
crust of the earth. Magnetic surveys also each representing different types of wave
provide information about the distribution of patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of two
magnetic materials in the crustal portion, and types — body waves and surface waves. Body
thus, provide information about the waves are generated due to the release of energy
distribution of materials in this part. Seismic at the focus and move in all directions travelling
activity is one of the most important sources of through the body of the earth. Hence, the name
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INTERIOR OF THE EARTH 23
body waves. The body waves interact with the propagation. As a result, it creates density
surface rocks and generate new set of waves differences in the material leading to stretching
called surface waves. These waves move along and squeezing of the material. Other three
the surface. The velocity of waves changes as waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
they travel through materials with different propagation. The direction of vibrations of
densities. The denser the material, the higher S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction
is the velocity. Their direction also changes as in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs
they reflect or refract when coming across and crests in the material through which they
materials with different densities. pass. Surface waves are considered to be the
most damaging waves.
Emergence of Shadow Zone

Earthquake waves get recorded in seismo-
graphs located at far off locations. However,
there exist some specific areas where the waves
are not reported. Such a zone is called the
‘shadow zone’. The study of different events
reveals that for each earthquake, there exists
Figure 3.1 : Earthquake Waves
an altogether different shadow zone. Figure 3.2
There are two types of body waves. They (a) and (b) show the shadow zones of P and
are called P and S-waves. P-waves move faster S-waves. It was observed that seismographs
and are the first to arrive at the surface. These located at any distance within 105° from the
are also called ‘primary waves’. The P-waves epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and
are similar to sound waves. They travel S-waves. However, the seismographs located
through gaseous, liquid and solid materials. beyond 145° from epicentre, record the arrival
S-waves arrive at the surface with some time of P-waves, but not that of S-waves. Thus, a
lag. These are called secondary waves. An zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was
important fact about S-waves is that they can identified as the shadow zone for both the types
travel only through solid materials. This of waves. The entire zone beyond 105° does not
characteristic of the S-waves is quite receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is
important. It has helped scientists to much larger than that of the P-waves. The
understand the structure of the interior of the shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band
earth. Reflection causes waves to rebound around the earth between 105° and 145° away
whereas refraction makes waves move in from the epicentre. The shadow zone of S-waves
different directions. The variations in the is not only larger in extent but it is also a little
direction of waves are inferred with the help of over 40 per cent of the earth surface. You can
their record on seismograph. The surface draw the shadow zone for any earthquake
waves are the last to report on seismograph. provided you know the location of the epicentre.
These waves are more destructive. They cause (See the activity box on page 28 to know how to
displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse locate the epicentre of a quake event).
of structures occurs.
Types of Earthquakes
Propagation of Earthquake Waves
(i) The most common ones are the tectonic
Different types of earthquake waves travel in earthquakes. These are generated due to
different manners. As they move or propagate, sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
they cause vibration in the body of the rocks (ii) A special class of tectonic earthquake is
through which they pass. P-waves vibrate sometimes recognised as volcanic
parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts earthquake. However, these are confined
pressure on the material in the direction of the to areas of active volcanoes.
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(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas

of large reservoirs are referred to as
reservoir induced earthquakes.
10
Measuring Earthquakes
5
The earthquake events are scaled either
according to the magnitude or intensity of
the shock. The magnitude scale is known as
the Richter scale. The magnitude relates to
the energy released during the quake. The
105 105
magnitude is expressed in numbers, 0-10.
The intensity scale is named after Mercalli,
an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale
takes into account the visible damage caused
145 145 by the event. The range of intensity scale is
from 1-12.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a natural hazard. The following
are the immediate hazardous effects of
earthquake:
(i) Ground Shaking
(ii) Differential ground settlement
(iii) Land and mud slides
(iv) Soil liquefaction
(v) Ground lurching
(vi) Avalanches
(vii) Ground displacement
105 105 (viii) Floods from dam and levee failures
(ix) Fires
(x) Structural collapse
(xi) Falling objects
(xii) Tsunami
The first six listed above have some bearings
upon landforms, while others may be
considered the effects causing immediate
Figure 3.2 (a) and (b) : Earthquake Shadow Zones
concern to the life and properties of people in
the region. The effect of tsunami would occur
(iii) In the areas of intense mining activity, only if the epicentre of the tremor is below
sometimes the roofs of underground oceanic waters and the magnitude is
mines collapse causing minor tremors. sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves
These are called collapse earthquakes. generated by the tremors and not an
(iv) Ground shaking may also occur due to earthquake in itself. Though the actual quake
the explosion of chemical or nuclear activity lasts for a few seconds, its effects are
devices. Such tremors are called explosion devastating provided the magnitude of the
earthquakes. quake is more than 5 on the Richter scale.
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Frequency of Earthquake Occurrences STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

The earthquake is a natural hazard. If a tremor The Crust
of high magnitude takes place, it can cause
heavy damage to the life and property of It is the outermost solid part of the earth. It is
people. However, not all the parts of the globe brittle in nature. The thickness of the crust
necessarily experience major shocks. We shall varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
be discussing the distribution of earthquakes Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the
and volcanoes with some details in the next continental crust. The mean thickness of
oceanic crust is 5 km whereas that of the
continental is around 30 km. The continental
crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain
systems. It is as much as 70 km thick in the
Himalayan region.
It is made up of heavier rocks having
density of 3 g/cm3. This type of rock found in
the oceanic crust is basalt. The mean density
of material in oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3.
The Mantle
The portion of the interior beyond the crust is
A view of the damaged Aman Setu at the LOC called the mantle. The mantle extends from
in Uri, due to an earthquake
Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
chapter. Note that the quakes of high The upper portion of the mantle is called
magnitude, i.e. 8+ are quite rare; they occur asthenosphere. The word astheno means
once in 1-2 years whereas those of ‘tiny’ types weak. It is considered to be extending upto 400
occur almost every minute. km. It is the main source of magma that finds
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been released out in the recent past. The layer

below the solid crust is mantle. It has higher
density than that of the crust. The mantle
contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere.
It is from this that the molten rock materials
find their way to the surface. The material in
the upper mantle portion is called magma.
Once it starts moving towards the crust or it
reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
The material that reaches the ground includes
lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs,
ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen
compounds, sulphur compounds and minor
amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.
Volcanoes
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of nature
of eruption and the form developed at the
surface. Major types of volcanoes are as follows:
Figure 3.4 : The interior of the earth
its way to the surface during volcanic Shield Volcanoes

eruptions. It has a density higher than the Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes
crust’s (3.4 g/cm 3 ). The crust and the are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth.
uppermost part of the mantle are called The Hawaiian volcanoes are the most famous
lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km.
The lower mantle extends beyond the
asthenosphere. It is in solid state.
The Core
As indicated earlier, the earthquake wave
velocities helped in understanding the
existence of the core of the earth. The core-
mantle boundary is located at the depth of
2,900 km. The outer core is in liquid state while
the inner core is in solid state. The density of
material at the mantle core boundary is around
5 g/cm3 and at the centre of the earth at 6,300 Shield Volcano
km, the density value is around 13g/cm3. The
core is made up of very heavy material mostly
constituted by nickel and iron. It is sometimes
referred to as the nife layer.
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

You may have seen photographs or pictures of
volcanoes on a number of occasions. A volcano
is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten
rock material – lava – escape to the ground. A
volcano is called an active volcano if the
materials mentioned are being released or have Cinder Cone
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examples. These volcanoes are mostly made more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend
up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid for hundreds of km. The Deccan Traps from
when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes India, presently covering most of the
are not steep. They become explosive if Maharashtra plateau, are a much larger flood
somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, basalt province. It is believed that initially the
they are characterised by low-explosivity. The trap formations covered a much larger area
upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain than the present.
and throws out the cone at the top of the vent
and develops into cinder cone. Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
Composite Volcanoes These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.

There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more
These volcanoes are characterised by than 70,000 km long that stretches through
eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas all the ocean basins. The central portion of this
than basalt. These volcanoes often result in ridge experiences frequent eruptions. We shall
explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large be discussing this in detail in the next chapter.
quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
find their way to the ground. This material VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings
leading to formation of layers, and this makes Intrusive Forms
the mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
The lava that is released during volcanic
eruptions on cooling develops into igneous
rocks. The cooling may take place either on
reaching the surface or also while the lava is
still in the crustal portion. Depending on the
location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks
are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the
surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the
crust). The lava that cools within the crustal
portions assumes different forms. These forms
are called intrusive forms. Some of the forms
Composite Volcano are shown in Figure 3.5.
Caldera
These are the most explosive of the earth’s
volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that
when they erupt they tend to collapse on
themselves rather than building any tall
structure. The collapsed depressions are called
calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that
the magma chamber supplying the lava is not
only huge but is also in close vicinity.
Flood Basalt Provinces

These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that
flows for long distances. Some parts of the
world are covered by thousands of sq. km of
thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of
flows with some flows attaining thickness of Figure 3.5 : Volcanic Landforms
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Batholiths conduit from below. It resembles the surface

A large body of magmatic material that cools volcanic domes of composite volcano, only
in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the these are located at deeper depths. It can be
regarded as the localised source of lava that
form of large domes. They appear on the surface
finds its way to the surface. The Karnataka
only after the denudational processes remove
plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite
the overlying materials. They cover large areas, rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are
and at times, assume depth that may be several examples of lacoliths or batholiths.
km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are
the cooled portion of magma chambers. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
Lacoliths As and when the lava moves upwards, a
These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies portion of the same may tend to move in a
with a level base and connected by a pipe-like horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
Activity : Locating an Epicentre
For this you will need

Data from 3 seismograph stations about the time of arrival of P-waves, S-waves.
Procedure
1. Find the time of arrival of P and S-waves of the given quake for the three stations for which
you have the data.
2. Compute the time lag between the arrival of P and S-waves for each station; it is called time
lag. (Note that it is directly related to the distance of the seismograph from the focus.)
A. Basic rule : For every second of time lag, the earthquake is roughly 8 km away from you.
3. Using the rule quoted above, convert the time lag into distance ( # seconds of time lag * 8)
for each station.
4. On a map locate the seismograph stations.
5. Draw circles, taking the seismograph stations as the centre, with the radius equal to the
distance you have calculated in the previous step. (Do not forget to convert distance as per
the map scale.)
6. These circles will intersect each other in a point. This point is the location of the epicentre.
In normal practice, the epicentres are located using computer models. They take into account
the structure of the earth’s crust. The locations with accuracy within a few hundred metres
can be achieved. The procedure outlined here is a much simplified version of what is normally
done, although the principle is the same.
In the following diagram, the epicentre is located using this procedure. It also contains a
table giving necessary data. Why don’t you try for yourself ?
Data
Arrival time of
Station P-waves S-waves
Hour Min. Sec. Hour Min. Sec.
S1 03 23 20 03 24 45
S2 03 22 17 03 23 57
S3 03 22 00 03 23 55
Scale of the map 1cm = 40km
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plane. It may get rested in different forms. In while the thick horizontal deposits are
case it develops into a saucer shape, concave called sills.
to the sky body, it is called lapolith. A wavy
mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at Dykes
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline
When the lava makes its way through cracks
in folded igneous country. Such wavy materials
and the fissures developed in the land, it
have a definite conduit to source beneath in
the form of magma chambers (subsequently solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
developed as batholiths). These are called the It gets cooled in the same position to develop a
phacoliths. wall-like structure. Such structures are called
The near horizontal bodies of the dykes. These are the most commonly found
intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
sheet, depending on the thickness of the These are considered the feeders for the eruptions
material. The thinner ones are called sheets that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following earthquake waves is more destructive?
(a) P-waves (c) Surface waves
(b) S-waves (d) None of the above
(ii) Which one of the following is a direct source of information about the
interior of the earth?
(a) Earthquake waves (c) Gravitational force
(b) Volcanoes (d) Earth magnetism
(iii) Which type of volcanic eruptions have caused Deccan Trap formations?
(a) Shield (c) Composite
(b) Flood (d) Caldera
(iv) Which one of the following describes the lithosphere:
(a) upper and lower mantle (c) crust and core
(b) crust and upper mantle (d) mantle and core

(i) What are body waves?
(ii) Name the direct sources of information about the interior of the earth.
(iii) Why do earthquake waves develop shadow zone?
(iv) Briefly explain the indirect sources of information of the interior of the
earth other than those of seismic activity.
(i) What are the effects of propagation of earthquake waves on the rock mass
through which they travel?
(ii) What do you understand by intrusive forms? Briefly describe various
intrusive forms.
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CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
AND CONTINENTS
In the previous chapter, you have studied the theory” in 1912. This was regarding the
interior of the earth. You are already familiar distribution of the oceans and the continents.
with the world map. You know that continents According to Wegener, all the continents
cover 29 per cent of the surface of the earth formed a single continental mass and mega
and the remainder is under oceanic waters. ocean surrounded the same. The super
The positions of the continents and the ocean continent was named PANGAEA, which meant
bodies, as we see them in the map, have not all earth. The mega-ocean was called
been the same in the past. Moreover, it is now PANTHALASSA, meaning all water. He argued
a well-accepted fact that oceans and that, around 200 million years ago, the super
continents will not continue to enjoy their continent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first
present positions in times to come. If this is broke into two large continental masses as
so, the question arises what were their positions Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the
in the past? Why and how do they change their northern and southern components
positions? Even if it is true that the continents respectively. Subsequently, Laurasia and
and oceans have changed and are changing Gondwanaland continued to break into various
their positions, you may wonder as to how smaller continents that exist today. A variety of
scientists know this. How have they determined evidence was offered in support of the
their earlier positions? You will find the answers continental drift. Some of these are given below.
to some of these and related questions in this
chapter. Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift
CONTINENTAL DRIFT The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit)
Observe the shape of the coastline of the Atlantic The shorelines of Africa and South America
Ocean. You will be surprised by the symmetry facing each other have a remarkable and
of the coastlines on either side of the ocean. No
unmistakable match. It may be noted that a
wonder, many scientists thought of this
map produced using a computer programme
similarity and considered the possibility of the
to find the best fit of the Atlantic margin was
two Americas, Europe and Africa, to be once
presented by Bullard in 1964. It proved to be
joined together. From the known records of the
quite perfect. The match was tried at 1,000-
history of science, it was Abraham Ortelius, a
fathom line instead of the present shoreline.
Dutch map maker, who first proposed such a
possibility as early as 1596. Antonio Pellegrini
Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans
drew a map showing the three continents together.
However, it was Alfred Wegener—a German The radiometric dating methods developed in
meteorologist who put forth a comprehensive the recent period have facilitated correlating the
argument in the form of “the continental drift rock formation from different continents across
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DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS 31
the vast ocean. The belt of ancient rocks of Force for Drifting
2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches
Wegener suggested that the movement
with those from western Africa. The earliest
responsible for the drifting of the continents
marine deposits along the coastline of South
was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force.
America and Africa are of the Jurassic age. The polar-fleeing force relates to the rotation
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior of the earth. You are aware of the fact that the
to that time. earth is not a perfect sphere; it has a bulge at
the equator. This bulge is due to the rotation
Tillite of the earth. The second force that was
It is the sedimentary rock formed out of suggested by Wegener — the tidal force — is
deposits of glaciers. The Gondawana system due to the attraction of the moon and the sun
of sediments from India is known to have its that develops tides in oceanic waters. Wegener
counterparts in six different landmasses of the believed that these forces would become
Southern Hemisphere. At the base, the system effective when applied over many million years.
has thick tillite indicating extensive and However, most of scholars considered these
prolonged glaciation. Counterparts of this forces to be totally inadequate.
succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island,
Post-drift Studies
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia. Overall
resemblance of the Gondawana-type sediments It is interesting to note that for continental drift,
clearly demonstrates that these landmasses most of the evidence was collected from the
had remarkably similar histories. The glacial continental areas in the form of distribution of
tillite provides unambiguous evidence of flora and fauna or deposits, like tillite. A
palaeoclimates and also of drifting of continents. number of discoveries during the post–World
War II period added new information to
Placer Deposits geological literature. Particularly, the
information collected from the ocean floor
The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold mapping provided new dimensions for the
in the Ghana coast and the absolute absence study of distribution of oceans and continents.
of source rock in the region is an amazing fact.
The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and it is Convectional Current Theory
obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana
Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the
are derived from the Brazil plateau when the
possibility of convection currents operating in
two continents lay side by side.
the mantle portion. These currents are
generated due to radioactive elements causing
Distribution of Fossils
thermal differences in the mantle portion.
When identical species of plants and animals Holmes argued that there exists a system of
adapted to living on land or in fresh water are such currents in the entire mantle portion. This
found on either side of the marine barriers, a was an attempt to provide an explanation to
problem arises regarding accounting for such the issue of force, on the basis of which
distribution. The observations that Lemurs contemporary scientists discarded the
occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some continental drift theory.
to consider a contiguous landmass ‘Lemuria’
linking these three landmasses. Mesosaurus Mapping of the Ocean Floor
was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish Detailed research of the ocean configuration
water. The skeletons of these are found only revealed that the ocean floor is not just a vast
in two localities: the Southern Cape province plain but it is full of relief. Expeditions to map
of South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil. the oceanic floor in the post–World War II period
The two localities are presently 4,800 km apart provided a detailed picture of the ocean relief
with an ocean in between them. and indicated the existence of submerged
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mountain ranges as well as deep trenches, Abyssal Plains

mostly located closer to the continent margins.
The mid-oceanic ridges were found to be most These are extensive plains that lie between the
active in terms of volcanic eruptions. The dating continental margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
of the rocks from the oceanic crust revealed The abyssal plains are the areas where the
the fact that they are much younger than the continental sediments that move beyond the
continental areas. Rocks on either side of the margins get deposited.
crest of oceanic ridges and having equi-distant
locations from the crest were found to have Mid-Oceanic Ridges
remarkable similarities both in terms of their This forms an interconnected chain of
constituents and their age. mountain system within the ocean. It is the
longest mountain-chain on the surface of the
Ocean Floor Configuration earth though submerged under the oceanic
In this section we shall note a few things related waters. It is characterised by a central rift
to the ocean floor configuration that help us in system at the crest, a fractionated plateau and
the understanding of the distribution of flank zone all along its length. The rift system
continents and oceans. You will be studying at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic
the details of ocean floor relief in Chapter activity. In the previous chapter, you have been
13. The ocean floor may be segmented into introduced to this type of volcanoes as mid-
three major divisions based on the depth oceanic volcanoes.
as well as the forms of relief. These divisions
are continental margins, deep-sea basins and Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes
mid-ocean ridges. Study the maps showing the distribution of
seismic activity and volcanoes given in Figure
4.2. You will notice a line of dots in the central
parts of the Atlantic Ocean almost parallel to
the coastlines. It further extends into the Indian
Ocean. It bifurcates a little south of the Indian
subcontinent with one branch moving into
East Africa and the other meeting a similar line
from Myanmar to New Guiana. You will notice
that this line of dots coincides with the mid-
oceanic ridges. The shaded belt showing
another area of concentration coincides with
the Alpine-Himalayan system and the rim of
the Pacific Ocean. In general, the foci of the
earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges
Figure 4.1 : Ocean Floor
are at shallow depths whereas along the
Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the
Continental Margins Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-seated ones.
The map of volcanoes also shows a similar
These form the transition between continental
pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also called rim
shores and deep-sea basins. They include
of fire due to the existence of active volcanoes in
continental shelf, continental slope, continental
this area.
rise and deep-oceanic trenches. Of these, the
deep-oceanic trenches are the areas which are
CONCEPT OF SEA FLOOR SPREADING
of considerable interest in so far as the
distribution of oceans and continents is As mentioned above, the post-drift studies
concerned. provided considerable information that was not
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Figure 4. 2 : Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes
available at the time Wegener put forth his (iv) The sediments on the ocean floor are
concept of continental drift. Particularly, the unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were
mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic expecting, if the ocean floors were as old
studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed as the continent, to have a complete
the following facts : sequence of sediments for a period of much
(i) It was realised that all along the mid- longer duration. However, nowhere was the
oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are sediment column found to be older than
common and they bring huge amounts of 200 million years.
lava to the surface in this area. (v) The deep trenches have deep-seated
(ii) The rocks equidistant on either sides of the earthquake occurrences while in the mid-
crest of mid-oceanic ridges show oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have
remarkable similarities in terms of period shallow depths.
of formation, chemical compositions and These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic
magnetic properties. Rocks closer to the properties of the rocks on either sides of the
mid-oceanic ridges have normal polarity mid-oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose
and are the youngest. The age of the rocks his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor
increases as one moves away from the spreading”. Hess argued that constant
crest. eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause
(iii) The ocean crust rocks are much younger the rupture of the oceanic crust and the new
than the continental rocks. The age of rocks lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust
in the oceanic crust is nowhere more than on either side. The ocean floor, thus spreads.
200 million years old. Some of the continental The younger age of the oceanic crust as well
rock formations are as old as 3,200 million as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does
years. not cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess
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Figure 4. 3 : Sea floor spreading
think about the consumption of the oceanic PLATE TECTONICS

crust. He further maintained that the ocean Since the advent of the concept of sea floor
floor that gets pushed due to volcanic spreading, the interest in the problem of
eruptions at the crest, sinks down at the distribution of oceans and continents was
oceanic trenches and gets consumed. revived. It was in 1967, McKenzie and Parker
The basic concept of sea floor spreading has and also Morgan, independently collected the
been depicted in Figure 4.3. available ideas and came out with another
The motions of the continents during the past 540

million years. 1. Africa; 2. South America;
3. Antarctica; 4. Australia; 5. India; 6. China; 7. North
America; 8. Europe; 9. and 10. Siberia (Emilani, 1992)
Figure 4.4 : Position of continents through geological past
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concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic I Antarctica and the surrounding

plate (also called lithospheric plate) is a oceanic plate
massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock, II North American (with western Atlantic
generally composed of both continental and floor separated from the South American
oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
over the asthenosphere as rigid units. The III South American (with western Atlantic
lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle floor separated from the North American
with its thickness range varying between plate along the Caribbean islands) plate
5 and100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 IV Pacific plate
km in the continental areas. A plate may be V India-Australia-New Zealand plate
referred to as the continental plate or oceanic VI Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
plate depending on which of the two occupy a VII Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate.
larger portion of the plate. Pacific plate is Some important minor plates are listed below:
largely an oceanic plate whereas the Eurasian (i) Cocos plate : Between Central America
plate may be called a continental plate. The and Pacific plate
theory of plate tectonics proposes that the (ii) Nazca plate : Between South America
earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and Pacific plate
and some minor plates. Young Fold Mountain (iii) Arabian plate : Mostly the Saudi Arabian
ridges, trenches, and/or faults surround these landmass
major plates (Figure 4.5). The major plates (iv) Philippine plate : Between the Asiatic and
are as follows : Pacific plate
Figure 4.5 : Major and minor plates of the world
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(v) Caroline plate : Between the Philippine Transform Boundaries

and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
Where the crust is neither produced nor
(vi) Fuji plate : North-east of Australia.
destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past
These plates have been constantly moving
each other. Transform faults are the planes of
over the globe throughout the history of the
separation generally perpendicular to the mid-
earth. It is not the continent that moves as
oceanic ridges. As the eruptions do not take
believed by Wegener. Continents are part of a
all along the entire crest at the same time, there
plate and what moves is the plate. Moreover, it
is a differential movement of a portion of the
may be noted that all the plates, without
plate away from the axis of the earth. Also, the
exception, have moved in the geological past,
rotation of the earth has its effect on the
and shall continue to move in the future as well.
separated blocks of the plate portions.
Wegener had thought of all the continents to
have initially existed as a super continent in How do you think the rate of plate
the form of Pangaea. However, later discoveries movement is determined?
reveal that the continental masses, resting on
the plates, have been wandering all through the
Rates of Plate Movement
geological period, and Pangaea was a result of
converging of different continental masses that The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field
were parts of one or the other plates. Scientists that parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help
using the palaeomagnetic data have determined scientists determine the rates of plate
the positions held by each of the present movement. These rates vary considerably. The
continental landmass in different geological Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5
periods (Fig 4.4). Position of the Indian sub- cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter
continent (mostly Peninsular India) is traced Island, in the South Pacific about 3,400 km
with the help of the rocks analysed from the west of Chile, has the fastest rate (more than
Nagpur area. 15 cm/yr).
There are three types of plate boundaries:
Force for the Plate Movement
Divergent Boundaries
At the time that Wegener proposed his theory
Where new crust is generated as the plates pull of continental drift, most scientists believed
away from each other. The sites where the that the earth was a solid, motionless body.
plates move away from each other are called However, concepts of sea floor spreading and
spreading sites. The best-known example of the unified theory of plate tectonics have
divergent boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. emphasised that both the surface of the earth
At this, the American Plate(s) is/are separated and the interior are not static and motionless
from the Eurasian and African Plates. but are dynamic. The fact that the plates move
is now a well-accepted fact. The mobile rock
Convergent Boundaries beneath the rigid plates is believed to be
Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived moving in a circular manner. The heated
under another. The location where sinking of material rises to the surface, spreads and
a plate occurs is called a subduction zone. begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper
There are three ways in which convergence can depths. This cycle is repeated over and over to
occur. These are: (i) between an oceanic and generate what scientists call a convection cell
continental plate; (ii) between two oceanic or convective flow. Heat within the earth comes
plates; and (iii) between two continental from two main sources: radioactive decay and
plates. residual heat. Arthur Holmes first considered
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this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced

Harry Hess’ thinking about seafloor spreading.
The slow movement of hot, softened mantle
that lies below the rigid plates is the driving
force behind the plate movement.
MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE

The Indian plate includes Peninsular India
and the Australian continental portions. The
subduction zone along the Himalayas forms
the northern plate boundary in the form of
continent— continent convergence. In the east,
it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of
Myanmar towards the island arc along the
Java T rench. The eastern margin is a
spreading site lying to the east of Australia in
the form of an oceanic ridge in SW Pacific. The
Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of
Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the
Red Sea rift southeastward along the Chagos
Archipelago. The boundary between India
and the Antarctic plate is also marked by
oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) running
in roughly W-E direction and merging into the
spreading site, a little south of New Zealand.
India was a large island situated off the
Australian coast, in a vast ocean. The Tethys
Sea separated it from the Asian continent till
about 225 million years ago. India is supposed
to have started her northward journey about
200 million years ago at the time when Pangaea
broke. India collided with Asia about 40-50 Figure 4.6 : Movement of the Indian plate
million years ago causing rapid uplift of the plate towards the Eurasian plate, a major event
Himalayas. The positions of India since about that occurred was the outpouring of lava and
71 million years till the present are shown in formation of the Deccan Traps. This started
the Figure 4.6. It also shows the position of somewhere around 60 million years ago and
the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian continued for a long period of time. Note that
plate. About 140 million years before the the subcontinent was still close to the equator.
present, the subcontinent was located as From 40 million years ago and thereafter, the
south as 50oS. latitude. The two major plates event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
were separated by the Tethys Sea and the Scientists believe that the process is still
Tibetan block was closer to the Asiatic continuing and the height of the Himalayas is
landmass. During the movement of the Indian rising even to this date.
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EXERCISES

(i) Who amongst the following was the first to consider the possibility of
Europe, Africa and America having been located side by side.
(a) Alfred Wegener (c) Abraham Ortelius
(b) Antonio Pellegrini (d) Edmond Hess
(ii) Polar fleeing force relates to:
(a) Revolution of the Earth (c) Rotation of the earth
(b) Gravitation (d) Tides
(iii) Which one of the following is not a minor plate?
(a) Nazca (c) Philippines
(b) Arabia (d) Antarctica
(iv) Which one of the following facts was not considered by those while
discussing the concept of sea floor spreading?
(a) Volcanic activity along the mid-oceanic ridges.
(b) Stripes of normal and reverse magnetic field observed in rocks of ocean
floor.
(c) Distribution of fossils in different continents.
(d) Age of rocks from the ocean floor.
(v) Which one of the following is the type of plate boundary of the Indian plate
along the Himalayan mountains?
(a) Ocean-continent convergence
(b) Divergent boundary
(c) Transform boundary
(d) Continent-continent convergence
(i) What were the forces suggested by Wegener for the movement of the
continents?
(ii) How are the convectional currents in the mantle initiated and maintained?
(iii) What is the major difference between the transform boundary and the
convergent or divergent boundaries of plates?
(iv) What was the location of the Indian landmass during the formation of the
Deccan Traps?
(i) What are the evidences in support of the continental drift theory?
(ii) Bring about the basic difference between the drift theory and Plate
tectonics.
(iii) What were the major post-drift discoveries that rejuvenated the interest
of scientists in the study of distribution of oceans and continents?
Project Work
Prepare a collage related to damages caused by an earthquake.
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UNIT
III
LANDFORMS
• Rocks and minerals — major types of rocks and their
characteristics
• Landforms and their evolution
• Geomorphic processes — weathering, mass wasting, erosion
and deposition; soils — formation
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CHAPTER
MINERALS AND ROCKS
T
he earth is composed of various kinds The basic source of all minerals is the
of elements. These elements are in solid hot magma in the interior of the earth. When
form in the outer layer of the earth and magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and
in hot and molten form in the interior. a systematic series of minerals are formed in
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the sequence to solidify so as to form rocks.
earth is composed of eight elements like
Minerals such as coal, petroleum and natural
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium and magnesium, and the gas are organic substances found in solid,
rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
phosphorous, manganese, sulphur, carbon, A brief information about some important
nickel and other elements. minerals in terms of their nature and physical
The elements in the earth’s crust are rarely characteristics is given below :
found exclusively but are usually combined
with other elements to make various
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
substances. These substances are recognised
as minerals. (i) External crystal form — deter-
mined by internal arrangement of
Thus, a mineral is a naturally occurring the molecules — cubes, octahe-
organic and inorganic substance, having drons, hexagonal prisms, etc.
an orderly atomic structure and a definite (ii) Cleavage — tendency to break in
given directions producing
chemical composition and physical
relatively plane surfaces — result
properties. A mineral is composed of two
of internal arrangement of the
or more elements. But, sometimes single
molecules — may cleave in one or
element minerals like sulphur, copper, more directions and at any angle
silver, gold, graphite etc. are found. to each other.
(iii) Fracture — internal molecular
Though the number of elements making arrangement so complex there are
up the lithosphere are limited they are no planes of molecules; the crystal
combined in many different ways to make will break in an irregular manner,
up many varieties of minerals. There are at not along planes of cleavage.
least 2,000 minerals that have been named (iv) Lustre — appearance of a material
and identified in the earth crust; but almost without regard to colour; each
all the commonly occurring ones are related mineral has a distinctive lustre
to six major mineral groups that are known like metallic, silky, glossy etc.
as major rock forming minerals.
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MINERALS AND ROCKS 41
(v) Colour — some minerals have

(ii) Ferrous metals : iron and other metals
characteristic colour determined often mixed with iron to form various
by their molecular structure — kinds of steel.
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite etc., (iii) Non-ferrous metals : include metals like
and some minerals are coloured by copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc.
impurities. For example, because
of impurities quartz may be white, Non-Metallic Minerals
green, red, yellow etc.
(vi) Streak — colour of the ground powder These minerals do not contain metal content.
of any mineral. It may be of the Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are examples
same colour as the mineral or may of non-metallic minerals. Cement is a mixture
differ — malachite is green and gives of non-metallic minerals.
green streak, fluorite is purple or
green but gives a white streak.
ROCKS
(vii) Transparency — transparent: light
rays pass through so that objects The earth’s crust is composed of rocks. A
can be seen plainly; translucent rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
— light rays pass through but will Rock may be hard or soft and in varied
get diffused so that objects cannot
colours. For example, granite is hard, soapstone
be seen; opaque — light will not pass
at all.
is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be
(viii) Structure — particular arrange- milky white. Rocks do not have definite
ment of the individual crystals; composition of mineral constituents.
fine, medium or coarse grained; Feldspar and quartz are the most common
fibrous — separable, divergent, minerals found in rocks.
radiating.
(ix) Hardness — relative resistance
Petrology is science of rocks. A petrologist
being scratched; ten minerals are
studies rocks in all their aspects viz.,
selected to measure the degree of
hardness from 1-10. They are: mineral composition, texture, structure,
1. talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; origin, occurrence, alteration and
4. fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. feldspar; relationship with other rocks.
7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9. corundum;
10. diamond. Compared to this for As there is a close relation between rocks
example, a fingernail is 2.5 and and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer
glass or knife blade is 5.5.
requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are
(x) Specific gravity — the ratio between
the weight of a given object and many different kinds of rocks which are
the weight of an equal volume of grouped under three families on the basis of
water; object weighed in air and their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous
then weighed in water and divide Rocks — solidified from magma and lava;
weight in air by the difference of (ii) Sedimentary Rocks — the result of
the two weights. deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous
processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks — formed out
of existing rocks undergoing recrystallisation.
Metallic Minerals
Igneous Rocks
These minerals contain metal content and can
be sub-divided into three types: As igneous rocks form out of magma and lava
(i) Precious metals : gold, silver, platinum from the interior of the earth, they are known
etc. as primary rocks. The igneous rocks (Ignis –
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in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed when magma pressure, volume and temperature (PVT)
cools and solidifies. You already know what changes. Metamorphism occurs when rocks
magma is. When magma in its upward are forced down to lower levels by tectonic
movement cools and turns into solid form it processes or when molten magma rising
is called igneous rock. The process of cooling through the crust comes in contact with the
and solidification can happen in the earth’s crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are
crust or on the surface of the earth. subjected to great amounts of pressure by
Igneous rocks are classified based on overlying rocks. Metamorphism is a process
texture. Texture depends upon size and by which already consolidated rocks undergo
arrangement of grains or other physical recrystallisation and reorganisation of
materials within original rocks.
conditions of the materials. If molten material
Mechanical disruption and reorganisation
is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains
of the original minerals within rocks due to
may be very large. Sudden cooling (at the
breaking and crushing without any
surface) results in small and smooth grains. appreciable chemical changes is called
Intermediate conditions of cooling would result dynamic metamorphism. The materials of
in intermediate sizes of grains making up rocks chemically alter and recrystallise due
igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, to thermal metamorphism. There are two
basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff are some of types of thermal metamorphism — contact
the examples of igneous rocks. meta-morphism and regional metamorphism.
In contact metamorphism the rocks come in
Sedimentary Rocks contact with hot intruding magma and lava
and the rock materials recrystallise under high
The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin
temperatures. Quite often new materials form
word sedimentum, which means settling. Rocks out of magma or lava are added to the rocks.
(igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the In regional metamorphism, rocks undergo
earth’s surface are exposed to denudational recrystallisation due to deformation caused
agents, and are broken up into various sizes by tectonic shearing together with high
of fragments. Such fragments are transported temperature or pressure or both. In the
by different exogenous agencies and deposited. process of metamorphism in some rocks
These deposits through compaction turn into grains or minerals get arranged in layers or
rocks. This process is called lithification. lines. Such an arrangement of minerals or
In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation
deposits retain their characteristics even after or lineation. Sometimes minerals or materials
lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers of dif ferent groups are arranged into
of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like alternating thin to thick layers appearing in
sandstone, shale etc. light and dark shades. Such a structure in
metamorphic rocks is called banding and
Depending upon the mode of formation,
rocks displaying banding are called banded
sedimentary rocks are classified into three major
rocks. Types of metamorphic rocks depend
groups: (i) mechanically formed — sandstone, upon original rocks that were subjected to
conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are
examples; (ii) organically formed — geyserite, classified into two major groups — foliated
chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples; rocks and non-foliated rocks. Gneissoid,
(iii) chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite
potash etc. are some examples. etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks ROCK CYCLE

The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. Rocks do not remain in their original form for
These rocks form under the action of long but may undergo transformation. Rock
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MINERALS AND ROCKS 43
cycle is a continuous process through which Igneous rocks are primary rocks and
old rocks are transformed into new ones. other rocks (sedimentary and metamorphic)
form from these primary rocks. Igneous rocks
can be changed into metamorphic rocks. The
fragments derived out of igneous and
metamorphic rocks form into sedimentary
rocks. Sedimentary rocks themselves can turn
into fragments and the fragments can be a
source for formation of sedimentary rocks.
The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary) once formed may be carried
down into the mantle (interior of the earth)
through subduction process (parts or whole
of crustal plates going down under another
plate in zones of plate convergence) and the
same melt down due to increase in
temperature in the interior and turn into
molten magma, the original source for
Fig 5.1 : Rock Cycle igneous rocks (Figure 5.1).
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following are the two main constituents of granite?
(a) Iron and nickel (c) Silica and aluminium
(b) Iron and silver (d) Iron Oxide and potassium
(ii) Which one of the following is the salient feature of metamorphic rocks?
(a) Changeable (c) Crystalline
(b) Quite (d) Foliation
(iii) Which one of the following is not a single element mineral?
(a) Gold (c) Mica
(b) Silver (d) Graphite
(iv) Which one of the following is the hardest mineral?
(a) Topaz (c) Quartz
(b) Diamond (d) Feldspar
(v) Which one of the following is not a sedimentary rock?
(a) Tillite (c) Breccia
(b) Borax (d) Marble
(i) What do you mean by rocks? Name the three major classes of rocks.
(ii) What is an igneous rock? Describe the method of formation and
characteristics of igneous rock.
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(iii) What is meant by sedimentary rock? Describe the mode of formation of

sedimentary rock.
(iv) What relationship explained by rock cycle between the major type of rock?
(i) Define the term ‘mineral’ and name the major classes of minerals with
their physical characteristics.
(ii) Describe the nature and mode of origin of the chief types of rock at the
earth’s crust. How will you distinguish them?
(iii) What are metamorphic rocks? Describe the types of metamorphic rock
and how are they formed?
Project Work
Collect different rock samples and try to recognise them from their physical
characteristics and identify their family.
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CHAPTER
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
A
fter learning about how the earth was forces continuously elevate or build up parts
born, how it evolved its crust and other of the earth’s surface and hence the exogenic
inner layers, how its crustal plates processes fail to even out the relief variations
moved and are moving, and other information of the surface of the earth. So, variations remain
on earthquakes, the forms of volcanism and as long as the opposing actions of exogenic and
about the rocks and minerals the crust is endogenic forces continue. In general terms,
composed of, it is time to know in detail about the endogenic forces are mainly land building
the surface of the earth on which we live. Let forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
us start with this question. land wearing forces. The surface of the earth is
sensitive. Humans depend on it for their
Why is the surface of the earth uneven? sustenance and have been using it extensively
and intensively. So, it is essential to understand
The earth’s crust is dynamic. You are well its nature in order to use it effectively without
aware that it has moved and moves vertically disturbing its balance and diminishing its
and horizontally. Of course, it moved a bit faster potential for the future. Almost all organisms
in the past than the rate at which it is moving contribute to sustain the earth’s environment.
now. The differences in the internal forces However, humans have caused extensive
operating from within the earth which built up damage to the environment through over use
the crust have been responsible for the of resources. Use we must, but must also leave
variations in the outer surface of the crust. The it potential enough to sustain life through the
earth’s surface is being continuously subjected future. Most of the surface of the earth had and
to external forces induced basically by energy has been shaped over very long periods of time
(sunlight). Of course, the internal forces are still (hundreds and thousands of years) and
active though with different intensities. That because of its use and misuse by humans its
means, the earth’s surface is being potential is being diminished at a fast rate. If
continuously subjected to by external forces the processes which shaped and are shaping
originating within the earth’s atmosphere and the surface of the earth into varieties of forms
by internal forces from within the earth. The (shapes) and the nature of materials of which
external forces are known as exogenic forces it is composed of, are understood, precautions
and the internal forces are known as endogenic can be taken to minimise the detrimental effects
forces. The actions of exogenic forces result in of human use and to preserve it for posterity.
wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations
and filling up (aggradation) of basins/ GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
depressions, on the earth’s surface. The You would like to know the meaning of
phenomenon of wearing down of relief geomorphic processes. The endogenic and
variations of the surface of the earth through exogenic forces causing physical stresses and
erosion is known as gradation. The endogenic chemical actions on earth materials and
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bringing about changes in the configuration ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

of the surface of the earth are known as
The energy emanating from within the earth is
geomorphic processes. Diastrophism and
the main force behind endogenic geomorphic
volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes. This energy is mostly generated by
processes. These have already been discussed radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and
in brief in the preceding unit. Weathering, mass primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic This energy due to geothermal gradients and
geomorphic processes. These exogenic heat flow from within induces diastrophism
processes are dealt with in detail in this chapter. and volcanism in the lithosphere. Due to
Any exogenic element of nature (like water, variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow
ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and from within, crustal thickness and strength,
transporting earth materials can be called a the action of endogenic forces are not uniform
geomorphic agent. When these elements of and hence the tectonically controlled original
nature become mobile due to gradients, they crustal surface is uneven.
remove the materials and transport them over
slopes and deposit them at lower level. Diastrophism
Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents
All processes that move, elevate or build up
especially exogenic, unless stated separately,
portions of the earth’s crust come under
are one and the same.
diastrophism. They include: (i) orogenic
A process is a force applied on earth
processes involving mountain building
materials affecting the same. An agent is a
through severe folding and affecting long and
mobile medium (like running water, moving ice narrow belts of the earth’s crust; (ii) epeirogenic
masses, wind, waves and currents etc.) which processes involving uplift or warping of large
removes, transports and deposits earth parts of the earth’s crust; (iii) earthquakes
materials. Running water, groundwater, involving local relatively minor movements;
glaciers, wind, waves and currents, etc., can (iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal
be called geomorphic agents. movements of crustal plates.
In the process of orogeny, the crust is
Do you think it is essential to distinguish severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny,
geomorphic agents and geomorphic there may be simple deformation. Orogeny is
processes? a mountain building process whereas
epeirogeny is continental building process.
Gravity besides being a directional force
Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny,
activating all downslope movements of matter
earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
also causes stresses on the earth’s materials.
faulting and fracturing of the crust. All these
Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and
processes cause pressure, volume and
tide induced currents and winds. Without temperature (PVT) changes which in turn
gravity and gradients there would be no induce metamorphism of rocks.
mobility and hence no erosion, transportation
and deposition are possible. So, gravitational Epeirogeny and orogeny, cite the
stresses are as important as the other differences.
geomorphic processes. Gravity is the force that
is keeping us in contact with the surface and it
is the force that switches on the movement of Volcanism
all surface material on earth. All the movements Volcanism includes the movement of molten
either within the earth or on the surface of the rock (magma) onto or toward the earth’s
earth occur due to gradients — from higher surface and also formation of many intrusive
levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low and extrusive volcanic forms. Many aspects of
pressure areas etc. volcanism have already been dealt in detail
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GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES 47
under volcanoes in the Unit II and under driving forces. It should become clear from
igneous rocks in the preceding chapter in this this chart that for each process there exists a
unit. distinct driving force or energy.
As there are different climatic regions owing
What do the words volcanism and to variations in thermal gradients created by
volcanoes indicate? latitudinal, seasonal, and land and water
spread on the surface of the earth, the exogenic
geomorphic processes vary from region to
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
region. The density, type and distribution of
The exogenic processes derive their energy vegetation which largely depend upon
from atmosphere determined by the ultimate precipitation and temperature also exert
energy from the sun and also the gradients
created by tectonic factors.
Why do you think that the slopes or

gradients are created by tectonic factors?
Gravitational force acts upon all earth

materials having a sloping surface and tend
to produce movement of matter in down
slope direction. Force applied per unit area
is called stress. Stress is produced in a solid Figure 6.1 : Denudational processes and their
by pushing or pulling. This induces driving forces
deformation. Forces acting along the faces of influence indirectly on exogenic geomorphic
earth materials are shear stresses (separating processes. Within different climatic regions
forces). It is this stress that breaks rocks and there may be local variations of the effects of
other earth materials. The shear stresses different climatic elements due to altitudinal
result in angular displacement or slippage. differences, aspect variations and the variation
Besides the gravitational stress earth in the amount of insolation received by north
materials become subjected to molecular and south facing slopes as compared to east
stresses that may be caused by a number of and west facing slopes. Further, due to
factors amongst which temperature changes, differences in wind velocities and directions,
crystallisation and melting are the most amount and kind of precipitation, its intensity,
common. Chemical processes normally lead the relation between precipitation and
to loosening of bonds between grains, evaporation, daily range of temperature,
dissolving of soluble minerals or cementing freezing and thawing frequency, depth of frost
materials. Thus, the basic reason that leads penetration, the geomorphic processes vary
to weathering, mass movements, and erosion within any climatic region.
is development of stresses in the body of the
earth materials. What is the sole driving force behind all
Temperature and precipitation are the the exogenic processes?
two important climatic elements that control
various processes. Climatic factors being equal, the intensity
All the exogenic geomorphic processes of action of exogenic geomorphic processes
are covered under a general term, depends upon type and structure of rocks. The
denudation. The word ‘denude’ means to term structure includes such aspects of rocks
strip off or to uncover. Weathering, mass as folds, faults, orientation and inclination of
wasting/movements, erosion and beds, presence or absence of joints, bedding
transportation are included in denudation. planes, hardness or softness of constituent
The flow chart (Figure 6.1) gives the minerals, chemical susceptibility of mineral
denudation processes and their respective constituents; the permeability or impermeability
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etc. Different types of rocks with differences

in their structure offer varying resistances to
various geomorphic processes. A particular
rock may be resistant to one process and non-
resistant to another. And, under varying
climatic conditions, particular rocks may
exhibit different degrees of resistance to
geomorphic processes and hence they operate
at differential rates and give rise to differences
in topography. The effects of most of the
exogenic geomorphic processes are small and
slow and may be imperceptible in a short time
span, but will in the long run affect the rocks
severely due to continued fatigue.
Finally, it boils down to one fact that the
Figure 6.2 : Climatic regimes and depth of weathering
differences on the surface of the earth though
mantles (adapted and modified from Strakhov, 1967)
originally related to the crustal evolution
continue to exist in some form or the other due
to differences in the type and structure of earth Activity
materials, differences in geomorphic processes Mark the latitude values of different
and in their rates of operation. climatic regimes in Figure 6.2 and
Some of the exogenic geomorphic processes compare the details.
have been dealt in detail here.
WEATHERING There are three major groups of weathering

processes : (i) chemical; (ii) physical or
Weathering is action of elements of weather and mechanical; (iii) biological weathering processes.
climate over earth materials. There are a Very rarely does any one of these processes ever
number of processes within weathering which operate completely by itself, but quite often a
act either individually or together to affect the dominance of one process can be seen.
earth materials in order to reduce them to
fragmental state. Chemical Weathering Processes
Weathering is defined as mechanical A group of weathering processes viz; solution,
disintegration and chemical decom- carbonation, hydration, oxidation and
position of rocks through the actions of reduction act on the rocks to decompose,
various elements of weather and climate. dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state
through chemical reactions by oxygen, surface
As very little or no motion of materials and/or soil water and other acids. Water and
takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat
on-site process. must be present to speed up all chemical
reactions. Over and above the carbon dioxide
Is this little motion which can occur
present in the air, decomposition of plants and
sometimes due to weathering synonymous
animals increases the quantity of carbon
with transportation? If not, why?
dioxide underground. These chemical reactions
Weathering processes are conditioned by on various minerals are very much similar to
many complex geological, climatic, topographic the chemical reactions in a laboratory.
and vegetative factors. Climate is of particular
importance. Not only weathering processes Physical Weathering Processes
differ from climate to climate, but also the depth Physical or mechanical weathering processes
of the weathering mantle (Figure 6.2). depend on some applied forces. The applied
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forces could be: (i) gravitational forces such

as overburden pressure, load and shearing
stress; (ii) expansion forces due to temperature
changes, crystal growth or animal activity;
(iii) water pressures controlled by wetting and
drying cycles. Many of these forces are applied
both at the surface and within different earth
materials leading to rock fracture. Most of
the physical weathering processes are caused
by thermal expansion and pressure release.
These processes are small and slow but can
cause great damage to the rocks because of
continued fatigue the rocks suffer due to Fig.6.4 : Exfoliation (Flacking) and granular
repetition of contraction and expansion. disintegration
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY AND WEATHERING SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING

Biological weathering is contribution to or Weathering processes are responsible for
removal of minerals and ions from the breaking down the rocks into smaller
weathering environment and physical changes fragments and preparing the way for
due to growth or movement of organisms. formation of not only regolith and soils, but
Burrowing and wedging by organisms like also erosion and mass movements. Biomes
earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in and bio-diversity is basically a result of forests
exposing the new surfaces to chemical attack (vegetation) and forests depend upon the
and assists in the penetration of moisture and depth of weathering mantles. Erosion cannot
air. Human beings by disturbing vegetation, be significant if the rocks are not weathered.
ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in That means, weathering aids mass wasting,
mixing and creating new contacts between erosion and reduction of relief and changes
air, water and minerals in the earth materials. in landforms are a consequence of erosion.
Decaying plant and animal matter help in the Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in
production of humic, carbonic and other the enrichment and concentrations of certain
acids which enhance decay and solubility of valuable ores of iron, manganese, aluminium,
some elements. Plant roots exert a tremendous copper etc., which are of great importance
pressure on the earth materials mechanically for the national economy. Weathering is an
breaking them apart. important process in the formation of soils.
When rocks undergo weathering, some

SPECIAL EFFECTS OF WEATHERING
materials are removed through chemical
Exfoliation or physical leaching by groundwater and
thereby the concentration of remaining
This has already been explained under (valuable) materials increases. Without
physical weathering processes of unloading, such a weathering taking place, the
thermal contraction and expansion and salt concentration of the same valuable
weathering. Exfoliation is a result but not a material may not be sufficient and
process. Flaking off of more or less curved economically viable to exploit, process and
sheets of shells from over rocks or bedrock refine. This is what is called enrichment.
results in smooth and rounded surfaces
(Figures 6.3; 6.4). Exfoliation can occur due
MASS MOVEMENTS
to expansion and contraction induced by
temperature changes. Exfoliation domes and These movements transfer the mass of rock
tors result due to unloading and thermal debris down the slopes under the direct
expansion respectively. influence of gravity. That means, air, water or
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ice do not carry debris with them from place Landslides

to place but on the other hand the debris These are relatively rapid and perceptible
may carry with it air, water or ice. The movements. The materials involved are
movements of mass may range from slow to relatively dry. The size and shape of the
rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of detached mass depends on the nature of
materials and include creep, flow, slide and discontinuities in the rock, the degree of
fall. Gravity exerts its force on all matter, weathering and the steepness of the slope.
both bedrock and the products of weathering. Depending upon the type of movement of
So, weathering is not a pre-requisite for mass materials several types are identified in this
movement though it aids mass movements. category.
Mass movements are very active over Slump is slipping of one or several units of
weathered slopes rather than over rock debris with a backward rotation with
unweathered materials. respect to the slope over which the movement
Mass movements are aided by gravity and takes place (Figure 6.6). Rapid rolling or sliding
no geomorphic agent like running water,
glaciers, wind, waves and currents participate
in the process of mass movements. That means
mass movements do not come under erosion
though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of
materials from one place to another. Materials
over the slopes have their own resistance to
disturbing forces and will yield only when force
is greater than the shearing resistance of the
materials. Weak unconsolidated materials,
thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping
beds, vertical cliffs or steep slopes, abundant Figure 6.6 : Slumping of debris with backward rotation
precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity
of earth debris without backward rotation of
of vegetation etc., favour mass movements.
mass is known as debris slide. Debris fall is
Several activating causes precede mass
nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical
movements. They are : (i) removal of support
or overhanging face. Sliding of individual rock
from below to materials above through masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces
natural or artificial means; (ii) increase in is rockslide. Over steep slopes, rock sliding is
gradient and height of slopes; (iii) overloading very fast and destructive. Figure 6.7 shows
through addition of materials naturally or by landslide scars over steep slopes. Slides occur
artificial filling; (iv) overloading due to heavy as planar failures along discontinuities like
rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope
materials; (v) removal of material or load from
over the original slope surfaces; (vi) occurrence
of earthquakes, explosions or machinery;
(vii) excessive natural seepage; (viii) heavy
drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and
rivers leading to slow outflow of water from
under the slopes or river banks; (ix) indis-
criminate removal of natural vegetation.
Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost
growth and other causes), flow and slide are
the three forms of movements. Figure 6.5
shows the relationships among different types
of mass movements, their relative rates of Figure 6.7 : Landslide scars in Shiwalik Himalayan ranges
movement and moisture limits. near river Sarada at India-Nepal border, Uttar Pradesh
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bedding planes that dip steeply. Rock fall is by rock debris carried by these geomorphic
free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope agents also aids greatly in erosion. By erosion,
keeping itself away from the slope. Rock falls relief degrades, i.e., the landscape is worn
occur from the superficial layers of the rock down. That means, though weathering aids
face, an occurrence that distinguishes it from erosion it is not a pre-condition for erosion to
rockslide which affects materials up to a take place. Weathering, mass-wasting and
substantial depth. erosion are degradational processes. It is
erosion that is largely responsible for
Between mass wasting and mass continuous changes that the earth’s surface
movements, which term do you feel is is undergoing. As indicated in Figure 6.1,
most appropriate? Why? Can solifluction denudational processes like erosion and
be included under rapid flow movements? transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
Why it can be and can’t be? The erosion and transportation of earth
materials is brought about by wind, running
water, glaciers, waves and ground water. Of
In our country, debris avalanches and
these the first three agents are controlled by
landslides occur very frequently in the
climatic conditions. They represent three states
Himalayas. There are many reasons for
this. One, the Himalayas are tectonically
of matter — gaseous (wind), liquid (running
active. They are mostly made up of water) and solid (glacier) respectively.
sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated
and semi-consolidated deposits. The Can you compare the three climatically
slopes are very steep. Compared to the controlled agents?
Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering
Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the The work of the other two agents of
Western Ghats along the west coast are erosion-waves and ground water is not
relatively tectonically stable and are
controlled by climate. In case of waves it is
mostly made up of very hard rocks; but,
the location along the interface of litho and
still, debris avalanches and landslides
occur though not as frequently as in the hydro sphere — coastal region — that will
Himalayas, in these hills. Why? Many determine the work of waves, whereas the
slopes are steeper with almost vertical work of ground water is determined more by
cliffs and escarpments in the Western the lithological character of the region. If the
Ghats and Nilgiris. Mechanical weathering rocks are permeable and soluble and water
due to temperature changes and ranges is available only then karst topography
is pronounced. They receive heavy develops. In the next chapter we shall be
amounts of rainfall over short periods. dealing with the landforms produced by each
So, there is almost direct rock fall quite of these agents of erosion.
frequently in these places along with Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
landslides and debris avalanches. The erosional agents loose their velocity and
hence energy on gentler slopes and the
materials carried by them start to settle
EROSION AND DEPOSITION themselves. In other words, deposition is not
Erosion involves acquisition and transportation actually the work of any agent. The coarser
of rock debris. When massive rocks break materials get deposited first and finer ones
into smaller fragments through weathering later. By deposition depressions get filled up.
and any other process, erosional geomorphic The same erosional agents viz., running water,
agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act
glaciers, wind and waves remove and as aggradational or depositional agents also.
transport it to other places depending upon What happens to the surface of the earth
the dynamics of each of these agents. Abrasion due to erosion and deposition is elaborated
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in the next chapter on landforms and their Is weathering solely responsible for soil
evolution. formation? If not, why?
There is a shift of materials in mass

movements as well as in erosion from one Pedology is soil science. A pedologist is a
place to the other. So, why can’t both be
soil-scientist.
treated as one and the same? Can there
be appreciable erosion without rocks
undergoing weathering?
Soil-forming Factors
Five basic factors control the formation of soils:
SOIL FORMATION (i) parent material; (ii) topography; (iii) climate;
(iv) biological activity; (v) time. In fact soil
You see plants growing in soils. You play in forming factors act in union and affect the
the ground and come into contact with soil. action of one another.
You touch and feel soil and soil your clothes
while playing. Can you describe it? Parent Material
Soil is a dynamic medium in which
many chemical, physical and biological Parent material is a passive control factor in
activities go on constantly. Soil is a result soil formation. Parent materials can be any
of decay, it is also the medium for growth. in-situ or on-site weathered rock debris
It is a changing and developing body. It has (residual soils) or transported deposits
many characteristics that fluctuate with the (transported soils). Soil formation depends
seasons. It may be alternatively cold and upon the texture (sizes of debris) and structure
warm or dry and moist. Biological activity (disposition of individual grains/particles of
is slowed or stopped if the soil becomes too debris) as well as the mineral and chemical
cold or too dry. Organic matter increases composition of the rock debris/deposits.
when leaves fall or grasses die. Nature and rate of weathering and depth of
weathering mantle are important considerations
Process of Soil Formation under parent materials. There may be
differences in soil over similar bedrock and
Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first dissimilar bedrocks may have similar soils
on weathering. It is this weathering mantle above them. But when soils are very young
(depth of the weathered material) which is and have not matured these show strong links
the basic input for soil to form. First, the with the type of parent rock. Also, in case of
weathered material or transported deposits some limestone areas, where the weathering
are colonised by bacteria and other inferior processes are specific and peculiar, soils will
plant bodies like mosses and lichens. Also, show clear relation with the parent rock.
several minor organisms may take shelter
within the mantle and deposits. The dead Topography
remains of organisms and plants help in
humus accumulation. Minor grasses and Topography like parent materials is another
ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will passive control factor. The influence of
start growing through seeds brought in by topography is felt through the amount of
birds and wind. Plant roots penetrate down, exposure of a surface covered by parent
burrowing animals bring up particles, mass materials to sunlight and the amount of
of material becomes porous and sponge-like surface and sub-surface drainage over and
with a capacity to retain water and to permit through the parent materials. Soils will be thin
the passage of air and finally a mature soil, a on steep slopes and thick over flat upland
complex mixture of mineral and organic areas. Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow
products forms. and percolation of water is good, soil formation
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is very favourable. Soils over flat areas may of the soil. Some organic acids which form
develop a thick layer of clay with good during humification aid in decomposing the
accumulation of organic matter giving the soil minerals of the soil parent materials.
dark colour. Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
differences between soils of cold and warm
Climate climates. Humus accumulates in cold climates
Climate is an important active factor in soil as bacterial growth is slow. With
formation. The climatic elements involved in undecomposed organic matter because of low
soil development are : (i) moisture in terms of bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in sub-
its intensity, frequency and duration of arctic and tundra climates. In humid tropical
precipitation - evaporation and humidity; and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and
(ii) temperature in terms of seasonal and action is intense and dead vegetation is rapidly
diurnal variations. oxidised leaving very low humus content in
Precipitation gives soil its moisture content the soil. Further, bacteria and other soil
which makes the chemical and biological organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air
activities possible. Excess of water helps in the and convert it into a chemical form that can
downward transportation of soil components be used by plants. This process is known as
through the soil (eluviation) and deposits the nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium, a type of
same down below (illuviation). In climates like bacteria, lives in the root nodules of leguminous
wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, plants and fixes nitrogen beneficial to the host
not only calcium, sodium, magnesium, plant. The influence of large animals like ants,
potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is termites, earthworms, rodents etc., is
removed from the soil. Removal of silica from mechanical, but, it is nevertheless important
the soil is known as desilication. In dry climates, in soil formation as they rework the soil up
because of high temperature, evaporation and down. In case of earthworms, as they
exceeds precipitation and hence ground water feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of the
is brought up to the surface by capillary action soil that comes out of their body changes.
and in the process the water evaporates leaving
behind salts in the soil. Such salts form into a Time
crust in the soil known as hardpans. In tropical
Time is the third important controlling factor
climates and in areas with intermediate
precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate in soil formation. The length of time the soil
nodules (kanker) are formed. forming processes operate, determines
Temperature acts in two ways — increasing maturation of soils and profile development. A
or reducing chemical and biological activity. soil becomes mature when all soil-forming
Chemical activity is increased in higher processes act for a sufficiently long time
temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures developing a profile. Soils developing from
(with an exception of carbonation) and stops recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are
in freezing conditions. That is why, tropical soils considered young and they exhibit no horizons
with higher temperatures show deeper profiles or only poorly developed horizons. No specific
and in the frozen tundra regions soils contain length of time in absolute terms can be fixed
largely mechanically broken materials. for soils to develop and mature.
Biological Activity Is it necessary to separate the process of

The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy soil formation and the soil forming
the parent materials from the beginning and also control factors?
at later stages help in adding organic matter, Why are time, topography and parent
moisture retention, nitrogen etc. Dead plants material considered as passive control
provide humus, the finely divided organic matter factors in soil formation?
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EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following processes is a gradational process?
(a) Deposition (c) Volcanism
(b) Diastrophism (d) Erosion
(ii) Which one of the following materials is affected by hydration process?
(a) Granite (c) Quartz
(b) Clay (d) Salts
(iii) Debris avalanche can be included in the category of:
(a) Landslides (c) Rapid flow mass movements
(b) Slow flow mass movements (d) Subsidence

(i) It is weathering that is responsible for bio-diversity on the earth. How?
(ii) What are mass movements that are real rapid and perceptible? List.
(iii) What are the various mobile and mighty exogenic geomorphic agents and
what is the prime job they perform?
(iv) Is weathering essential as a pre-requisite in the formation of soils? Why?

(i) “Our earth is a playfield for two opposing groups of geomorphic processes.”
Discuss.
(ii) Exogenic geomorphic processes derive their ultimate energy from the sun’s
heat. Explain.
(iii) Are physical and chemical weathering processes independent of each
other? If not, why? Explain with examples.
(iv) How do you distinguish between the process of soil formation and soil-
forming factors? What is the role of climate and biological activity as two
important control factors in the formation of soils?
Project Work
Depending upon the topography and materials around you, observe and record
climate, possible weathering process and soil contents and characteristics.
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CHAPTER
LANDFORMS AND THEIR

EVOLUTION
A
fter weathering processes have had a part of the earth’s surface from one landform
their actions on the earth materials into another or transformation of individual
making up the surface of the earth, the landforms after they are once formed. That
geomorphic agents like running water, ground means, each and every landform has a history
water, wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. of development and changes through time. A
It is already known to you that erosion causes landmass passes through stages of development
changes on the surface of the earth. Deposition somewhat comparable to the stages of life —
follows erosion and because of deposition too, youth, mature and old age.
changes occur on the surface of the earth.
As this chapter deals with landforms and What are the two important aspects of
their evolution ‘first’ start with the question, the evolution of landforms?
what is a landform? In simple words, small to
medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface
are called landforms. RUNNING WATER
In humid regions, which receive heavy rainfall
If landform is a small to medium sized
running water is considered the most important
part of the surface of the earth, what is a
of the geomorphic agents in bringing about
landscape?
the degradation of the land surface. There are
two components of running water. One is
Several related landforms together make
overland flow on general land surface as a
up landscapes, (large tracts of earth’s surface).
sheet. Another is linear flow as streams and
Each landform has its own physical shape,
size, materials and is a result of the action of rivers in valleys. Most of the erosional landforms
certain geomorphic processes and agent(s). made by running water are associated with
Actions of most of the geomorphic processes vigorous and youthful rivers flowing over steep
and agents are slow, and hence the results gradients. With time, stream channels over
take a long time to take shape. Every landform steep gradients turn gentler due to continued
has a beginning. Landforms once formed may erosion, and as a consequence, lose their
change in their shape, size and nature slowly velocity, facilitating active deposition. There
or fast due to continued action of geomorphic may be depositional forms associated with
processes and agents. streams flowing over steep slopes. But these
Due to changes in climatic conditions and phenomena will be on a small scale compared
vertical or horizontal movements of land- to those associated with rivers flowing over
masses, either the intensity of processes or the medium to gentle slopes. The gentler the river
processes themselves might change leading to channels in gradient or slope, the greater is
new modifications in the landforms. Evolution the deposition. When the stream beds turn
here implies stages of transformation of either gentler due to continued erosion, downward
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cutting becomes less dominant and lateral Mature

erosion of banks increases and as a
During this stage streams are plenty with good
consequence the hills and valleys are reduced
integration. The valleys are still V-shaped but
to plains.
deep; trunk streams are broad enough to have
wider floodplains within which streams may
Is complete reduction of relief of a high
flow in meanders confined within the valley.
land mass possible?
The flat and broad inter stream areas and
swamps and marshes of youth disappear and
O verland flow causes sheet erosion.
the stream divides turn sharp. Waterfalls and
Depending upon irregularities of the land
rapids disappear.
surface, the overland flow may concentrate into
narrow to wide paths. Because of the sheer
Old
friction of the column of flowing water, minor
or major quantities of materials from the Smaller tributaries during old age are few
surface of the land are removed in the direction with gentle gradients. Streams meander freely
of flow and gradually small and narrow rills over vast floodplains showing natural levees,
will form. These rills will gradually develop into oxbow lakes, etc. Divides are broad and flat
long and wide gullies; the gullies will further with lakes, swamps and marshes. Most of
deepen, widen, lengthen and unite to give the landscape is at or slightly above sea level.
rise to a network of valleys. In the early stages,
down-cutting dominates during which EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
irregularities such as waterfalls and cascades
will be removed. In the middle stages, streams
Valleys
cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of
valley sides becomes severe. Gradually, the Valleys start as small and narrow rills; the
valley sides are reduced to lower and lower rills will gradually develop into long and wide
slopes. The divides between drainage basins gullies; the gullies will further deepen, widen
are likewise lowered until they are almost and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending
completely flattened leaving finally, a lowland upon dimensions and shape, many types of
of faint relief with some low resistant remnants valleys like V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon,
called monadnocks standing out here and etc. can be recognised. A gorge is a deep valley
there. This type of plain forming as a result of with very steep to straight sides (Figure 7.1)
stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost and a canyon is characterised by steep step-
plain). The characteristics of each of the stages like side slopes (Figure 7.2) and may be as
of landscapes developing in running water deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in
regimes may be summarised as follows: width at its top as well as its bottom. In
contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at
Youth its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of
Streams are few during this stage with poor gorge. Valley types depend upon the type and
integration and flow over original slopes structure of rocks in which they form. For
showing shallow V-shaped valleys with no example, canyons commonly form in
floodplains or with very narrow floodplains horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and
along trunk streams. Streams divides are gorges form in hard rocks.
broad and flat with marshes, swamp and
Potholes and Plunge Pools
lakes. Meanders if present develop over these
broad upland surfaces. These meanders may Over the rocky beds of hill-streams more or
eventually entrench themselves into the less circular depressions called potholes form
uplands. Waterfalls and rapids may exist where because of stream erosion aided by the
local hard rock bodies are exposed. abrasion of rock fragments. Once a small and
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LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION 57
waterfalls also, large potholes, quite deep and

wide, form because of the sheer impact of
water and rotation of boulders. Such large
and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are
called plunge pools.
Incised or Entrenched Meanders

In streams that flow rapidly over steep
gradients, normally erosion is concentrated
on the bottom of the stream channel. Also, in
the case of steep gradient streams, lateral
erosion on the sides of the valleys is not much
when compared to the streams flowing on
low and gentle slopes. Because of active lateral
erosion, streams flowing over gentle slopes,
develop sinuous or meandering courses. It is
common to find meandering courses over
floodplains and delta plains where stream
gradients are very gentle. But very deep and
wide meanders can also be found cut in hard
rocks. Such meanders are called incised or
entrenched meanders (Figure 7.2).
River Terraces
River terraces are surfaces marking old valley
floor or floodplain levels. They may be bedrock
Figure 7.1 : The Valley of Kaveri river near Hogenekal, surfaces without any alluvial cover or alluvial
Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu in the form of gorge terraces consisting of stream deposits. River
terraces are basically products of erosion as
they result due to vertical erosion by the
stream into its own depositional floodplain.
There can be a number of such terraces at
different heights indicating former river bed
levels. The river terraces may occur at the
same elevation on either side of the rivers in
which case they are called paired terraces..
DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Figure 7.2 : An entrenched meander loop of river Colorado Alluvial Fans

in USA showing step-like side slopes of its valley
typical of a canyon Alluvial fans (Figure 7.4) are formed when
streams flowing from higher levels break into
shallow depression forms, pebbles and foot slope plains of low gradient. Normally
boulders get collected in those depressions and very coarse load is carried by streams flowing
get rotated by flowing water and consequently over mountain slopes. This load becomes too
the depressions grow in dimensions. A series heavy for the streams to be carried over
of such depressions eventually join and the gentler gradients and gets dumped and
stream valley gets deepened. At the foot of spread as a broad low to high cone shaped
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deposit called alluvial fan. Usually, the streams accumulates as a low cone. Unlike in alluvial
which flow over fans are not confined to their fans, the deposits making up deltas are very
original channels for long and shift their well sorted with clear stratification. The
position across the fan forming many coarsest materials settle out first and the finer
channels called distributaries. Alluvial fans fractions like silts and clays are carried out
in humid areas show normally low cones with into the sea. As the delta grows, the river
gentle slope from head to toe and they appear distributaries continue to increase in length
as high cones with steep slope in arid and (Figure 7.5) and delta continues to build up
semi-arid climates. into the sea.
Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars

Deposition develops a floodplain just as
erosion makes valleys. Floodplain is a major
landform of river deposition. Large sized
materials are deposited first when stream
channel breaks into a gentle slope. Thus,
normally, fine sized materials like sand, silt
and clay are carried by relatively slow
moving waters in gentler channels usually
found in the plains and deposited over the
bed and when the waters spill over the
Figure 7.4 : An alluvial fan deposited by a hill stream
on the way to Amarnath, Jammu and Kashmir banks during flooding above the bed.
A river bed made of river deposits is the active
floodplain. The floodplain above the bank is
Deltas inactive floodplain. Inactive floodplain above
Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a the banks basically contain two types of
different location. The load carried by the deposits — flood deposits and channel
rivers is dumped and spread into the sea. If deposits. In plains, channels shift laterally
this load is not carried away far into the sea and change their courses occasionally leaving
or distributed along the coast, it spreads and cut-off courses which get filled up gradually.
Such areas over flood plains built up by
abandoned or cut-off channels contain coarse
deposits. The flood deposits of spilled waters
carry relatively finer materials like silt and
clay. The flood plains in a delta are called
delta plains.
Figure 7.5 : A satellite view of part of Krishna river

delta, Andhra Pradesh Figure 7.6 : Natural levee and point bars
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Natural levees and point bars (Figure 7.6)

are some of the important landforms found
associated with floodplains. Natural levees are
found along the banks of large rivers. They
are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse
deposits along the banks of rivers, quite often
cut into individual mounds. Point bars are
also known as meander bars. They are found
on the concave side of meanders of large rivers
and are sediments deposited in a linear
fashion by flowing waters along the bank.
They are almost uniform in profile and in width
and contain mixed sizes of sediments.
In what way do natural levees differ from

point bars?
Meanders
In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely
flow in straight courses. Loop-like channel
patterns called meanders develop over flood
and delta plains (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.8 : Meander growth and cut-off loops and

slip-off and undercut banks
the banks slowly get transformed into a small

curvature in the banks; the curvature
deepens due to deposition on the inside of
the curve and erosion along the bank on the
outside. If there is no deposition and no
erosion or undercutting, the tendency to
meander is reduced. Normally, in meanders
of large rivers, there is active deposition along
Figure 7.7 : A satellite scene showing meandering
Burhi Gandak river near Muzaffarpur, Bihar, showing
the concave bank and undercutting along the
a number of oxbow lakes and cut-offs convex bank. The concave bank is known as
cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp
Meander is not a landform but is only a and the convex bank presents a long, gentle
type of channel pattern. This is because of
profile (Figure 7.8). As meanders grow into
(i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to
gradients to work laterally on the banks; erosion at the inflection points and are left
(ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits as ox-bow lakes.
making up the banks with many irregularities
which can be used by water exerting pressure GROUNDWATER
laterally; (iii) coriolis force acting on the fluid
water deflecting it like it deflects the wind. Here the interest is not on groundwater as a
When the gradient of the channel becomes resource. Our focus is on the work of
extremely low, water flows leisurely and starts groundwater in the erosion of landmasses and
working laterally. Slight irregularities along evolution of landforms. The surface water
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Figure 7.10 : Various karst features

percolates well when the rocks are permeable, produced by the action of groundwater
thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked. through the processes of solution and
After vertically going down to some depth, deposition is called Karst topography after the
the water under the ground flows horizontally typical topography developed in limestone
through the bedding planes, joints or through rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent
the materials themselves. It is this downward to Adriatic sea.
and horizontal movement of water which The karst topography is also characterised
causes the rocks to erode. Physical or by erosional and depositional landforms.
mechanical removal of materials by moving
groundwater is insignificant in developing EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
landforms. That is why, the results of the work
of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and
rocks. But in rocks like limestones or Limestone Pavements
dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the
surface water as well as groundwater through Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded
the chemical process of solution and shallow depressions called swallow holes form
precipitation deposition develop varieties of on the surface of limestones through solution.
landforms. These two processes of solution Sinkholes are very common in limestone/
and precipitation are active in limestones or karst areas. A sinkhole is an opening more or
dolomites occurring either exclusively or less circular at the top and funnel-shapped
interbedded with other rocks. Any limestone towards the bottom with sizes varying in area
or dolomitic region showing typical landforms from a few sq. m to a hectare and with depth
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from a less than half a metre to thirty metres Depositional Landforms

or more. Some of these form solely through
Many depositional forms develop within the
solution action (solution sinks) and others
limestone caves. The chief chemical in
might start as solution forms first and if the limestone is calcium carbonate which is easily
bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a void soluble in carbonated water (carbon dioxide
or cave underground, it might collapse leaving absorbed rainwater). This calcium carbonate
a large hole opening into a cave or a void is deposited when the water carrying it in
below (collapse sinks). Quite often, sinkholes solution evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide
are covered up with soil mantle and appear as it trickles over rough rock surfaces.
as shallow water pools. Anybody stepping
over such pools would go down like it Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars
happens in quicksands in deserts. The term
doline is sometimes used to refer the collapse Stalactites hang as icicles of dif ferent
sinks. Solution sinks are more common than diameters. Normally they are broad at their
collapse sinks. Quite often the surface run- bases and taper towards the free ends
off simply goes down swallow and sink holes showing up in a variety of forms. Stalagmites
and flow as underground streams and re- rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact,
emerge at a distance downstream through a stalagmites form due to dripping water from
cave opening. When sink holes and dolines the surface or through the thin pipe, of the
join together because of slumping of materials stalactite, immediately below it (Figure 7.11).
along their margins or due to roof collapse of Stalagmites may take the shape of a
caves, long, narrow to wide trenches called column, a disc, with either a smooth, rounded
valley sinks or Uvalas form. Gradually, most bulging end or a miniature crater like
of the surface of the limestone is eaten away
by these pits and trenches, leaving it extremely
irregular with a maze of points, grooves and
ridges or lapies. Especially, these ridges or
lapies form due to differential solution activity
along parallel to sub-parallel joints. The lapie
field may eventually turn into somewhat
smooth limestone pavements.
Caves
In areas where there are alternating beds of
rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with
limestones or dolomites in between or in areas
where limestones are dense, massive and
occurring as thick beds, cave formation is
prominent. Water percolates down either
through the materials or through cracks and
joints and moves horizontally along bedding
planes. It is along these bedding planes that
the limestone dissolves and long and narrow
to wide gaps called caves result. There can
be a maze of caves at different elevations
depending upon the limestone beds and
intervening rocks. Caves normally have an
opening through which cave streams are
discharged. Caves having openings at both
the ends are called tunnels. Figure 7.11 : Stalactites and stalagmites in limestone caves
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depression. The stalagmite and stalactites fragments) get dragged along the floors or
eventually fuse to give rise to columns and sides of the valleys and cause great damage
pillars of different diameters. through abrasion and plucking. Glaciers can
cause significant damage to even un-
GLACIERS weathered rocks and can reduce high
mountains into low hills and plains.
Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land
As glaciers continue to move, debris gets
(continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a
removed, divides get lowered and eventually
vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at
the slope is reduced to such an extent that
the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down
glaciers will stop moving leaving only a mass
the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like
of low hills and vast outwash plains along
valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are
with other depositional features. Figures 7.13
called glaciers (Figure 7.12). The movement
and 7.14 show various glacial erosional and
of glaciers is slow unlike water flow. The
depositional forms described in the text.
movement could be a few centimetres to a
few metres a day or even less or more. Glaciers
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
move basically because of the force of gravity.
Cirque
Cirques are the most common of landforms
in glaciated mountains. The cirques quite
often are found at the heads of glacial valleys.
The accumulated ice cuts these cirques while
moving down the mountain tops. They are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with
very steep concave to vertically dropping high
walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of
water can be seen quite often within the
cirques after the glacier disappears. Such
lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes. There
Figure 7.12 : A glacier in its valley can be two or more cirques one leading into
another down below in a stepped sequence.
We have many glaciers in our country
Horns and Serrated Ridges
moving down the slopes and valleys in
Himalayas. Higher reaches of Uttaranchal, Horns form through head ward erosion of
H imachal Pradesh and Jammu and the cirque walls. If three or more radiating
Kashmir, are places to see some of them. glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet,
Do you know where one can see river high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks
Bhagirathi is basically fed by meltwaters
called horns form. The divides between cirque
from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the
side walls or head walls get narrow because
Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier
feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers
of progressive erosion and turn into serrated
Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make or saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to
river Ganga near Deoprayag. as arêtes with very sharp crest and a zig-zag
outline.
Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn
of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice. and the highest peak in the Himalayas,
The material plucked from the land by glaciers Everest are in fact horns formed through
(usually large-sized angular blocks and headward erosion of radiating cirques.
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Figure 7.13 : Some glacial erosional and depositional forms (adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
Glacial Valleys/Troughs Depositional Landforms

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U - The unassorted coarse and fine debris
shaped with broad floors and relatively dropped by the melting glaciers is called glacial
smooth, and steep sides. The valleys may till. Most of the rock fragments in till are
contain littered debris or debris shaped as angular to sub-angular in form. Streams form
moraines with swampy appearance. There by melting ice at the bottom, sides or lower
may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or ends of glaciers. Some amount of rock debris
formed by debris within the valleys. There small enough to be carried by such melt-
can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one water streams is washed down and deposited.
or both sides of the main glacial valley. The Such glacio-fluvial deposits are called
faces of divides or spurs of such hanging outwash deposits. Unlike till deposits, the
valleys opening into main glacial valleys are outwash deposits are roughly stratified and
quite often truncated to give them an assorted. The rock fragments in outwash
appearance like triangular facets. Very deep deposits are somewhat rounded at their edges.
glacial troughs filled with sea water and Figure 7.14 shows a few depositional
making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are landforms commonly found in glaciated areas.
called fjords/fiords.
Moraines
What are the basic differences between
They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
glacial valleys and river valleys?
Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris
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Figure 7.14 : A panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms
(adapted and modified from Spencer, 1962)
deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. over the ground (not in a valley cut in the
Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel ground) with ice forming its banks. Very
to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may coarse materials like boulders and blocks
join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe along with some minor fractions of rock debris
shaped ridge (Fig. 7.13). There can be many carried into this stream settle in the valley of
lateral moraines on either side in a glacial valley. ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts
These moraines partly or fully owe their origin can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.
to glacio-fluvial waters pushing up materials
to the sides of glaciers. Many valley glaciers Outwash Plains
retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of
The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains
till over their valley floors. Such deposits varying
or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets
greatly in thickness and in surface topography
are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the
are called ground moraines. The moraine in the
form of broad flat alluvial fans which may
centre of the glacial valley flanked by lateral
join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt,
moraines is called medial moraine. They are
sand and clay.
imperfectly formed as compared to lateral
moraines. Sometimes medial moraines are Distinguish between river alluvial plains
indistinguishable from ground moraines. and glacial outwash plains.
Eskers
Drumlins
When glaciers melt in summer, the water
flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like
along the margins or even moves through features composed mainly of glacial till with
holes in the ice. These waters accumulate some masses of gravel and sand. The long
beneath the glacier and flow like streams in axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction
a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow of ice movement. They may measure up to 1
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km in length and 30 m or so in height. One and gently sloping sedimentary coasts

end of the drumlins facing the glacier called (emerged coasts).
the stoss end is blunter and steeper than the
other end called tail. The drumlins form due HIGH ROCKY COASTS
to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear
loaded ice through fissures in the glacier. The to have been drowned with highly irregular
stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by coastline. The coastline appears highly indented
moving ice. Drumlins give an indication of
with extension of water into the land where
direction of glacier movement.
glacial valleys (fjords) are present. The hill sides
drop off sharply into the water. Shores do not
What is the difference between till and
show any depositional landforms initially.
alluvium?
Erosion features dominate.
Along high rocky coasts, waves break with
WAVES AND CURRENTS great force against the land shaping the hill
sides into cliffs. With constant pounding by
Coastal processes are the most dynamic and waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut
hence most destructive. So, don’t you think platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
it is important to know about the coastal gradually minimise the irregularities along
processes and forms? the shore.
Some of the changes along the coasts take The materials which fall off, and removed
place very fast. At one place, there can be from the sea cliffs, gradually break into
erosion in one season and deposition in smaller fragments and roll to roundness, will
another. Most of the changes along the coasts get deposited in the of fshore. A fter a
are accomplished by waves. When waves considerable period of cliff development and
break, the water is thrown with great force retreat when coastline turns somewhat
onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is smooth, with the addition of some more
a great churning of sediments on the sea material to this deposit in the offshore, a
bottom. Constant impact of breaking waves wave-built terrace would develop in front of
drastically affects the coasts. Storm waves wave-cut terrace. As the erosion along the
and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching coast takes place a good supply material
changes in a short period of time than normal becomes available to longshore currents and
breaking waves. A s wave environment waves to deposit them as beaches along the
changes, the intensity of the force of breaking shore and as bars (long ridges of sand and/
waves changes. or shingle parallel to the coast) in the nearshore
zone. Bars are submerged features and when
Do you know about the generating forces
bars show up above water, they are called
behind waves and currents? If not, refer
barrier bars. Barrier bar which get keyed up
to the chapter on movements in ocean
to the headland of a bay is called a spit. When
waters.
barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a
bay and block it, a lagoon forms. The lagoons
Other than the action of waves, the coastal
would gradually get filled up by sediments
landforms depend upon (i) the configuration
from the land giving rise to a coastal plain.
of land and sea floor; (ii) whether the coast is
advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating LOW SEDIMENTARY COASTS
(submerging) landward. Assuming sea level
to be constant, two types of coasts A long low sedimentary coasts the rivers
are considered to explain the concept of appear to extend their length by building
evolution of coastal landforms: (i) high, rocky coastal plains and deltas. The coastline
coasts (submerged coasts); (ii) low, smooth appears smooth with occasional incursions
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of water in the form of lagoons and tidal some remnants of rock standing isolated as
creeks. The land slopes gently into the water. small islands just off the shore. Such resistant
Marshes and swamps may abound along the masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or
coasts. Depositional features dominate. hill are called sea stacks. Like all other
When waves break over a gently sloping features, sea stacks are also temporary and
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get eventually coastal hills and cliffs will disappear
churned and move readily building bars, because of wave erosion giving rise to narrow
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons coastal plains, and with onrush of deposits
would eventually turn into a swamp which from over the land behind may get covered
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. up by alluvium or may get covered up by
The maintenance of these depositional features shingle or sand to form a wide beach.
depends upon the steady supply of materials.
Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
Large rivers which bring lots of sediments Beaches and Dunes
build deltas along low sedimentary coasts. Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that
are dominated by deposition, but may occur
The west coast of our country is a high as patches along even the rugged shores. Most
rocky retreating coast. Erosional forms of the sediment making up the beaches comes
dominate in the west coast. The east from land carried by the streams and rivers
coast of India is a low sedimentary coast. or from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary
Depositional forms dominate in the east features. The sandy beach which appears so
coast. permanent may be reduced to a very narrow
strip of coarse pebbles in some other season.
Most of the beaches are made up of sand
What are the various dif ferences sized materials. Beaches called shingle
between a high rocky coast and a low beaches contain excessively small pebbles and
sedimentary coast in terms of processes even cobbles.
and landforms? Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and
winnowed from over the beach surfaces
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS will be deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes
forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are
Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks very common along low sedimentary coasts.
Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms Bars, Barriers and Spits
usually found where erosion is the dominant
shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea
and may range from a few m to 30 m or even in the off-shore zone (from the position of
more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be low tide waterline to seaward) lying
a flat or gently sloping platform covered by approximately parallel to the coast is called
rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind. an off-shore bar. A n off-shore bar which is
Such platforms occurring at elevations above exposed due to further addition of sand is
the average height of waves is called a wave- termed a barrier bar. The off-shore bars and
cut terrace. The lashing of waves against the barriers commonly form across the mouth of
base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets a river or at the entrance of a bay. Sometimes
smashed against the cliff along with lashing such barrier bars get keyed up to one end of
waves create hollows and these hollows get the bay when they are called spits (Figure
widened and deepened to form sea caves. The 7.15). Spits may also develop attached to
roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs recede headlands/hills. The barriers, bars and spits
further inland. Retreat of the cliff may leave at the mouth of the bay gradually extend
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are storm winds which are very destructive.

Winds cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust
and smaller particles from the surface of rocks.
In the transportation process sand and silt act
as effective tools to abrade the land surface.
The impact is simply sheer force of momentum
which occurs when sand is blown into or
against a rock surface. It is similar to sand-
blasting operation. The wind action creates a
number of interesting erosional and
depositional features in the deserts.
In fact, many features of deserts owe their
Figure 7.15 : A satellite picture of a part of Godavari
river delta showing a spit formation to mass wasting and running water
as sheet floods. Though rain is scarce in
leaving only a small opening of the bay into deserts, it comes down torrentially in a short
the sea and the bay will eventually develop period of time. The desert rocks devoid of
into a lagoon. The lagoons get filled up vegetation, exposed to mechanical and
gradually by sediment coming from the land chemical weathering processes due to drastic
or from the beach itself (aided by wind) and a diurnal temperature changes, decay faster
broad and wide coastal plain may develop and the torrential rains help in removing the
replacing a lagoon. weathered materials easily. That means, the
weathered debris in deserts is moved by not
Do you know, the coastal off-shore bars only wind but also by rain/sheet wash. The
offer the first buffer or defence against wind moves fine materials and general mass
storm or tsunami by absorbing most of erosion is accomplished mainly through sheet
their destructive force. Then come the floods or sheet wash. Stream channels in
barriers, beaches, beach dunes and desert areas are broad, smooth and indefinite
mangroves, if any, to absorb the and flow for a brief time after rains.
destructive force of storm and tsunami
waves. So, if we do anything which EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
disturbs the ‘sediment budget’ and the
mangroves along the coast, these coastal Pediments and Pediplains
forms will get eroded away leaving human
habitations to bear first strike of storm Landscape evolution in deserts is primarily
and tsunami waves. concerned with the formation and extension
of pediments. Gently inclined rocky floors
close to the mountains at their foot with or
WINDS without a thin cover of debris, are called
Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot pediments. Such rocky floors form through
deserts. The desert floors get heated up too the erosion of mountain front through a
much and too quickly because of being dry combination of lateral erosion by streams and
and barren. The heated floors heat up the air sheet flooding.
directly above them and result in upward Erosion starts along the steep margins of
movements in the hot lighter air with the landmass or the steep sides of the
turbulence, and any obstructions in its path tectonically controlled steep incision features
sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and over the landmass. Once, pediments are
downdrafts. Winds also move along the desert formed with a steep wash slope followed by
floors with great speed and the obstructions in cliff or free face above it, the steep wash slope
their path create turbulence. Of course, there and free face retreat backwards. This method
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of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of slopes

List the erosional features carved out by
through backwasting. So, through parallel wind action and action of sheet floods.
retreat of slopes, the pediments extend
backwards at the expense of mountain front,
and gradually, the mountain gets reduced Depositional Landforms
leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of
Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon
the mountain. That’s how the high relief in
the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains
desert areas is reduced to low featureless
are moved along the floors by rolling or
plains called pediplains.
saltation and carried in suspension and in
this process of transportation itself, the
Playas
materials get sorted. When the wind slows
Plains are by far the most prominent or begins to die down, depending upon sizes
landforms in the deserts. In basins with of grains and their critical velocities, the grains
mountains and hills around and along, the will begin to settle. So, in depositional
drainage is towards the centre of the basin landforms made by wind, good sorting of
and due to gradual deposition of sediment grains can be found. Since wind is there
from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms everywhere and wherever there is good source
at the centre of the basin. In times of sufficient of sand and with constant wind directions,
water, this plain is covered up by a shallow depositional features in arid regions can
water body. Such types of shallow lakes are develop anywhere.
called as playas where water is retained only
for short duration due to evaporation and Sand Dunes
quite often the playas contain good deposition
of salts. The playa plain covered up by salts Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune
is called alkali flats. formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation
are equally important. There can be a great
Deflation Hollows and Caves variety of dune forms (Figure 7.16).
Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare
soil, gets blown out by persistent movement
of wind currents in one direction. This process
may create shallow depressions called
deflation hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over rock
surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and
abrasion of wind-borne sand and first
shallow depressions called blow outs are
created, and some of the blow outs become
deeper and wider fit to be called caves.
Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion
are worn out quickly leaving some remnants
of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and
a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.
Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a
table top and quite often, the remnants stand
Figure 7.16 : Various types of sand dunes
out like pedestals. Arrows indicate wind direction
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Crescent shaped dunes called barchans form when supply of sand is poor and wind
with the points or wings directed away from direction is constant. They appear as long
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where the ridges of considerable length but low in
wind direction is constant and moderate and height. T ransverse dunes are aligned
where the original surface over which sand is perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes
moving is almost uniform. Parabolic dunes form when the wind direction is constant and
form when sandy surfaces are partially covered the source of sand is an elongated feature at
with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes right angles to the wind direction. They may
are reversed barchans with wind direction be very long and low in height. When sand is
being the same. Seif is similar to barchan with plenty, quite often, the regular shaped dunes
a small difference. Seif has only one wing or coalesce and lose their individual
point. This happens when there is shift in characteristics. Most of the dunes in the
wind conditions. The lone wings of seifs can deserts shift and a few of them will get
grow very long and high. Longitudinal dunes stabilised especially near human habitations.
EXERCISES

(i) In which of the following stages of landform development, downward cutting
is dominated?
(a) Youth stage (c) Early mature stage
(b) Late mature stage (d) Old stage
(ii) A deep valley characterised by steep step-like side slopes is known as
(a) U-shaped valley (c) Blind valley
(b) Gorge (d) Canyon
(iii) In which one of the following regions the chemical weathering process is
more dominant than the mechanical process?
(a) Humid region (c) Arid region
(b) Limestone region (d) Glacier region
(iv) Which one of the following sentences best defines the term ‘Lapies’ ?
(a) A small to medium sized shallow depression
(b) A landform whose opening is more or less circular at the top and
funnel shaped towards bottom
(c) A landform formed due to dripping water from surface
(d) An irregular surface with sharp pinnacles, grooves and ridges
(v) A deep, long and wide trough or basin with very steep concave high walls
at its head as well as in sides is known as:
(a) Cirque (c) Lateral Moraine
(b) Glacial valley (d) Esker
(i) What do incised meanders in rocks and meanders in plains of alluvium
indicate?
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(ii) Explain the evolution of valley sinks or uvalas.

(iii) Underground flow of water is more common than surface run-off in
limestone areas. Why?
(iv) Glacial valleys show up many linear depositional forms. Give their
locations and names.
(v) How does wind perform its task in desert areas? Is it the only agent
responsible for the erosional features in the deserts?
(i) Running water is by far the most dominating geomorphic agent in shaping
the earth’s surface in humid as well as in arid climates. Explain.
(ii) Limestones behave differently in humid and arid climates. Why? What is
the dominant and almost exclusive geomorphic process in limestone areas
and what are its results?
(iii) How do glaciers accomplish the work of reducing high mountains into low
hills and plains?
Project Work
Identify the landforms, materials and processes around your area.
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UNIT
IV
C LIMATE
• Atmosphere — compositions and structure; elements of
weather and climate
• Insolation — angle of incidence and distribution; heat budget
of the earth — heating and cooling of atmosphere (conduction,
convection, terrestrial radiation, advection); temperature — factors
controlling temperature; distribution of temperature — horizontal
and vertical; inversion of temperature
• Pressure — pressure belts; winds-planetary seasonal and local,
air masses and fronts; tropical and extra tropical cyclones
• Precipitation — evaporation; condensation — dew, frost, fog,
mist and cloud; rainfall — types and world distributon
• World climates — classification (Koeppen), greenhouse effect,
global warming and climatic changes
2019-2020
CH A P T ER
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

OF ATMOSPHERE
C
an a person live without air? We eat Gases
food two - three times a day and drink
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very
water more frequently but breathe
important gas as it is transparent to the
every few seconds. Air is essential to the
incoming solar radiation but opaque to the
survival of all organisms. Some organisms like outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part
humans may survive for some time without of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some
food and water but can’t survive even a few part of it towards the earth’s surface. It is
minutes without breathing air. That shows the largely responsible for the green house effect.
reason why we should understand the The volume of other gases is constant but the
atmosphere in greater detail. Atmosphere is a volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in
mixture of different gases and it envelopes the the past few decades mainly because of the
earth all round. It contains life-giving gases like burning of fossil fuels. This has also increased
oxygen for humans and animals and carbon the temperature of the air. Ozone is another
dioxide for plants. The air is an integral part of important component of the atmosphere found
the earth’s mass and 99 per cent of the total between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s
mass of the atmosphere is confined to the surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the
height of 32 km from the earth’s surface. The ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and
air is colourless and odourless and can be felt prevents them from reaching the surface of the
only when it blows as wind. earth.
Can you imagine what will happen Water Vapour

to us in the absence of ozone in the
atmosphere? Water vapour is also a variable gas in the
atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In
the warm and wet tropics, it may account for
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE four per cent of the air by volume, while in the
dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions,
The atmosphere is composed of gases, water it may be less than one per cent of the air.
vapour and dust particles. The proportion of Water vapour also decreases from the equator
gases changes in the higher layers of the towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the
atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s
almost in negligible quantity at the height of radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket
120 km. Similarly, carbon dioxide and water allowing the earth neither to become too cold
vapour are found only up to 90 km from the nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to
surface of the earth. the stability and instability in the air.
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COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE 73
Dust Particles tropopause. The stratosphere is found above

the tropopause and extends up to a height of
Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep
50 km. One important feature of the
small solid particles, which may originate from
stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer.
different sources and include sea salts, fine
This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and
soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and
shields life on the earth from intense, harmful
disintegrated particles of meteors. Dust
form of energy.
particles are generally concentrated in the
The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere,
lower l a y e r s o f t h e a t m o s p h e re; yet,
which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this
convectional air currents may transport them
layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing
to great heights. The higher concentration of
with the increase in altitude and reaches up to
dust particles is found in subtropical and
minus 100°C at the height of 80 km. The upper
temperate regions due to dry winds in
limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400
Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic
km above the mesopause. It contains electrically
nuclei around which water vapour condenses
charged particles known as ions, and hence, it
to produce clouds.
is known as ionosphere. Radio waves
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE transmitted from the earth are reflected back
to the earth by this layer. Temperature here
The atmosphere consists of different layers starts increasing with height. The uppermost
with varying density and temperature. Density layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere
is highest near the surface of the earth and
decreases with increasing altitude. The
column of atmosphere is divided into five
dif ferent layers depending upon the
temperature condition. They are: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and
exosphere.
The troposphere is the lowermost layer of
the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km
and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near
the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at
the equator because heat is transported to
great heights by strong convectional currents.
This layer contains dust particles and water
vapour. All changes in climate and weather
take place in this layer. The temperature in
this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every
165m of height. This is the most important
layer for all biological activity.
The zone separating the tropsophere from
stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The
air temperature at the tropopause is about
minus 800C over the equator and about minus
45oC over the poles. The temperature here is
nearly constant, and hence, it is called the Figure 8.1 : Structure of atmosphere
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is known as the exosphere. This is the highest Elements of Weather and Climate
layer but very little is known about it. Whatever
contents are there, these are extremely rarefied The main elements of atmosphere which are
in this layer, and it gradually merges with the subject to change and which influence human
outer space. A lthough all layers of the life on earth are temperature, pressure, winds,
atmosphere must be exercising influence on humidity, clouds and precipitation. These
us, geographers are concerned with the first elements have been dealt in detail in Chapters
two layers of the atmosphere. 9, 10 and 11.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following gases constitutes the major portion of the
atmosphere?
(a) Oxygen (c) Argon
(b) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide
(ii) Atmospheric layer important for human beings is:
(a) Stratosphere (c) Troposphere
(b) Mesosphere (d) Ionosphere
(iii) Sea salt, pollen, ash, smoke soot, fine soil — these are associated with:
(a) Gases (c) Water vapour
(b) Dust particles (d) Meteors
(iv) Oxygen gas is in negligible quantity at the height of atmosphere:
(a) 90 km (c) 100 km
(b) 120 km (d) 150 km
(v) Which one of the following gases is transparent to incoming solar radiation
and opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation?
(a) Oxygen (c) Helium
(b) Nitrogen (d) Carbon dioxide
(i) What do you understand by atmosphere?
(ii) What are the elements of weather and climate?
(iii) Describe the composition of atmosphere.
(iv) Why is troposphere the most important of all the layers of the atmosphere?
(i) Describe the composition of the atmosphere.
(ii) Draw a suitable diagram for the structure of the atmosphere and label it
and describe it.
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CHAPTER
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE

AND TEMPERATURE
D
o you feel air around you? Do you The solar output received at the top of the
know that we live at the bottom of a atmosphere varies slightly in a year due to the
huge pile of air? We inhale and exhale variations in the distance between the earth and
but we feel the air when it is in motion. It means the sun. During its revolution around the sun,
air in motion is wind. You have already learnt the earth is farthest from the sun (152 million
about the fact that earth is surrounded by air km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is
all around. This envelop of air is atmosphere called aphelion. On 3rd January, the earth is
which is composed of numerous gases. These the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
gases support life over the earth’s surface. position is called perihelion. Therefore, the
The earth receives almost all of its energy annual insolation received by the earth on 3rd
from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back January is slightly more than the amount
to space the energy received from the sun. As received on 4th July. However, the effect of this
a result, the earth neither warms up nor does variation in the solar output is masked by
it get cooled over a period of time. Thus, the other factors like the distribution of land and
amount of heat received by different parts of sea and the atmospheric circulation. Hence, this
the earth is not the same. This variation causes variation in the solar output does not have
pressure differences in the atmosphere. This great effect on daily weather changes on the
leads to transfer of heat from one region to the surface of the earth.
other by winds. This chapter explains the
Variability of Insolation at
process of heating and cooling of the
the Surface of the Earth
atmosphere and the resultant temperature
distribution over the earth’s surface. The amount and the intensity of insolation vary
during a day, in a season and in a year. The factors
SOLAR RADIATION that cause these variations in insolation are : (i)
the rotation of earth on its axis; (ii) the angle of
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy inclination of the sun’s rays; (iii) the length of the
in short wavelengths. The energy received by day; (iv) the transparency of the atmosphere; (v)
the earth is known as incoming solar radiation the configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
which in short is termed as insolation. The last two however, have less influence.
As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, The fact that the earth’s axis makes an angle
the sun’s rays fall obliquely at the top of the of 66½ with the plane of its orbit round the
atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very sun has a greater influence on the amount of
small portion of the sun’s energy. On an insolation received at different latitudes.
average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. The second factor that determines the
cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere. amount of insolation received is the angle of
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inclination of the rays. This depends on the insolation is received over the subtropical
latitude of a place. The higher the latitude deserts, where the cloudiness is the least.
the less is the angle they make with the surface Equator receives comparatively less insolation
of the earth resulting in slant sun rays. The than the tropics. Generally, at the same
area covered by vertical rays is always less latitude the insolation is more over the
than the slant rays. If more area is covered, continent than over the oceans. In winter, the
the energy gets distributed and the net energy middle and higher latitudes receive less
received per unit area decreases. Moreover, radiation than in summer.
the slant rays are required to pass through
greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in HEATING AND COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE
more absorption, scattering and diffusion.
There are different ways of heating and
cooling of the atmosphere.
The earth after being heated by insolation
transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near
to the earth in long wave form. The air in contact
with the land gets heated slowly and the upper
layers in contact with the lower layers also get
heated. This process is called conduction.
Conduction takes place when two bodies of
unequal temperature are in contact with one
another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer
to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues
until both the bodies attain the same
Figure 9.1 : Summer Solstice temperature or the contact is broken. Conduction
is important in heating the lower layers of the
The Passage of Solar Radiation atmosphere.
through the Atmosphere The air in contact with the earth rises
The atmosphere is largely transparent to short vertically on heating in the form of currents
wave solar radiation. The incoming solar and further transmits the heat of the
radiation passes through the atmosphere atmsphere. This process of vertical heating
before striking the earth’s surface. Within the of the atmosphere is known as convection.
troposphere water vapour, ozone and other The convective transfer of energy is confined
gases absorb much of the near infrared only to the troposphere.
radiation. The transfer of heat through horizontal
Very small-suspended particles in the movement of air is called advection. Horizontal
troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to movement of the air is relatively more
the space and towards the earth surface. This important than the vertical movement. In
process adds colour to the sky. The red colour middle latitudes, most of dirunal (day and
of the rising and the setting sun and the blue night) variation in daily weather are caused
colour of the sky are the result of scattering by advection alone. In tropical regions
of light within the atmosphere. particularly in northern India during summer
season local winds called ‘loo’ is the outcome
Spatial Distribution of Insolation of advection process.
at the Earth’s Surface
Terrestrial Radiation
The insolation received at the surface varies
from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to The insolation received by the earth is in short
about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles. Maximum waves forms and heats up its surface. The
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SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE 77
earth after being heated itself becomes a the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are
radiating body and it radiates energy to the reflected back to space even before reaching
atmosphere in long wave form. This energy the earth’s surface. Of these, 27 units are
heats up the atmosphere from below. This reflected back from the top of the clouds and
process is known as terrestrial radiation. 2 units from the snow and ice-covered areas
The long wave radiation is absorbed by of the earth. The reflected amount of radiation
the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon is called the albedo of the earth.
dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, The remaining 65 units are absorbed,
the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units
earth’s radiation. by the earth’s surface. The earth radiates
The atmosphere in turn radiates and back 51 units in the form of terrestrial
transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount radiation. Of these, 17 units are radiated
of heat received from the sun is returned to to space directly and the remaining 34 units
space, thereby maintaining constant temperature are absorbed by the atmosphere (6 units
at the earth’s surface and in the atmosphere. absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth through convection and turbulence and 19
units through latent heat of condensation).
Figure 9.2 depicts the heat budget of the 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere
planet earth. The earth as a whole does not (14 units from insolation +34 units from
accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back
temperature. This can happen only if the into space. Thus, the total radiation
amount of heat received in the form of returning from the earth and the atmosphere
insolation equals the amount lost by the earth respectively is 17+48=65 units which
through terrestrial radiation. balance the total of 65 units received from
Consider that the insolation received at the sun. This is termed the heat budget or
the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. heat balance of the earth.
While passing through the atmosphere some This explains, why the earth neither warms
amount of energy is reflected, scattered and up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of
absorbed. Only the remaining part reaches heat that takes place.
Figure 9.2 : Heat budget of the earth
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Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth’s the sea, the air-mass circulation; (iv) the
Surface presence of warm and cold ocean currents;
(v) local aspects.
As explained earlier, there are variations in
the amount of radiation received at the earth’s The latitude : The temperature of a place
surface. Some part of the earth has surplus depends on the insolation received. It has been
radiation balance while the other part has explained earlier that the insolation varies
deficit. according to the latitude hence the
Figure 9.3 depicts the latitudinal variation temperature also varies accordingly.
in the net radiation balance of the earth —
the atmosphere system. The figure shows that The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly
there is a surplus of net radiation balance heated by terrestrial radiation from below.
between 40 degrees north and south and the Therefore, the places near the sea-level record
regions near the poles have a deficit. The higher temperature than the places situated
surplus heat energy from the tropics is at higher elevations. In other words, the
redistributed pole wards and as a result the temperature generally decreases with
tropics do not get progressively heated up increasing height. The rate of decrease of
due to the accumulation of excess heat or temperature with height is termed as the
the high latitudes get permanently frozen due normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m.
to excess deficit.
Distance from the sea : Another factor that
influences the temperature is the location of a
place with respect to the sea. Compared to
land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat
slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly.
Therefore, the variation in temperature over the
sea is less compared to land. The places
situated near the sea come under the
moderating influence of the sea and land
breezes which moderate the temperature.
Figure 9.3 : Latitudinal variation in net Air-mass and Ocean currents : Like the land
radiation balance and sea breezes, the passage of air masses
also affects the temperature. The places,
Temperature which come under the influence of warm air-
The interaction of insolation with the masses experience higher temperature and
atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates the places that come under the influence of
heat which is measured in terms of cold air-masses experience low temperature.
temperature. While heat represents the Similarly, the places located on the coast where
molecular movement of particles comprising the warm ocean currents flow record higher
a substance, the temperature is the temperature than the places located on the
measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) coast where the cold currents flow.
a thing (or a place) is.
Distribution of Temperature
Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
The global distribution of temperature can
The temperature of air at any place is well be understood by studying the
influenced by (i) the latitude of the place; temperature distribution in January and July.
(ii) the altitude of the place; (iii) distance from The temperature distribution is generally
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shown on the map with the help of isotherms. bend towards the north. Over the land the
The Isotherms are lines joining places having temperature decreases sharply and the
equal temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) isotherms bend towards south in Europe.
show the distribution of surface air It is much pronounced in the Siberian
temperature in the month of January and plain. The mean January temperature along
July. 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N
In general the effect of the latitude on and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly
temperature is well pronounced on the map, temperature for January is over 27° C, in
as the isotherms are generally parallel to the equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics
latitude. The deviation from this general trend and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes
is more pronounced in January than in July, and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian
especially in the northern hemisphere. In the continental interior.
northern hemisphere the land surface area is The effect of the ocean is well pronounced
much larger than in the southern hemisphere. in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms
Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean are more or less parallel to the latitudes and
currents are well pronounced. In January the the variation in temperature is more gradual
isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm
and to the south over the continent. This can of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35°
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively.
presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream In July the isotherms generally run
and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans
Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms record warmer temperature, more than 27°C.
Figure 9.4 (a) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January
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Figure 9.4 (b) : The distribution of surface air temperature in the month of July
Figure 9.5 : The range of temperature between January and July
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Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in Surface inversion promotes stability in the
the subtropical continental region of Asia, lower layers of the atmosphere. Smoke and
along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N dust particles get collected beneath the
runs the isotherm of 10° C and along the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill
40° S the temperature is 10° C. the lower strata of the atmosphere. Dense fogs
Figure 9.5 shows the range of in mornings are common occurrences
temperature between January and July. The especially during winter season. This inversion
highest range of temperature is more than 60° commonly lasts for few hours until the sun
C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian comes up and beings to warm the earth.
continent. This is due to continentality. The The inversion takes place in hills and
least range of temperature, 3°C, is found mountains due to air drainage. Cold air at the
between 20° S and 15° N. hills and mountains, produced during night,
flows under the influence of gravity. Being
INVERSION OF TEMPERATURE heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like
Normally, temperature decreases with increase water and moves down the slope to pile up
in elevation. It is called normal lapse rate. At deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm
times, the situations is reversed and the air above. This is called air drainage. It protects
normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called plants from frost damages.
Inversion of temperature. Inversion is usually
of short duration but quite common
nonetheless. A long winter night with clear l Plank’s law states that hotter a body,
skies and still air is ideal situation for the more energy it will radiate and
inversion. The heat of the day is radiated off shorter the wavelength of that
during the night, and by early morning hours, radiation.
the earth is cooler than the air above. Over l Specific heat is the energy needed
polar areas, temperature inversion is normal to raise the temperature of one gram
throughout the year. of substance by one Celsius.
EXERCISES

(i) The sun is directly overhead at noon on 21st June at:
(a) The equator (c) 23.5° N
(b) 23.5° S (d) 66.5° N
(ii) In which one of the following cities, are the days the longest?
(a) Tiruvanantpuram (c) Hyderabad
(b) Chandigarh (d) Nagpur
(iii) The atmosphere is mainly heated by the:
(a) Short wave solar radiation (c) Long wave terrestrial radiation
(b) Reflected solar radiation (d) Scattered solar radiation
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(iv) Make correct pairs from the following two columns.

(i) Insolation (a) The dif ference betwe en the mean
temperature of the warmest and the coldest
months
(ii) Albedo (b) The lines joining the places of equal
temperature
(iii) Isotherm (c) The incoming solar radiation
(iv) Annual range (d) The percentage of visible light reflected by
an object
(v) The main reason that the earth experiences highest temperatures in the
subtropics in the northern hemisphere rather than at the equator is :
(a) Subtropical areas tend to have less cloud cover than equatorial areas.
(b) Subtropical areas have longer day hours in the summer than the
equatorial.
(c) Subtropical areas have an enhanced “green house effect” compared
to equatorial areas.
(d) Subtropical areas are nearer to the oceanic areas than the equatorial
locations.

(i) How does the unequal distribution of heat over the planet earth in space
and time cause variations in weather and climate?
(ii) What are the factors that control temperature distribution on the surface
of the earth?
(iii) In India, why is the day temperature maximum in May and why not after
the summer solstice?
(iv) Why is the annual range of temperature high in the Siberian plains?

(i) How do the latitude and the tilt in the axis of rotation of the earth affect
the amount of radiation received at the earth’s surface?
(ii) Discuss the processes through which the earth-atmosphere system
maintains heat balance.
(iii) Compare the global distribution of temperature in January over the
northern and the southern hemisphere of the earth.
Project Work
Select a meteorological observatory located in your city or near your town. Tabulate
the temperature data as given in the climatological table of observatories :
(i) Note the altitude, latitude of the observatory and the period for which the
mean is calculated.
(ii) Define the terms related to temperature as given in the table.
(iii) Calculate the daily mean monthly temperature.
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(iv) Draw a graph to show the daily mean maximum, the daily mean minimum and the mean
temperature.
(v) Calculate the annual range of temperature.
(vi) Find out in which months the daily range of temperature is the highest and the lowest.
(vii) List out the factors that determine the temperature of the place and explain the possible
causes for temperature variation in the months of January, May, July and October.
Example
Observatory : New Delhi (Safdarjung)
Latitude : 28°35°’ N
Based on observations : 1951 - 1980
Altitude above mean sea level : 216 m
Month Mean of Mean of Highest Lowest

Daily Daily Recorded Recorded
Max.(°C) Min.(°C) (°C) (°C)
January 21.1 7.3 29.3 0.6
May 39.6 25.9 47.2 17.5
Daily mean monthly temperature
21.1+7.3
January = 14.2OC
2
39.6+25.9
May = 32.75OC
2
A nnual range of temperature
Mean Max. Temperature in May - Mean Temperature in January
A nnual range of temperature = 32.75°C – 14.2°C = 18.55°C
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CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
E
arlier Chapter 9 described the uneven pressure is measured with the help of a
distribution of temperature over the mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
surface of the earth. Air expands when Consult your bo ok, Practical Wo r k i n
heated and gets compressed when cooled. This Geography — Part I (NCERT, 2006) and learn
results in variations in the atmospheric about these instruments. The pressure
pressure. The result is that it causes the decreases with height. At any elevation it varies
movement of air from high pressure to low from place to place and its variation is the
pressure, setting the air in motion. You already primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which
know that air in horizontal motion is wind. moves from high pressure areas to low
Atmospheric pressure also determines when pressure areas.
the air will rise or sink. The wind redistributes
the heat and moisture across the planet, Vertical Variation of Pressure
thereby, maintaining a constant temperature
In the lower atmosphere the pressure
for the planet as a whole. The vertical rising of
decreases rapidly with height. The decrease
moist air cools it down to form the clouds and
amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m
bring precipitation. This chapter has been
increase in elevation. It does not always
devoted to explain the causes of pressure
decrease at the same rate. Table 10.1 gives
differences, the forces that control the
the average pressure and temperature at
atmospheric circulation, the turbulent pattern
selected levels of elevation for a standard
of wind, the formation of air masses, the
atmosphere.
disturbed weather when air masses interact
with each other and the phenomenon of violent Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and Temperature at
tropical storms. Selected Levels
Level Pressure in mb Temperature °C
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Sea Level 1,013.25 15.2
Do you realise that our body is subjected to a
1 km 898.76 8.7
lot of air pressure. As one moves up the air
gets varified and one feels breathless. 5 km 540.48 –17. 3
The weight of a column of air contained in 10 km 265.00 – 49.7
a unit area from the mean sea level to the top
of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric The vertical pressure gradient force is much
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is larger than that of the horizontal pressure
expressed in units of milibar. At sea level the gradient. But, it is generally balanced by a
average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.
milibar. Due to gravity the air at the surface is Hence, we do not experience strong upward
denser and hence has higher pressure. Air winds.
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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEMS 85
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure purposes of comparison. The sea level pressure

distribution is shown on weather maps.
Small differences in pressure are highly
Figure 10.1 shows the patterns of isobars
significant in terms of the wind direction and
corresponding to pressure systems. Low-
pressure system is enclosed by one or more
isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
High-pressure system is also enclosed by one
or more isobars with the highest pressure in
the centre.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

The world distribution of sea level pressure in
January and July has been shown in Figures
10.2 and 10.3. Near the equator the sea level
Figure 10.1 : Isobars, pressure and wind systems in pressure is low and the area is known as
Northern Hemisphere
equatorial low. Along 30° N and 30o S are
velocity. Horizontal distribution of pressure is found the high-pressure areas known as the
studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. subtropical highs. Further pole wards along
Isobars are lines connecting places having 60o N and 60o S, the low-pressure belts are
equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect termed as the sub polar lows. Near the poles
of altitude on pressure, it is measured at any the pressure is high and it is known as the polar
station after being reduced to sea level for high. These pressure belts are not permanent
Figure 10.2 : Distribution of pressure (in millibars) — January
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Figure 10.3 : Distribution of pressure (in millibars) — July
in nature. They oscillate with the apparent Pressure Gradient Force

movement of the sun. In the northern
The differences in atmospheric pressure
hemisphere in winter they move southwards
produces a force. The rate of change of pressure
and in the summer northwards.
with respect to distance is the pressure
Forces Affecting the Velocity gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where
and Direction of Wind the isobars are close to each other and is weak
where the isobars are apart.
You already know that the air is set in motion
due to the differences in atmospheric pressure. Frictional Force
The air in motion is called wind. The wind
It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at
blows from high pressure to low pressure. The
the surface and its influence generally extends
wind at the surface experiences friction. In
upto an elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea
addition, rotation of the earth also affects the
surface the friction is minimal.
wind movement. The force exerted by the
rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis
Coriolis Force
force. Thus, the horizontal winds near the
earth surface respond to the combined effect The rotation of the earth about its axis affects
of three forces – the pressure gradient force, the direction of the wind. This force is called
the frictional force and the Coriolis force. In the Coriolis force after the French physicist who
addition, the gravitational force acts described it in 1844. It deflects the wind to the
downward. right direction in the northern hemisphere and
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to the left in the southern hemisphere. The The wind circulation around a low is
deflection is more when the wind velocity is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high
high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional it is called anti cyclonic circulation. The
to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the direction of winds around such systems
poles and is absent at the equator. changes according to their location in
The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the different hemispheres (Table 10.2).
pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient The wind circulation at the earth’s surface
force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher around low and high on many occasions is
the pressure gradient force, the more is the closely related to the wind circulation at higher
velocity of the wind and the larger is the level. Generally, over low pressure area the air
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of will converge and rise. Over high pressure area
these two forces operating perpendicular to each the air will subside from above and diverge at
other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows the surface (Figure10.5). Apart from
around it. At the equator, the Coriolis force is convergence, some eddies, convection
zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the currents, orographic uplift and uplift along
isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of fronts cause the rising of air, which is essential
getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind
The velocity and direction of the wind are the
net result of the wind generating forces. The
winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above
the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the
pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When
isobars are straight and when there is no Figure 10.5 : Convergence and divergence of winds
friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced
by the Coriolis force and the resultant wind
blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known General circulation of the atmosphere
as the geostrophic wind (Figure 10.4). The pattern of planetary winds largely depends
on : (i) latitudinal variation of atmospheric
heating; (ii) emergence of pressure belts; (iii)
the migration of belts following apparent path
of the sun; (iv) the distribution of continents
and oceans; (v) the rotation of earth. The pattern
of the movement of the planetary winds is
called the general circulation of the
atmosphere. The general circulation of the
atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water
circulation which influences the earth’s
Figure 10.4 : Geostropic Wind
Table 10.2 : Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
Pressure System Pressure Condition Pattern of Wind Direction

at the Centre Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Cyclone Low Anticlockwise Clockwise

Anticyclone High Clockwise Anticlockwise
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climate. A schematic description of the general The general circulation of the atmosphere
circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. also affects the oceans. The large-scale winds
of the atmosphere initiate large and slow
moving currents of the ocean. Oceans in turn
provide input of energy and water vapour into
the air. These interactions take place rather
slowly over a large part of the ocean.
General Atmospheric Circulation and

its Effects on Oceans
Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean

is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water
of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts
towards South American coast and
replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such
appearance of warm water off the coast
Figure 10. 6 : Simplified general circulation
of Peru is known as the El Nino. The El
of the atmosphere Nino event is closely associated with the
pressure changes in the Central Pacific
The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence and Australia. This change in pressure
Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused condition over Pacific is known as the
by high insolation and a low pressure is southern oscillation. The combined
created. The winds from the tropics converge phenomenon of southern oscillation and
at this low pressure zone. The converged air El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years
rises along with the convective cell. It reaches when the ENSO is strong, large-scale
the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of variations in weather occur over the
14 km. and moves towards the poles. This world. The arid west coast of South
causes accumulation of air at about 30o N and America receives heavy rainfall, drought
S. Part of the accumulated air sinks to the occurs in Australia and sometimes in
ground and forms a subtropical high. Another India and floods in China. This
reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it phenomenon is closely monitored and is
reaches 30o N and S latitudes. Down below used for long range forecasting in major
near the land surface the air flows towards the parts of the world.
equator as the easterlies. The easterlies from
either side of the equator converge in the Inter Seasonal Wind
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Such
circulations from the surface upwards and The pattern of wind circulation is modified in
vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the different seasons due to the shifting of regions
tropics is called Hadley Cell. In the middle of maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold The most pronounced effect of such a shift is
air that comes from the poles and the rising noticed in the monsoons, especially over
warm air that blows from the subtropical high. southeast Asia. You would be studying the
At the surface these winds are called westerlies details of monsoon in the book India : Physical
and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. At polar Environment (NCERT, 2006). The other local
latitudes the cold dense air subsides near the deviations from the general circulation system
poles and blows towards middle latitudes as are as follows.
the polar easterlies. This cell is called the polar
Local Winds
cell. These three cells set the pattern for the
general circulation of the atmosphere. The Differences in the heating and cooling of earth
transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or
higher latitudes maintains the general annually can create several common, local or
circulation. regional winds.
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Land and Sea Breezes as the valley breeze. During the night the
slopes get cooled and the dense air descends
As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb
into the valley as the mountain wind. The cool
and transfer heat differently. During the day the
air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining
land heats up faster and becomes warmer than
into the valley is called katabatic wind. Another
the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side
giving rise to a low pressure area, whereas the
of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these
sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea
winds, while crossing the mountain ranges
is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from
condense and precipitate. When it descends
sea to land is created and the wind blows from
down the leeward side of the slope the dry air
the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night
gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry
the reversal of condition takes place. The land
air may melt the snow in a short time.
loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea. The
pressure gradient is from the land to the sea
Air Masses
and hence land breeze results (Figure 10.7).
When the air remains over a homogenous area
for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous
regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with distinctive characteristics
in terms of temperature and humidity is called
an airmass. It is defined as a large body of air
having little horizontal variation in temperature
and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over
which air masses form, are called the source
regions.
The air masses are classified according to
the source regions. There are five major source
regions. These are: (i) Warm tropical and
subtropical oceans; (ii) The subtropical hot
deserts; (iii) The relatively cold high latitude
oceans; (iv) The very cold snow covered
continents in high latitudes; (v) Permanently
ice covered continents in the Arctic and
Antarctica. Accordingly, following types of air-
masses are recognised: (i) Maritime tropical
(mT); (ii) Continental tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime
polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP);
(v) Continental arctic (cA). Tropical air masses
are warm and polar air masses are cold.
Fronts
When two different air masses meet, the
Figure 10.7 : Land and sea breezes boundary zone between them is called a
front. The process of formation of the
Mountain and Valley Winds
fronts is known as frontogenesis. There
In mountainous regions, during the day the are four types of fronts: (a) Cold; (b) Warm;
slopes get heated up and air moves upslope (c) Stationary; (d) Occluded. When the
and to fill the resulting gap the air from the front remains stationary, it is called a
valley blows up the valley. This wind is known stationary front. When the cold air moves
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anticlockwise cyclonic circulation. The cyclonic

circulation leads to a well developed extra
tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold
front. The plan and cross section of a well
developed cyclone is given in Figure 10.9.
There are pockets of warm air or warm sector
wedged between the forward and the rear cold
air or cold sector. The warm air glides over the
cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over
the sky ahead of the warm front and cause
precipitation. The cold front approaches the
warm air from behind and pushes the warm
air up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop
along the cold front. The cold front moves faster
than the warm front ultimately overtaking the
warm front. The warm air is completely lifted
up and the front is occluded and the cyclone
dissipates.
The processes of wind circulation both at
the surface and aloft are closely interlinked.
Figure 10.8 : Vertical Sections of : (a) Warm Front; The extra tropical cyclone differs from the
(b) Cold Front; (c) Occluded Front tropical cyclone in number of ways. The extra
tropical cyclones have a clear frontal system
towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is
called the cold front, whereas if the warm air
mass moves towards the cold air mass, the
contact zone is a warm front. If an air mass is
fully lifted above the land surface, it is called
the occluded front. The fronts occur in middle
latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient
in temperature and pressure. They bring
abrupt changes in temperature and cause the
air to rise to form clouds and cause precipitation.
Extra Tropical Cyclones

The systems developing in the mid and high
latitude, beyond the tropics are called the
middle latitude or extra tropical cyclones. The
passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
weather conditions over the area in the middle
and high latitudes.
Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar
front. Initially, the front is stationary. In the
northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the
south and cold air from the north of the front.
When the pressure drops along the front, the
warm air moves northwards and the cold air
move towards, south setting in motion an Figure 10. 9 : Extra tropical cyclones
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which is not present in the tropical cyclones. A schematic representation of the vertical
They cover a larger area and can originate over structure of a mature tropical cyclonic storm
the land and sea. Whereas the tropical cyclones is shown in Figure 10.10.
originate only over the seas and on reaching A mature tropical cyclone is characterised
the land they dissipate. The extra tropical by the strong spirally circulating wind around
cyclone affects a much larger area as the centre, called the eye. The diameter of the
compared to the tropical cyclone. The wind circulating system can vary between 150 and
velocity in a tropical cyclone is much higher 250 km.
and it is more destructive. The extra tropical The eye is a region of calm with subsiding
cyclones move from west to east but tropical air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there
cyclones, move from east to west. is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater
height reaching the tropopause. The wind
reaches maximum velocity in this region,
Tropical Cyclones
reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that Torrential rain occurs here. From the eye wall
originate over oceans in tropical areas and rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus
move over to the coastal areas bringing about and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the
large scale destruction caused by violent outer region. The diameter of the storm over
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian
This is one of the most devastating natural ocean is between 600 - 1200 km. The system
calamities. They are known as Cyclones in the moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, The cyclone creates storm surges and they
Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South inundate the coastal low lands. The storm
China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western peters out on the land.
Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify
over warm tropical oceans. The conditions
favourable for the formation and intensification
of tropical storms are: (i) Large sea surface with
temperature higher than 27° C; (ii) Presence
of the Coriolis force; (iii) Small variations in the
vertical wind speed; (iv) A pre-existing weak-
low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic
circulation; (v) Upper divergence above the sea
level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes
from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the
centre of the storm. With continuous supply
of moisture from the sea, the storm is further
strengthened. On reaching the land the
moisture supply is cut off and the storm
dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone
crosses the coast is called the landfall of the
cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20o N
latitude generally, recurve and they are more Figure 10.10 : Vertical section of the tropical cyclone
destructive. (after Rama Sastry)
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Thunderstorms and Tornadoes greater height. This causes precipitation. Later,

downdraft brings down to earth the cool air
Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and the rain. From severe thunderstorms
and tornadoes. They are of short duration, sometimes spiralling wind descends like a
occurring over a small area but are violent. trunk of an elephant with great force, with very
Thunderstorm s are caused by intense low pressure at the centre, causing massive
convection on moist hot days. A thunderstorm destruction on its way. Such a phenomenon is
is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur
producing thunder and lightening. When the in middle latitudes. The tornado over the sea
clouds extend to heights where sub-zero is called water spouts.
temperature prevails, hails are formed and they These violent storms are the manifestation
come down as hailstorm. If there is insufficient of the atmosphere’s adjustments to varying
moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust- energy distribution. The potential and heat
storms. A thunderstorm is characterised by energies are converted into kinetic energy in
intense updraft of rising warm air, which these storms and the restless atmosphere again
causes the clouds to grow bigger and rise to returns to its stable state.
EXERCISES

(i) If the surface air pressure is 1,000 mb, the air pressure at 1 km above the
surface will be:
(a) 700 mb (c) 900 mb
(b) 1,100 mb (d) 1,300 mb
(ii) The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone normally occurs:
(a) near the Equator (b) near the Tropic of Cancer
(c) near the Tropic of Capricorn (d) near the Arctic Circle
(iii) The direction of wind around a low pressure in northern hemisphere is:
(a) clockwise (c) anti-clock wise
(b) perpendicular to isobars (d) parallel to isobars
(iv) Which one of the following is the source region for the formation of air
masses?
(a) the Equatorial forest (c) the Siberian Plain
(b) the Himalayas (d) the Deccan Plateau
(i) What is the unit used in measuring pressure? Why is the pressure measured
at station level reduced to the sea level in preparation of weather maps?
(ii) While the pressure gradient force is from north to south, i.e. from the
subtropical high pressure to the equator in the northern hemisphere,
why are the winds north easterlies in the tropics.
(iii) What are the geotrophic winds?
(iv) Explain the land and sea breezes.
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(i) Discuss the factors affecting the speed and direction of wind.
(ii) Draw a simplified diagram to show the general circulation of the
atmosphere over the globe. What are the possible reasons for the formation
of subtropical high pressure over 30o N and S latitudes?
(iii) Why does tropical cyclone originate over the seas? In which part of the
tropical cyclone do torrential rains and high velocity winds blow and why?
Project Work
(i) Collect weather information over media such as newspaper, TV and radio
for understanding the weather systems.
(ii) Read the section on weather in any newspaper, preferably, one having a
map showing a satellite picture. Mark the area of cloudiness. Attempt to
infer the atmospheric circulation from the distribution of clouds. Compare
the forecast given in the newspaper with the TV coverage, if you have
access to TV. Estimate, how many days in a week was the forecast were
accurate.
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CH A P T ER
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Y
ou have already learnt that the air EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION
contains water vapour. It varies from
zero to four per cent by volume of the The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
atmosphere and plays an important role in the is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
weather phenomena. Water is present in the condensation respectively. Evaporation is a
atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, process by which water is transformed from
liquid and solid. The moisture in the liquid to gaseous state. Heat is the main cause
atmosphere is derived from water bodies for evaporation. The temperature at which the
through evaporation and from plants through water starts evaporating is referred to as the
transpiration. Thus, there is a continuous latent heat of vapourisation.
exchange of water between the atmosphere, the Increase in temperature increases water
oceans and the continents through the absorption and retention capacity of the given
processes of evaporation, transpiration, parcel of air. Similarly, if the moisture content
condensation and precipitation. is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and
Water vapour present in the air is known retaining moisture. Movement of air replaces
as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.
different ways. The actual amount of the water Hence, the greater the movement of air, the
vapour present in the atmosphere is known as greater is the evaporation.
the absolute humidity. It is the weight of water The transformation of water vapour into
vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed water is called condensation. Condensation is
in terms of grams per cubic metre. The ability caused by the loss of heat. When moist air is
of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity
on its temperature. The absolute humidity to hold water vapour ceases. Then, the excess
differs from place to place on the surface of the water vapour condenses into liquid form. If it
earth. The percentage of moisture present in directly condenses into solid form, it is known
the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity as sublimation. In free air, condensation results
at a given temperature is known as the relative from cooling around very small particles
humidity. With the change of air temperature, termed as hygroscopic condensation nuclei.
the capacity to retain moisture increases or Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean
decreases and the relative humidity is also are particularly good nuclei because they
affected. It is greater over the oceans and least absorb water. Condensation also takes place
over the continents. when the moist air comes in contact with some
The air containing moisture to its full colder object and it may also take place when
capacity at a given temperature is said to be the temperature is close to the dew point.
saturated. It means that the air at the given Condensation, therefore, depends upon the
temperature is incapable of holding any amount of cooling and the relative humidity of
additional amount of moisture at that stage. the air. Condensation is influenced by the
The temperature at which saturation occurs volume of air, temperature, pressure and
in a given sample of air is known as dew point. humidity. Condensation takes place: (i) when
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WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 95
the temperature of the air is reduced to dew condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is
point with its volume remaining constant; (ii) described as smog. The only difference between
when both the volume and the temperature are the mist and fog is that mist contains more
reduced; (iv) when moisture is added to the air moisture than the fog. In mist each nuceli
through evaporation. However, the most contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are
favourable condition for condensation is the frequent over mountains as the rising warm
decrease in air temperature. air up the slopes meets a cold surface. Fogs
After condensation the water vapour or the are drier than mist and they are prevalent where
moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the warm currents of air come in contact with cold
following forms — dew, frost, fog and clouds. currents. Fogs are mini clouds in which
Forms of condensation can be classified on the condensation takes place around nuclei
basis of temperature and location. provided by the dust, smoke, and the salt
Condensation takes place when the dew point particles.
is lower than the freezing point as well as
higher than the freezing point. Clouds
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or
Dew
tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation
When the moisture is deposited in the form of of the water vapour in free air at considerable
water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid elevations. As the clouds are formed at some
objects (rather than nuclei in air above the height over the surface of the earth, they take
surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant various shapes. According to their height,
leaves, it is known as dew. The ideal conditions expanse, density and transparency or
for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high opaqueness clouds are grouped under four
relative humidity, and cold and long nights. types : (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus;
For the formation of dew, it is necessary that (iv) nimbus.
the dew point is above the freezing point.
Cirrus
Frost
Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes
Frost forms on cold surfaces when (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detatched
condensation takes place below freezing point clouds having a feathery appearance. They are
(00C), i.e. the dew point is at or below the always white in colour.
freezing point. The excess moisture is deposited
in the form of minute ice crystals instead of Cumulus
water droplets. The ideal conditions for the
Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They
formation of white frost are the same as those
are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -
for the formation of dew, except that the air
7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen
temperature must be at or below the freezing
scattered here and there. They have a flat base.
point.
Stratus
Fog and Mist
As their name implies, these are layered clouds
When the temperature of an air mass
covering large portions of the sky. These clouds
containing a large quantity of water vapour falls
are generally formed either due to loss of heat
all of a sudden, condensation takes place within
or the mixing of air masses with different
itself on fine dust particles. So, the fog is a cloud
temperatures.
with its base at or very near to the ground.
Because of the fog and mist, the visibility
Nimbus
becomes poor to zero. In urban and industrial
centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They
help the formation of fog and mist. Such a form at middle levels or very near to the surface
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of the earth. These are extremely dense and Precipitation

opaque to the rays of the sun. Sometimes, the
The process of continuous condensation in free
clouds are so low that they seem to touch the
air helps the condensed particles to grow in
ground. Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses
size. When the resistance of the air fails to hold
of thick vapour.
them against the force of gravity, they fall on to
the earth’s surface. So after the condensation
of water vapour, the release of moisture is
known as precipitation. This may take place
in liquid or solid form. The precipitation in the
form of water is called rainfall, when the
temperature is lower than the 00C, precipitation
takes place in the form of fine flakes of snow
and is called snowfall. Moisture is released in
the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals
form flakes of snow. Besides rain and snow,
other forms of precipitation are sleet and hail,
Figure 11.1 though the latter are limited in occurrence and
are sporadic in both time and space.
Sleet is frozen raindrops and refrozen
melted snow-water. When a layer of air with
the temperature above freezing point overlies
a subfreezing layer near the ground,
precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Raindrops, which leave the warmer air,
encounter the colder air below. As a result, they
solidify and reach the ground as small pellets
of ice not bigger than the raindrops from which
they are formed.
Sometimes, drops of rain after being
released by the clouds become solidified into
small rounded solid pieces of ice and which
reach the surface of the earth are called
hailstones. These are formed by the rainwater
passing through the colder layers. Hailstones
have several concentric layers of ice one over
the other.
Types of Rainfall
Figure 11.2
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified
into three main types – the convectional,
Identify these cloud types which are orographic or relief and the cyclonic or frontal.
shown in Figure 11.1 and 11.2.
Convectional Rain
A combination of these four basic types can
The, air on being heated, becomes light and
give rise to the following types of clouds: high
clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus; rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it
middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus; expands and loses heat and consequently,
low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus condensation takes place and cumulous
and clouds with extensive vertical clouds are formed. With thunder and lightening,
development – cumulus and cumulonimbus. heavy rainfall takes place but this does not last
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WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE 97
long. Such rain is common in the summer or the continents. The rainfall is more over the
in the hotter part of the day. It is very common oceans than on the landmasses of the world
in the equatorial regions and interior parts of because of being great sources of water.
the continents, particularly in the northern Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of
hemisphere. the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern
coasts and goes on decreasing towards the
Orographic Rain west. But, between 450 and 650 N and S of
equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is
When the saturated air mass comes across a first received on the western margins of the
mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, continents and it goes on decreasing towards
it expands; the temperature falls, and the the east. Wherever mountains run parallel to
moisture is condensed. The chief characteristic the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal
of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes plain, on the windward side and it decreases
receive greater rainfall. After giving rain on the towards the leeward side.
windward side, when these winds reach the On the basis of the total amount of annual
other slope, they descend, and their precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the
temperature rises. Then their capacity to take world are identified as follows.
in moisture increases and hence, these leeward The equatorial belt, the windward slopes
slopes remain rainless and dry. The area of the mountains along the western coasts in
situated on the leeward side, which gets less the cool temperate zone and the coastal areas
rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area. It of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of
is also known as the relief rain. over 200 cm per annum. Interior continental
areas receive moderate rainfall varying from
Cyclonic Rain 100 - 200 cm per annum. The coastal areas of
the continents receive moderate amount of
You have already read about extra tropical
rainfall. The central parts of the tropical land
cyclones and cyclonic rain in Chapter 10.
and the eastern and interior parts of the
Please consult Chapter 10 to understand
temperate lands receive rainfall varying
cyclonic rainfall.
between 50 - 100 cm per annum. Areas lying
in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the
World Distribution of Rainfall continents and high latitudes receive very low
Different places on the earth’s surface receive rainfall-less than 50 cm per annum. Seasonal
different amounts of rainfall in a year and that distribution of rainfall provides an important
too in different seasons. aspect to judge its effectiveness. In some
In general, as we proceed from the equator regions rainfall is distributed evenly
towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing throughout the year such as in the equatorial
steadily. The coastal areas of the world receive belt and in the western parts of cool temperate
greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of regions.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is the most important constituent of the
atmosphere for human beings?
(a) Water vapour (c) Dust particle
(b) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen
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(ii) Which one of the following process is responsible for transforming liquid
into vapour?
(a) Condensation (c) Evaporation
(b) Transpiration (d) Precipitation
(iii) The air that contains moisture to its full capacity :
(a) Relative humidity (c) Absolute humidity
(b) Specific humidity (d) Saturated air
(iv) Which one of the following is the highest cloud in the sky?
(a) Cirrus (c) Nimbus
(b) Stratus (d) Cumulus
(i) Name the three types of precipitation.
(ii) Explain relative humidity.
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decreases rapidly with altitude?
(iv) How are clouds formed? Classify them.
(i) Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation.
(ii) What are forms of condensation? Describe the process of dew and frost
formation.
Project Work
Browse through the newspaper from 1st June to 31st December and note the news
about extreme rainfall in different parts of the country.
2019-2020
CH A P T ER
WORLD CLIMATE AND

CLIMATE CHANGE
T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature a period of time, Koeppen’s scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
purpose. and one on precipitation. Table 12.1 lists the
climatic groups and their characteristics
KOEPP E N ’ S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION according to Koeppen. The capital letters : A,C,
OF CLIMATE
D and E delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
Table 12.1 : Climatic Groups According to Koeppen
Group Characteristics
A - Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or higher
B - Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation
C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C
D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below
E - Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10° C
H - High Land Cold due to elevation
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m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30°C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 12.2. The distribution
around 20°C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 12.1.
found in this climate.
Table 12.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen
Group Type Letter Code Characteristics

Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C
-Warm
temperate (Mid- Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
latitude) Climates
Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer
D-Cold Snow- Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter

forest Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
Tundra ET No true summer
E-Cold Climates
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice
H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover
Group A : Tropical Humid Climates Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part
being overhead throughout the year and the of South America and Northern Australia.
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid. is dry. The detailed climatic account of this
Annual range of temperature is very low and climatic type is given in the book on India:
annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is Physical Environment.
divided into three types, namely (i) Af- Tropical
wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
(iii) Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and
south of Af type climate regions. It borders with
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
dry climate on the western part of the continent
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive
The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South Aw climate is found to the north and south of
America, western equatorial Africa and the the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts
2019-2020
WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 101
of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
occur on the coast land. In middle latitudes,
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in
from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they
North Indian plains and South China interior
are confined to the interior of continents where
plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate
maritime-humid winds do not reach and to
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
They are further subdivided as subtropical As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. — Central
latitudes between 35° - 60°. California, Central Chile, along the coast in
south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in
winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by
Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly
desert (BWh) have common precipitation and
average temperature in summer is around
temperature characteristics. Located in the
25° C and in winter below 10°C. The annual
transition zone between humid and dry
precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall
in both the climates is highly variable. The Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in the parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
steppe much more than in the desert, more In this region the air masses are generally
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unstable and cause rainfall throughout the Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
year. They occur in eastern United States of
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
America, southern and eastern China,
over Northeastern Asia. The development of
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina,
pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer temperatures are lower and winter
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are
temperatures are extremely low with many
common. Mean monthly temperature in
locations experiencing below freezing point
summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies
temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
is small.
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) Polar Climates (E)

Marine west coast climate is located poleward Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70°
from the Mediterranean climate on the west latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
coast of the continents. The main areas are: (i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
Northwestern Europe, west coast of North
America, north of California, southern Chile, Tundra Climate (ET)
southeastern Australia and New Zealand. Due The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the
to marine influence, the temperature is types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for lichens and flowering plants. This is the region
its latitude. The mean temperature in summer of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter frozen. The short growing season and water
4°-10°C. The annual and daily ranges of logging support only low growing plants.
temperature are small. Precipitation occurs During summer, the tundra regions have very
throughout the year. Precipitation varies long duration of day light.
greatly from 50-250cm.
Ice Cap Climate (EF)
Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior
Cold snow forest climates occur in the large Greenland and Antartica. Even in summer, the
continental area in the northern hemisphere temperature is below freezing point. This area
between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe, receives very little precipitation. The snow and
Asia and North America. Cold snow forest ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure
climates are divided into two types: (i) Df- cold causes the deformation of the ice sheets and
climate with humid winter; (ii) Dw- cold climate they break. They move as icebergs that float in
with dry winter. The severity of winter is more the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station
pronounced in higher latitudes. , Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.
Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df) Highland Climates (H)

Cold climate with humid winter occurs Highland climates are governed by topography.
poleward of marine west coast climate and mid In high mountains, large changes in mean
latitude steppe. The winters are cold and temperature occur over short distances.
snowy. The frost free season is short. The Precipitation types and intensity also vary
annual ranges of temperature are large. The spatially across high lands. There is vertical
weather changes are abrupt and short. zonation of layering of climatic types with
Poleward, the winters are more severe. elevation in the mountain environment.
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CLIMATE CHANGE crop failures, of floods and migration of people

tell about the effects of changing climate. A
The earlier chapters on climate summarised
number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet,
our understanding of climate as it prevails now.
cold and dry periods, the significant episodes
The type of climate we experience now might
were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth
be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with
and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings
minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The
settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed “Little
planet earth has witnessed many variations in
Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about
climate since the beginning. Geological records
1885-1940 world temperature showed an
show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial
upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase
periods. The geomorphological features,
in temperature slowed down.
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes,
exhibit traces of advances and retreats of Causes of Climate Change
glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes
also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold The causes for climate change are many. They
periods. The rings in the trees provide clues can be grouped into astronomical and
about wet and dry periods. Historical records terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are
describe the vagaries in climate. All these the changes in solar output associated with
evidences indicate that change in climate is a sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and
natural and continuous process. cooler patches on the sun which increase and
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
periods. Archaeological findings show that the some meteorologists, when the number of
Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000- and greater storminess occur. A decrease in
1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about sunspot numbers is associated with warm and
2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions statistically significant.
accentuated since then. An another astronomical theory is
In the geological past, the earth was warm Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles
some 500-300 million years ago, through the in the variations in the earth’s orbital
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. characteristics around the sun, the wobbling
During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and of the earth and the changes in the earth’s axial
inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation
peak glacial period was about 18,000 years received from the sun, which in turn, might
ago. The present inter-glacial period started have a bearing on the climate.
10,000 years ago. Volcanism is considered as another cause
for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws
Climate in the recent past up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a
nineties decade of the last century witnessed considerable period of time reducing the sun’s
extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the
the warmest temperature of the century and recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
some of the worst floods around the world. The eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, fell to some extent for some years.
south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 The most important anthropogenic effect
is one such variability. During the 1930s, on the climate is the increasing trend in the
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Plains of the United States, described as the atmosphere which is likely to cause global
dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or warming.
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Global Warming it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to

recover from any change brought about by the
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the
latter.
atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The
The largest concentration of GHGs in the
atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar
atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission
radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long
of CO 2 comes mainly from fossil fuel
wave radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s
combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and
surface. The gases that absorb long wave
oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide.
radiation are called greenhouse gases. The
Forests use CO 2 in their growth. So,
processes that warm the atmosphere are often
deforestation due to changes in land use, also
collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
increases the concentration of Co2. The time
taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes
The term greenhouse is derived from the
analogy to a greenhouse used in cold in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of
is made up of glass. The glass which is concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level
transparent to incoming short wave solar is used as an index for estimating the changes
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave in climate in climatic models.
radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products
more radiation and prevents the long of human activity. Ozone occurs in the
wave radiation going outside the glass stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert
house, causing the temperature inside oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do
the glasshouse structure warmer than
not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which
outside. When you enter a car or a bus,
during summers, where windows are
drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
closed, you feel more heat than outside. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Likewise during winter the vehicles with The depletion of ozone concentration in the
closed doors and windows remain warmer stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
than the temperature outside. This is allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the
another example of the greenhouse effect. troposphere.
International efforts have been initiated for
Greenhouse Gases(GHGs) reducing the emission of GHGs into the
atmosphere. The most important one is the
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997. This
dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), protocol went into effect in 2005, ratified by
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone 141 nations. Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) industrialised countries to reduce their
and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less
GHGs and affect their concentration in the than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.
atmosphere. The increasing trend in the concentration
The effectiveness of any given GHG of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long
molecule will depend on the magnitude of the run, warm up the earth. Once the global
increase in its concentration, its life time in the warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it.
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation The effect of global warming may not be
that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons uniform everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse
(CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which effect due to global warming will adversely affect
absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the life supporting system. Rise in the sea level
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and
terrestrial radiation when it is present in the thermal expansion of the sea may inundate
lower troposphere. Another important point to large parts of the coastal area and islands,
be noted is that the more time the GHG leading to social problems. This is another
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer cause for serious concern for the world
2019-2020
community. Efforts have already been initiated annual near surface temperature over land
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest from 1856-2000, relative to the period
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope 1961-90 as normal for the globe.
the world community responds to this challenge An increasing trend in temperature was
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a discernible in the 20th century. The greatest
livable world for the generations to come. warming of the 20th century was during the
One of the major concerns of the world two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
today is global warming. Let us look at how of these two periods, global temperatures rose
much the planet has warmed up from the by about 0.4°C. In between, there was a slight
temperature records. cooling, which was more marked in the
Temperature data are available from the Northern Hemisphere.
middle of the 19th century mostly for western The globally averaged annual mean
Europe. The reference period for this study is temperature at the end of the 20th century was
1961-90. The temperature anomalies for the about 0.6°C above that recorded at the end of
earlier and later periods are estimated from the the 19th century. The seven warmest years
average temperature for the period 1961-90. during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
The annual average near-surface air last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
temperature of the world is approximately year, probably not only for the 20th century
14°C. The time series show anomalies of but also for the whole millennium.
Write an explanatory note

on “global warming”.
2019-2020
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is suitable for Koeppen’s “A” type of climate?
(a) High rainfall in all the months
(b) Mean monthly temperature of the coldest month more than freezing
point
(c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18o C
(d) Average temperature for all the months below 10° C
(ii) Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as :
(a) Applied (b) Systematic (c) Genetic (d) Empirical
(iii) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppen’s system
under:
(a) “Af” (b) “BSh” (c) “Cfb” (d) “Am”
(iv) Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest
temperature the world over?
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
(v) Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid
conditions?
(a) A—B—C—E
(b) A—C—D—E
(c) B—C—D—E
(d) A—C—D—F
(i) Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the
climate?
(ii) How is the “genetic” system of classification different from the “empirical
one”?
(iii) Which types of climates have very low range of temperature?
(iv) What type of climatic conditions would prevail if the sun spots increase?
(i) Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the “A” and “B”
types of climate.
(ii) What type of vegetation would you find in the “C” and “A” type(s) of climate?
(iii) What do you understand by the term “Greenhouse Gases”? Make a list of
greenhouse gases.
Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.
2019-2020
UNIT
V
WATER (OCEANS)
• Hydrological Cycle
• Oceans — submarine relief; distribution of temperature and
salinity; movements of ocean water-waves, tides and currents
2019-2020
CH A PTER
WATER (OCEANS)
C
an we think of life without water? It is the ocean to land and land to ocean. The
said that the water is life. Water is an hydrological cycle describes the movement of
essential component of all life forms that water on, in, and above the earth. The water
exist over the surface of the earth. The creatures cycle has been working for billions of years
on the earth are lucky that it is a water planet, and all the life on earth depends on it. Next to
otherwise we all would have no existence. Water air, water is the most important element
is a rare commodity in our solar system. There required for the existence of life on earth. The
is no water on the sun or anywhere else in the distribution of water on earth is quite uneven.
solar system. The earth, fortunately has an
Many locations have plenty of water while
abundant supply of water on its surface. Hence,
others have very limited quantity. The
our planet is called the ‘Blue Planet’.
hydrological cycle, is the circulation of water
within the earth’s hydrosphere in different
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
forms i.e. the liquid, solid and the gaseous
Water is a cyclic resource. It can be used and phases. It also refers to the continuous
re-used. Water also undergoes a cycle from exchange of water between the oceans,
Figure 13.1 : Hydrological Cycle
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WATER (OCEANS) 109
Table 13.1 : Components and Processes Southern ocean and the Arctic. The various
of the Water Cycle seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of
Components Processes these four large oceans.
A major portion of the ocean floor is found
Water storage Evaporation between 3-6 km below the sea level. The ‘land’
in oceans Evapotranspiration
Sublimation
under the waters of the oceans, that is, the
ocean floor exhibits complex and varied
Water in the Condensation
features as those observed over the land
atmosphere Precipitation
(Figure 13.2). The floors of the oceans are
Water storage in Snowmelt runoff rugged with the world’s largest mountain
ice and snow to streams
ranges, deepest trenches and the largest plains.
Surface runoff Stream flow freshwater These features are formed, like those of the
storage infiltration
continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic
Groundwater storage Groundwater and depositional processes.
discharge springs
Divisions of the Ocean Floors
atmosphere, landsurface and subsurface and The ocean floors can be divided into four
the organisms. major divisions: (i) the Continental Shelf; (ii)
About 71 per cent of the planetary water the Continental Slope; (iii) the Deep Sea Plain;
is found in the oceans. The remaining is held (iv) the Oceanic Deeps. Besides, these divisions
as freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, there are also major and minor relief features
groundwater sources, lakes, soil moisture, in the ocean floors like ridges, hills, sea
atmosphere, streams and within life. Nearly mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
59 per cent of the water that falls on land
returns to the atmosphere through Continental Shelf
evaporation from over the oceans as well as The continental shelf is the extended margin
from other places. The remainder runs-off on of each continent occupied by relatively
the surface, infiltrates into the ground or a part shallow seas and gulfs. It is the shallowest
of it becomes glacier. part of the ocean showing an average gradient
It is to be noted that the renewable water of 1° or even less. The shelf typically ends at
on the earth is constant while the demand is a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
increasing tremendously. This leads to water The width of the continental shelves vary
crisis in different parts of the world — spatially from one ocean to another. The average width
and temporally. The pollution of river waters of continental shelves is about 80 km. The
has further aggravated the crisis. How can shelves are almost absent or very narrow along
you intervene in improving the water quality some of the margins like the coasts of Chile,
and augmenting the available quantity of
the west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary,
water?
the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the
largest in the world, stretches to 1,500 km in
RELIEF OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
width. The depth of the shelves also varies. It
The oceans are confined to the great may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas
depressions of the earth’s outer layer. In this while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m.
section, we shall see the nature of the ocean The continental shelves are covered with
basins of the earth and their topography. The variable thicknesses of sediments brought
oceans, unlike the continents, merge so down by rivers, glaciers, wind, from the land
naturally into one another that it is hard to and distributed by waves and currents.
demarcate them. The geographers have divided Massive sedimentary deposits received over a
the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, long time by the continental shelves, become
namely the Pacific, the Atlantic, the Indian, the source of fossil fuels.
2019-2020
vary between 3,000 and 6,000m. These plains

are covered with fine-grained sediments like
clay and silt.
Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

These areas are the deepest parts of the
oceans. The trenches are relatively steep sided,
narrow basins. They are some 3-5 km deeper
than the surrounding ocean floor. They occur
at the bases of continental slopes and along
island arcs and are associated with active
volcanoes and strong earthquakes. That is
why they are very significant in the study of
plate movements. As many as 57 deeps have
been explored so far; of which 32 are in the
Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6
in the Indian Ocean.
Minor Relief Features

Apart from the above mentioned major relief
features of the ocean floor, some minor but
significant features predominate in different
parts of the oceans.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains
of mountains separated by a large depression.
The mountain ranges can have peaks as high
Figure 13.2 : Relief features of ocean floors as 2,500 m and some even reach above the
ocean’s surface. Iceland, a part of the mid-
Continental Slope Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
The continental slope connects the continental
shelf and the ocean basins. It begins where the Seamount
bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising
off into a steep slope. The gradient of the slope from the seafloor that does not reach the surface
region varies between 2-5°. The depth of the of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m. These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor
The slope boundary indicates the end of the seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands
continents. Canyons and trenches are observed in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
in this region.
Submarine Canyons
Deep Sea Plain
These are deep valleys, some comparable to
Deep sea plains are gently sloping areas of the the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river. They
ocean basins. These are the flattest and are sometimes found cutting across the
smoothest regions of the world. The depths continental shelves and slopes, often extending
2019-2020
WATER (OCEANS) 111
from the mouths of large rivers. The Hudson (iv) Ocean currents : warm ocean currents
Canyon is the best known submarine canyon raise the temperature in cold areas while
in the world. the cold currents decrease the
temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf
Guyots stream (warm current) raises the
temperature near the eastern coast of
It is a flat topped seamount. They show
North America and the West Coast of
evidences of gradual subsidence through
Europe while the Labrador current (cold
stages to become flat topped submerged
current) lowers the temperature near the
mountains. It is estimated that more than
north-east coast of North America.
10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the
All these factors influence the temperature
Pacific Ocean alone.
of the ocean currents locally. The enclosed seas
in the low latitudes record relatively higher
Atoll
temperature than the open seas; whereas the
These are low islands found in the tropical enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower
oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding temperature than the open seas.
a central depression. It may be a part of the
sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a Horizontal and Vertical Distribution
body of fresh, brackish, or highly saline water. of Temperature
TEMPERATURE OF OCEAN WATERS The temperature-depth profile for the ocean

water shows how the temperature decreases
This section deals with the spatial and vertical with the increasing depth. The profile shows a
variations of temperature in various oceans. boundary region between the surface waters
Ocean waters get heated up by the solar energy of the ocean and the deeper layers. The
just as land. The process of heating and cooling boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m
of the oceanic water is slower than land. below the sea surface and extends several
hundred of metres downward (Figure 13.3).
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution This boundary region, from where there is a
The factors which affect the distribution of rapid decrease of temperature, is called the
temperature of ocean water are : thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total
(i) Latitude : the temperature of surface water volume of water is found below the thermocline
decreases from the equator towards the in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures
poles because the amount of insolation approach 0° C.
decreases poleward. The temperature structure of oceans over
(ii) Unequal distribution of land and water : middle and low latitudes can be described as
the oceans in the northern hemisphere a three-layer system from surface to the bottom.
receive more heat due to their contact The first layer represents the top layer of
with larger extent of land than the oceans warm oceanic water and it is about 500m
in the southern hemisphere. thick with temperatures ranging between 20°
(iii) Prevailing wind : the winds blowing from and 25° C. This layer, within the tropical
the land towards the oceans drive warm region, is present throughout the year but in
surface water away form the coast mid latitudes it develops only during summer.
resulting in the upwelling of cold water The second layer called the thermocline
from below. It results into the longitudinal layer lies below the first layer and is characterised
variation in the temperature. Contrary to by rapid decrease in temperature with increasing
this, the onshore winds pile up warm depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
water near the coast and this raises the The third layer is very cold and extends
temperature. upto the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and
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Figure 13.4 shows the spatial pattern of

surface temperature of the oceans.
It is a well known fact that the maximum
temperature of the oceans is always at their
surfaces because they directly receive the heat
from the sun and the heat is transmitted to
the lower sections of the oceans through the
process of convection. It results into decrease
of temperature with the increasing depth, but
the rate of decrease is not uniform
throughout. The temperature falls very
rapidly up to the depth of 200 m and
thereafter, the rate of decrease of temperature
is slowed down.
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS
All waters in nature, whether rain water or
ocean water, contain dissolved mineral salts.
Salinity is the term used to define the total
content of dissolved salts in sea water
(Table 13.4). It is calculated as the amount
of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg)
of seawater. It is usually expressed as parts
per thousand (o/oo) or ppt. Salinity is an
Figure 13.3 : Thermocline important property of sea water. Salinity of
24.7 o/oo has been considered as the upper
Antartic circles, the surface water temperatures limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’.
are close to 0° C and so the temperature change Factors af fecting ocean salinity are
with the depth is very slight. Here, only one mentioned below:
layer of cold water exists, which extends from (i) The salinity of water in the surface layer
surface to deep ocean floor. of oceans depend mainly on
The average temperature of surface water evaporation and precipitation.
of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually (ii) Surface salinity is greatly influenced in
decreases from the equator towards the coastal regions by the fresh water flow
poles. The rate of decrease of temperature from rivers, and in polar regions by the
with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C processes of freezing and thawing of
per latitude. The average temperature is ice.
around 22°C at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° (iii) Wind, also influences salinity of an area
latitudes and 0° C near poles. The oceans by transferring water to other areas.
in the northern hemisphere record relatively (iv) The ocean currents contribute to the
higher temperature than in the southern salinity variations. Salinity, temperature
hemisphere. The highest temperature is not and density of water are interrelated.
recorded at the equator but slightly towards Hence, any change in the temperature or
north of it. The average annual density influences the salinity of water in
temperatures for the northern and southern an area.
hemisphere are around 19° C and 16° C
Highest salinity in water bodies
respectively. This variation is due to the
Lake Van in Turkey (330 o/oo),
unequal distribution of land and water in Dead Sea (238 o/oo),
the northern and southern hemispheres. Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo)
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WATER (OCEANS) 113
Figure 13.4 : Spatial pattern of surface temperature (°C) of the oceans
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SALINITY The North Sea, in spite of its location in

higher latitudes, records higher salinity due
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges
to more saline water brought by the North
between 33 o/ oo and 37 o / oo. In the land
Atlantic Drift. Baltic Sea records low salinity
locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41o/oo, while
due to influx of river waters in large
in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity quantity. The Mediterranean Sea records
fluctuates from 0 - 35 o/oo, seasonally. In hot higher salinity due to high evaporation.
and dry regions, where evaporation is high, Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea
the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/oo. due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean See the atlas to find out the rivers joining
is mainly due to its shape and larger areal Black Sea.
extent. Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo The average salinity of the Indian Ocean
on the western parts of the northern hemisphere is 35 o/oo. The low salinity trend is observed
because of the influx of melted water from the in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river
Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20° water. On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows
south, it decreases to 33 o/oo . higher salinity due to high evaporation and
The average salinity of the Atlantic low influx of fresh water. Figure 13.5 shows
Ocean is around 36 o/oo. The highest salinity the salinity of the World’s oceans.
is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
Maximum salinity (37 o / oo ) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W. Salinity changes with depth, but the way it
It gradually decreases towards the north. changes depends upon the location of the
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120º 60º 60º 120º
120º 60º 60º 120º
Figure13.5 : Surface salinity of the World’s Oceans
sea. Salinity at the surface increases by the the higher salinity dense water. Salinity,
loss of water to ice or evaporation, or generally, increases with depth and there is a
decreased by the input of fresh waters, such distinct zone called the halocline, where
as from the rivers. Salinity at depth is very salinity increases sharply. Other factors being
much fixed, because there is no way that constant, increasing salinity of seawater
water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’ There is causes its density to increase. High salinity
a marked difference in the salinity between seawater, generally, sinks below the lower
the surface zones and the deep zones of the salinity water. This leads to stratification by
oceans. The lower salinity water rests above salinity.
EXERCISES

(i) Identify the element which is not a part of the hydrological cycle
(a) Evaporation (c) Precipitation
(b) Hydration (d) Condensation
(ii) The average depth of continental slope varies between
(a) 2-20m (c) 20-200m
(b) 200-2,000m (d) 2,000-20,000m
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WATER (OCEANS) 115
(iii) Which one of the following is not a minor relief feature in the oceans:
(a) Seamount (c) Oceanic Deep
(b) Atoll (d) Guyot
(iv) Salinity is expressed as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in sea
water per
(a) 10 gm (c) 100 gm
(b) 1,000 gm (d) 10,000 gm
(v) Which one of the following is the smallest ocean:
(a) Indian Ocean (c) Atlantic Ocean
(b) Arctic Ocean (d) Pacific Ocean
(i) Why do we call the earth a Blue Planet?
(ii) What is a continental margin?
(iii) List out the deepest trenches of various oceans.
(iv) What is a thermocline?
(v) When you move into the ocean what thermal layers would you encounter?
Why the temperature varies with depth?
(vi) What is salinity of sea water?
(i) How are various elements of the hydrological cycle interrelated?
(ii) Examine the factors that influence the temperature distribution of the
oceans.
Project Work
(i) Consult the atlas and show ocean floor relief on the outline of the world
map.
(ii) Identify the areas of mid oceanic ridges from the Indian Ocean.
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CHAPTER
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
T
he ocean water is dynamic. Its physical wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks. The
characteristics like temperature, largest waves are found in the open oceans.
salinity, density and the external Waves continue to grow larger as they move
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds and absorb energy from the wind.
influence the movement of ocean water. The Most of the waves are caused by the wind
horizontal and vertical motions are common driving against water. When a breeze of two
in ocean water bodies. The horizontal motion knots or less blows over calm water, small
refers to the ocean currents and waves. The ripples form and grow as the wind speed
vertical motion refers to tides. Ocean currents increases until white caps appear in the
are the continuous flow of huge amount of breaking waves. Waves may travel thousands
water in a definite direction while the waves of km before rolling ashore, breaking and
are the horizontal motion of water. Water moves dissolving as surf.
ahead from one place to another through ocean A wave’s size and shape reveal its origin.
currents while the water in the waves does not Steep waves are fairly young ones and are
move, but the wave trains move ahead. The probably formed by local wind. Slow and
vertical motion refers to the rise and fall of water steady waves originate from far away places,
in the oceans and seas. Due to attraction of possibly from another hemisphere. The
the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised maximum wave height is determined by the
up and falls down twice a day. The upwelling strength of the wind, i.e. how long it blows and
of cold water from subsurface and the sinking the area over which it blows in a single direction.
of surface water are also forms of vertical Waves travel because wind pushes the
motion of ocean water. water body in its course while gravity pulls the
crests of the waves downward. The falling water
WAVES pushes the former troughs upward, and the
Waves are actually the energy, not the water
as such, which moves across the ocean surface.
Water particles only travel in a small circle as a
wave passes. Wind provides energy to the
waves. Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean
and the energy is released on shorelines. The
motion of the surface water seldom affects the
stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans. As
a wave approaches the beach, it slows down.
This is due to the friction occurring between
the dynamic water and the sea floor. And, when
the depth of water is less than half the Figure14.1 : Motion of waves and water molecules
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MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER 117
wave moves to a new position (Figure 14.1). is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force
The actual motion of the water beneath the causes tidal bulge on the other side (Figure
waves is circular. It indicates that things are 14.2).
carried up and forward as the wave The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference
approaches, and down and back as it passes. between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational
attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
Characteristics of Waves On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon,
Wave crest and trough : The highest and pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater
lowest points of a wave are called the crest than the centrifugal force, and so there is a net
and trough respectively. force causing a bulge towards the moon. On
Wave height : It is the vertical distance the opposite side of the earth, the attractive
from the bottom of a trough to the top of force is less, as it is farther away from the moon,
a crest of a wave. the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there
Wave amplitude : It is one-half of the wave is a net force away from the moon. It creates
height. the second bulge away from the moon. On the
Wave period : It is merely the time interval surface of the earth, the horizontal tide
between two successive wave crests or generating forces are more important than the
troughs as they pass a fixed point. vertical forces in generating the tidal bulges.
Wavelength : It is the horizontal distance
between two successive crests.
Wave speed : It is the rate at which the
wave moves through the water, and is
measured in knots.
Wave frequency : It is the number of waves
passing a given point during a one-
second time interval.
TIDES
The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once
or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of
the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
Movement of water caused by meteorological
effects (winds and atmospheric pressure
changes) are called surges. Surges are not
regular like tides. The study of tides is very
complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great
variations in frequency, magnitude and height. Figure14.2 : Relation between gravitational
The moon’s gravitational pull to a great forces and tides
extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s
gravitational pull, are the major causes for the The tidal bulges on wide continental
occurrence of tides. Another factor is centrifugal shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges
force, which is the force that acts to counter hit the mid-oceanic islands they become low.
balance the gravity. Together, the gravitational The shape of bays and estuaries along a
pull and the centrifugal force are responsible coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides.
for creating the two major tidal bulges on the Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal
earth. On the side of the earth facing the moon, magnitudes. When the tide is channelled
a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side between islands or into bays and estuaries
though the gravitational attraction of the moon they are called tidal currents.
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Spring tides : The position of both the sun and

Tides of Bay of Fundy, Canada
the moon in relation to the earth has direct
The highest tides in the world occur in bearing on tide height. When the sun, the moon
the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, Canada. and the earth are in a straight line, the height
The tidal bulge is 15 - 16 m. Because of the tide will be higher. These are called spring
there are two high tides and two low tides tides and they occur twice a month, one on
every day (roughly a 24 hour period); then full moon period and another during new moon
a tide must come in within about a six period.
hour period. As a rough estimate, the tide
rises about 240 cm an hour (1,440 cm Neap tides : Normally, there is a seven day
divided by 6 hours). If you have walked interval between the spring tides and neap
down a beach with a steep cliff alongside tides. At this time the sun and moon are at
(which is common there), make sure you
right angles to each other and the forces of the
watch the tides. If you walk for about an
sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
hour and then notice that the tide is
The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice
coming in, the water will be over your
as strong as the sun’s, is diminished by the
head before you get back to where you
started!
counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational
pull.
Once in a month, when the moon’s orbit is
Types of Tides closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and and low tides occur. During this time the tidal
movement from place to place and also from range is greater than normal. Two weeks later,
time to time. Tides may be grouped into various when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee),
types based on their frequency of occurrence the moon’s gravitational force is limited and
in one day or 24 hours or based on their height. the tidal ranges are less than their average
heights.
Tides based on Frequency When the earth is closest to the sun
(perihelion), around 3rd January each year,
Semi-diurnal tide : The most common tidal tidal ranges are also much greater, with
pattern, featuring two high tides and two low unusually high and unusually low tides. When
tides each day. The successive high or low tides the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion),
are approximately of the same height. around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are
much less than average.
Diurnal tide : There is only one high tide and The time between the high tide and low tide,
one low tide during each day. The successive when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
high and low tides are approximately of the The time between the low tide and high tide,
same height. when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.
Mixed tide : Tides having variations in height
are known as mixed tides. These tides generally Importance of Tides
occur along the west coast of North America Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun
and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean. positions which are known accurately, the
tides can be predicted well in advance. This
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth helps the navigators and fishermen plan their
Positions activities. Tidal flows are of great importance
The height of rising water (high tide) varies in navigation. Tidal heights are very important,
appreciably depending upon the position of especially harbours near rivers and within
sun and moon with respect to the earth. estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance,
Spring tides and neap tides come under this which prevent ships and boats from entering
category. into the harbour. Tides are also helpful in
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desilting the sediments and in removing Differences in water density affect vertical
polluted water from river estuaries. Tides are mobility of ocean currents. Water with high
used to generate electrical power (in Canada, salinity is denser than water with low salinity
France, Russia, and China). A 3 MW tidal and in the same way cold water is denser than
power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans warm water. Denser water tends to sink, while
of West Bengal is under way. relatively lighter water tends to rise. Cold-water
ocean currents occur when the cold water at
OCEAN CURRENTS the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the
equator. Warm-water currents travel out from
Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. the equator along the surface, flowing towards
They represent a regular volume of water in a the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
definite path and direction. Ocean currents are
influenced by two types of forces namely :
(i) primary forces that initiate the movement of Types of Ocean Currents
water; (ii) secondary forces that influence the The ocean currents may be classified based on
currents to flow. their depth as surface currents and deep water
The primary forces that influence the currents : (i) surface currents constitute about
currents are: (i) heating by solar energy; 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these
(ii) wind; (iii) gravity; (iv) coriolis force. Heating waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
by solar energy causes the water to expand. (ii) deep water currents make up the other 90
That is why, near the equator the ocean water per cent of the ocean water. These waters move
is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle around the ocean basins due to variations in
latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient the density and gravity. Deep waters sink into
and water tends to flow down the slope. Wind the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where
blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the the temperatures are cold enough to cause the
water to move. Friction between the wind and density to increase.
the water surface affects the movement of the Ocean currents can also be classified
water body in its course. Gravity tends to pull based on temperature : as cold currents and
the water down the pile and create gradient warm currents: (i) cold currents bring cold
variation. The Coriolis force intervenes and water into warm water areas. These currents
causes the water to move to the right in the are usually found on the west coast of the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the continents in the low and middle latitudes
southern hemisphere. These large accumulations (true in both hemispheres) and on the east
of water and the flow around them are called coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern
Gyres. These produce large circular currents Hemisphere; (ii) warm currents bring warm
in all the ocean basins. water into cold water areas and are usually
observed on the east coast of continents in the
Characteristics of Ocean Currents low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere
Currents are referred to by their “drift”. they are found on the west coasts of continents
Usually, the currents are strongest near in high latitudes.
the surface and may attain speeds over
five knots. At depths, currents are Major Ocean Currents
generally slow with speeds less than 0.5
knots. We refer to the speed of a current Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by
as its “drift.” Drift is measured in terms the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
of knots. The strength of a current refers coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern
to the speed of the current. A fast current
roughly corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric
is considered strong. A current is usually
circulation pattern. The air circulation over the
oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
strongest at the surface and decreases
anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern
in strength (speed) with depth. Most
hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere).
currents have speeds less than or equal
The oceanic circulation pattern also
to 5 knots.
corresponds with the same. At higher latitudes,
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Fig.14.3 : Major currents in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans
where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the Effects of Ocean Currents
oceanic circulation follows this pattern. In
Ocean currents have a number of direct and
regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the
indirect influences on human activities. West
monsoon winds influence the current
coasts of the continents in tropical and
movements. Due to the coriolis force, the warm
subtropical latitudes (except close to the
currents from low latitudes tend to move to the
equator) are bordered by cool waters. Their
right in the northern hemisphere and to their
average temperatures are relatively low with a
left in the southern hemisphere.
narrow diurnal and annual ranges. There is
The oceanic circulation transports heat
fog, but generally the areas are arid. West coasts
from one latitude belt to another in a manner
of the continents in the middle and higher
similar to the heat transported by the general
latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
circulation of the atmosphere. The cold waters
cause a distinct marine climate. They are
of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards
characterised by cool summers and relatively
warmer water in tropical and equatorial
mild winters with a narrow annual range of
regions, while the warm waters of the lower
temperatures. Warm currents flow parallel to
latitudes move polewards. The major currents
the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
in the different oceans are shown in Figure14.3.
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and
rainy climates. These areas lie in the western
Prepare a list of currents which are margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones. The
found in Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
mixing of warm and cold currents help to
Oceans.
replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
How is the movement of currents
planktons, the primary food for fish population.
influenced by prevailing winds? Give
The best fishing grounds of the world exist
some examples from Figure14.3.
mainly in these mixing zones.
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EXERCISES

(i) Upward and downward movement of ocean water is known as the :
(a) tide (c) wave
(b) current (d) none of the above
(ii) Spring tides are caused :
(a) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the same direction.
(b) As result of the moon and the sun pulling the earth gravitationally
in the opposite direction.
(c) Indention in the coast line.
(d) None of the above.
(iii) The distance between the earth and the moon is minimum when the moon
is in :
(a) Aphelion (c) Perihelion
(b) Perigee (d) Apogee
(iv) The earth reaches its perihelion in:
(a) October (c) July
(b) September (d) January
(i) What are waves?
(ii) Where do waves in the ocean get their energy from?
(iii) What are tides?
(iv) How are tides caused?
(v) How are tides related to navigation?
(i) How do currents affect the temperature? How does it affect the temperature
of coastal areas in the N. W. Europe?
(ii) What are the causes of currents?
Project Work
(i) Visit a lake or a pond and observe the movement of waves. Throw a stone
and notice how waves are generated.
(ii) Take a globe and a map showing the currents of the oceans. Discuss why
certain currents are warm or cold and why they deflect in certain places
and examine the reasons.
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UNIT
VI
LIFE O N THE EARTH

• Biosphere — importance of plants and other organisms;
ecosystems, bio-geo chemical cycle and ecological balance;
biodiversity and conservation
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CH A P T ER
LIFE ON THE EARTH
B
y now you might have realised that all E COLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
diversity of life-forms is maintained to bring a
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
Life on the earth is found almost components goes on.
everywhere. Living organisms are found The interactions of a particular group of
from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
from under the sea to underground water
and air, are called ecological systems.
lying below the earth’s surface.
The term ecology is derived from the Greek

organisms that live on the planet earth and their word ‘oikos’ meaning ‘house’, combined
interactions with the surrounding environment. with the word ‘logy’ meaning the ‘science
Most of the organisms exist on the lithosphere of’ or ‘the study of ’. Literally, ecology is
and/or the hydrosphere as well as in the the study of the earth as a ‘household’,
atmosphere. There are also many organisms of plants, human beings, animals and
micro-organisms. They all live together
that move freely from one realm to the other.
as interdependent components. A
The biosphere and its components are very German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who
significant elements of the environment. These used the term as ‘oekologie’ in 1869,
elements interact with other components of the became the first person to use the term
natural landscape such as land, water and ‘ecology’. The study of interactions
soil. They are also influenced by the between life forms (biotic) and the
atmospheric elements such as the temperature, physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology. Hence, ecology can be
rainfall, moisture and sunlight. The
defined as a scientific study of the
interactions of biosphere with land, air and interactions of organisms with their
water are important to the growth, physical environment and with each other.
development and evolution of the organism.
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A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, the consumers (primary,
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial secondary, tertiary) and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
species interacting within specific conditions. that feed also on carnivores are known as top
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
and soil conditions. Some of the major biomes Decomposers are those that feed on dead
of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and organisms (for example, scavengers like
tundra biomes. Aquatic ecosystems can be vultures and crows), and further breaking
classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
Figure 15.1 : Structure and functions of ecosystems
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LIFE ON THE EARTH 125
The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only
paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain. portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers These flows show variations in different parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
interlocked with one another. This inter- of chemical components. This balance of the
connecting network of species is known as food chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic
web. Generally, two types of food-chains are passage through the tissues of plants and
recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the
food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers at the last level, decomposition. These cycles are largely
with the herbivores being at the intermediate energised by solar insolation. These cyclic
level. There is a loss of energy at each level movements of chemical elements of the
which may be through respiration, excretion biosphere between the organism and the
or decomposition. The levels involved in a food- environment are referred to as biogeochemical
chain range between three to five and energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and geo
is lost at each level. A detritus food-chain is to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
based on autotrophs energy capture initiated There are two types of biogeochemical
by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earth’s crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
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Table 15.1 : World Biomes

Climatic
Biomes Subtypes Regions Soil Flora and Fauna
Characteristics
Forest A. Tropical A1. 10° N-S A1. Temp. 20-25°C, A1. Acidic, A1. M u l t i - l a y e r e d
1. Equatorial A2. 10°- 25° N-S evenly distributed poor in canopy tall and
2. Deciduous B. Eastern North A2. Temp. 25-30°C, nutrients large trees
B. Temperate America, N.E. Rainfall, ave. ann. A2. Rich in A2. Less dense, trees
C. Boreal Asia, Western 1,000mm, seasonal nutrients of medium height;
and Central B. Temp. 20-30° C, B. Fertile, many varieties co-
Europe Rainfall evenly en-riched exist. Insects,
C. Broad belt of distributed 750- with bats, birds and
Eurasia and 1,500mm, Well- decaying mammals are
North America defined seasons litter common species
(parts of and distinct winter. C. Acidic and in both
Siberia, C. Short moist moder- poor in B. Moderately dense
Alaska, ately warm nutrients, broad leaved trees.
Canada and summers and long thin soil With less diversity
Scandinavia) cold dry winter; cover of plant species.
very low Oak, Beach, Maple
temperatures. etc. are some
Precipitation mostly common species.
snowfall Squirrels, rabbits,
400 -1,000mm skunks, birds,
black bears,
mountain lions etc.
C. Evergreen conifers
like pine, fur and
spruce etc. Wood
peckers, hawks,
bears, wolves,
deer, hares and
bats are common
animals
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38°C. nutrients with tation; few large
B. Semi arid Marusthali, C. 15 - 35°C. little or no mammals,
desert Rub-el-Khali D. 2 - 25°C organic matter insects, reptiles
C. Coastal B. Marginal areas A-D Rainfall is less than and birds
desert of hot deserts 50 mm D. Rabbits, rats,
D. Cold desert C. Atacama antelopes
D. Tundra climatic and ground
regions squirrels
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,
America and cold winter. lated soil, leopards, hyenas,
India Rainfall 500 - rich in bases elephants, mice,
B. P a r t s of 900 mm moles, snakes
Eurasia and and worms etc.,
North America are common
animals
B. Grasses; occ-
asional trees
such as cotton-
woods, oaks and
willows; gazelles,
zebras, rhin-
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oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B. Water, tidal varieties of water
reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
Altitudinal ——— Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living
organisms. It forms the basic constituent of
all the organic compounds. The biosphere
contains over half a million carbon compounds
in them. The carbon cycle is mainly the
conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion
is initiated by the fixation of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
Such conversion results in the production of
carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted
to other organic compounds such as sucrose,
starch, cellulose, etc. Here, some of the
carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant Figure 15.2 : Carbon Cycle
itself. During this process, more carbon dioxide
The Oxygen Cycle
is generated and is released through its leaves
or roots during the day. The remaining Oxygen is the main by-product of
carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation
become part of the plant tissue. Plant tissues of carbohydrates with the release of energy,
are either being eaten by the herbivorous carbon dioxide and water. The cycling of
animals or get decomposed by the micro- oxygen is a highly complex process. Oxygen
organisms. The herbivores convert some of the occurs in a number of chemical forms and
consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide combinations. It combines with nitrogen to
for release into the air through respiration. The form nitrates and with many other minerals
micro-organisms decompose the remaining and elements to form various oxides such as
carbohydrates after the animal dies. The the iron oxide, aluminium oxide and others.
carbohydrates that are decomposed by the Much of oxygen is produced from the
micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon decomposition of water molecules by sunlight
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during photosynthesis and is released in the Other Mineral Cycles

atmosphere through transpiration and
Other than carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and
respiration processes of plants.
hydrogen being the principal geochemical
components of the biosphere, many other
The Nitrogen Cycle
minerals also occur as critical nutrients for
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the plant and animal life. These mineral elements
atmosphere comprising about seventy-eight required by living organisms are obtained
per cent of the atmospheric gases. It is also an initially from inorganic sources such as
essential constituent of different organic phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and potassium.
compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil
acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments. Only water or lakes, streams and seas. Mineral salts
a few types of organisms like certain species of come directly from the earth’s crust by
soil bacteria and blue green algae are capable weathering where the soluble salts enter the
of utilising it directly in its gaseous form. water cycle, eventually reaching the sea. Other
Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is salts are returned to the earth’s surface through
fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is sedimentation, and after weathering, they again
biological. The principal source of free nitrogen enter the cycle. All living organisms fulfill their
is the action of soil micro-organisms and mineral requirements from mineral solutions
associated plant roots on atmospheric nitrogen in their environments. Other animals receive
found in pore spaces of the soil. Nitrogen can their mineral needs from the plants and animals
also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and they consume. After the death of living
cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine organisms, the minerals are returned to the soil
animals can fix it. After atmospheric nitrogen and water through decomposition and flow.
has been fixed into an available form, green
plants can assimilate it. Herbivorous animals Ecological Balance
feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.
Ecological balance is a state of dynamic
Dead plants and animals, excretion of
equilibrium within a community of organisms
nitrogenous wastes are converted into nitrites
in a habitat or ecosystem. It can happen when
by the action of bacteria present in the soil.
the diversity of the living organisms remains
Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into
relatively stable. Gradual changes do take
nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
place but that happens only through natural
There are still other types of bacteria capable
succession. It can also be explained as a stable
of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a
balance in the numbers of each species in an
process known as denitrification (Figure 15.3).
ecosystem. This occurs through competition
and cooperation between different organisms
where population remains stable. This balance
is brought about by the fact that certain species
compete with one another determined by the
environment in which they grow. This balance
is also attained by the fact that some species
depend on others for their food and
sustenance. Such accounts are encountered
in vast grasslands where the herbivorous
animals (deer, zebras, buffaloes, etc.) are found
in plenty. On the other hand, the carnivorous
animals (tigers, lions, etc.) that are not usually
in large numbers, hunt and feed on the
herbivores, thereby controlling their
population. In the plants, any disturbance in
the native forests such as clearing the forest
Figure 15.3 : Nitrogen Cycle for shifting cultivation usually brings about a
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change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
EXERCISES

(i) Which one of the following is included in biosphere?
(a) only plants (c) only animals
(b) all living and non-living organisms (d) all living organisms
(ii) Tropical grasslands are also known as :
(a) the prairies (c) the steppes
(b) the savannas (d) none of the above
(iii) Oxygen combines with iron found in the rocks to form :
(a) iron carbonate (c) iron oxides
(b) iron nitrites (d) iron sulphate
(iv) During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide combines with water in the
presence of sunlight to form :
(a) proteins (c) carbohydrates
(b) amino acids (d) vitamins
(i) What do you understand by the term ‘ecology’?
(ii) What is an ecological system? Identify the major types of ecosystems in
the world.
(iii) What is a food-chain? Give one example of a grazing food-chain identifying
the various levels.
(iv) What do you understand by the term ‘food web’? Give examples.
(v) What is a biome?
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(i) What are bio-geochemical cycles? Explain how nitrogen is fixed in the
atmosphere.
(ii) What is an ecological balance? Discuss the important measures needed
to prevent ecological imbalances.
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
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CHAPTER
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Y
ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is
geomorphic processes particularly not found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
of biodiversity. form. It relates to the variability among living
organisms on the earth, including the
Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
supported more biodiversity than in any
of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary
other period. Since, the emergence of
history.
humans, however, biodiversity has begun
a rapid decline, with one species after Biodiversity can be discussed at three
another bearing the brunt of extinction levels : (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
due to overuse. The number of species (iii) Ecosystem diversity.
globally vary from 2 million to 100 million,
with 10 million being the best estimate. Genetic Diversity
New species are regularly discovered
most of which are yet to be classified (an Genes are the basic building blocks of various
estimate states that about 40 per cent of life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the
fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
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Species Diversity ecosystem evolves and sustains without any

reason. That means, every organism, besides
This refers to the variety of species. It relates to
extracting its needs, also contributes something
the number of species in a defined area. The
of useful to other organisms. Can you think of
diversity of species can be measured through
the way we, humans contribute to the
its richness, abundance and types. Some areas
sustenance of ecosystems. Species capture
are more rich in species than others. Areas rich
and store energy, produce and decompose
in species diversity are called hotspots of
organic materials, help to cycle water and
diversity (Figure 16.5).
nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix
atmospheric gases and help regulate the
Ecosystem Diversity
climate. These functions are important for
You have studied about the ecosystem in the ecosystem function and human survival. The
earlier chapter. The broad differences between more diverse an ecosystem, better are the
ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats chances for the species to survive through
and ecological processes occurring within each adversities and attacks, and consequently, is
ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem more productive. Hence, the loss of species
diversity. The ‘boundaries’ of communities would decrease the ability of the system to
(associations of species) and ecosystems are not maintain itself. Just like a species with a high
very rigidly defined. Thus, the demarcation of genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high
ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex. biodiversity may have a greater chance of
adapting to environmental change. In other
words, the more the variety of species in an
ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is
likely to be.
Economic Role of Biodiversity

For all humans, biodiversity is an important
resource in their day-to-day life. One important
part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is
also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is
seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn
upon for the manufacture of food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. This
Figure 16.1 : Grasslands and sholas in Indira Gandhi
National Park, Annamalai, Western Ghats — an concept of biological resources is responsible
example of ecosystem diversity for the deterioration of biodiversity. At the same
time, it is also the origin of new conflicts dealing
Importance of Biodiversity with rules of division and appropriation of
natural resources. Some of the important
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to economic commodities that biodiversity
the development of human culture and, in supplies to humankind are: food
turn, human communities have played a major crops, livestock, forests, fish, medicinal
role in shaping the diversity of nature at the resources, etc.
genetic, species and ecological levels.
Biodiversity plays the following roles: Scientific Role of Biodiversity
ecological, economic and scientific.
Biodiversity is important because each species
Ecological Role of Biodiversity can give us some clue as to how life evolved
and will continue to evolve. Biodiversity also
Species of many kinds perform some function helps in understanding how life functions and
or the other in an ecosystem. Nothing in an the role of each species in sustaining
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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 133
ecosystems of which we are also a species. The International Union of Conservation

This fact must be drawn upon every one of of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
us so that we live and let other species also classified the threatened species of plants and
live their lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large
population. As these tropical rain forests
contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda — an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
Vulnerable Species
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
Natural calamities such as earthquakes, This includes the species which are likely to
floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, be in danger of extinction in near future if the
droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and factors threatening to their extinction continue.
fauna of the earth, bringing change the Survival of these species is not assured as their
biodiversity of respective affected regions. population has reduced greatly.
Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy Rare Species
the weak and sensitive species. Species which Population of these species is very small in the
are not the natural inhabitants of the local world; they are confined to limited areas or
habitat but are introduced into the system, are
thinly scattered over a wider area.
called exotic species. There are many
examples when a natural biotic community of
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
the ecosystem suffered extensive damage
because of the introduction of exotic species. Biodiversity is important for human existence.
During the last few decades, some animals like All forms of life are so closely interlinked that
tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in
and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers the others. If species of plants and animals
for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted become endangered, they cause degradation
in the rendering of certain types of organisms in the environment, which may threaten
as endangered category. human being’s own existence.
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(iv) Each country should identify habitats

of wild relatives and ensure their
protection.
(v) Habitats where species feed, breed, rest
and nurse their young should be
safeguarded and protected.
(vi) International trade in wild plants and
animals be regulated.
To protect, preserve and propagate the
variety of species within natural boundaries,
the Government of India passed the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972, under which national
parks and sanctuaries were established and
biosphere reserves declared. Details of these
Figure 16.4 : Humbodtia decurrens Bedd — highly rare biosphere reserves are given in the book India:
endemic tree of Southern Western Ghats (India) Physical Environment (NCERT, 2006).
There are some countries which are
There is an urgent need to educate people
situated in the tropical region; they possess
to adopt environment-friendly practices and
a large number of the world’s species diversity.
reorient their activities in such a way that our
They are called mega diversity centres. There
development is harmonious with other life
are 12 such countries, namely Mexico,
forms and is sustainable. There is an
Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic
increasing consciousness of the fact that such
Republic of Congo, Madagascar, China, India,
conservation with sustainable use is possible Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in which
only with the involvement and cooperation of these centres are located. In order to
local communities and individuals. For this, concentrate resources on those areas that are
the development of institutional structures at most vulnerable, the International Union for
local levels is necessary. The critical problem the Conservation of Nature and Natural
is not merely the conservation of species nor Resources (IUCN) has identified certain areas
the habitat but the continuation of process of as biodiversity hotspots (Figure 16.5).
conservation. Hotspots are defined according to their
The Government of India along with 155 vegetation. Plants are important because these
other nations have signed the Convention of determine the primary productivity of an
Biodiversity at the Earth Summit held at ecosystem. Most, but not all, of the hotspots
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world rely on species-rich ecosystems for food,
conservation strategy has suggested the firewood, cropland, and income from timber.
following steps for biodiversity conservation: In Madagascar, for example, about 85 per
(i) Efforts should be made to preserve cent of the plants and animals are found
the species that are endangered. nowhere else in the world, Other hotspots in
(ii) Prevention of extinction requires wealthy countries are facing different types
proper planning and management. of pressures. The islands of Hawaii have
(iii) Varieties of food crops, forage plants, many unique plants and animals that are
timber trees, livestock, animals and their threatened by introduced species and
wild relatives should be preserved; land development.
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BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION 135
Figure 16.5 : Some ecological ‘hotspots’ in the world
EXERCISES

(i) Conservation of biodiversity is important for :
(a) Animals (c) Plants
(b) A nimals and plants (d) A ll organisms
(ii) Threatened species are those which :
(a) threaten others
(b) Lion and tiger
(c) are abundant in number
(d) are suffering from the danger of extinction
(iii) National parks and sanctuaries are established for the purpose of :
(a) Recreation (c) Pets
(b) Hunting (d) Conservation
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(iv) Biodiversity is richer in :

(a) Tropical Regions (c) Temperate Regions
(b) Polar Regions (d) Oceans
(v) In which one of the following countries, the ‘Earth Summit’ was held?
(a) the UK (c) Brazil
(b) Mexico (d) China
2. A nswer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What is biodiversity?
(ii) What are the different levels of biodiversity?
(iii) What do you understand by ‘hotspots’?
(iv) Discuss briefly the importance of animals to human kind.
(v) What do you understand by ‘exotic species’?
3. A nswer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) What are the roles played by biodiversity in the shaping of nature?
(ii) What are the major factors that are responsible for the loss of biodiversity?
What steps are needed to prevent them?
Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
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GLOSSARY
Abiotic : Non-living thing. Usually refers to the physical and chemical components
of an organism’s environment.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate : The rate of change of temperature by an ascending or
descending airmass. If no other non-adiabatic processes (i.e. no heat enters or
leaves the system) occur (like condensation, evaporation and radiation), expansion
causes the parcel of air to cool at a set rate of 0.98° per 100 m. The opposite occurs
when a parcel of air descends in the atmosphere. The air in a descending parcel
becomes compressed. Compression causes the temperature within the parcel to
increase at a rate of 0.98° per 100 m.
Air Mass : A body of air whose temperature and humidity characteristics, acquired
in source region, remain relatively constant over a horizontal distance of hundreds
to thousands of km. Air masses develop their climatic characteristics by remaining
stationary over a source region for a number of days. Air masses are classified
according to their temperature and humidity characteristics.
Aphelion : It is the point in the Earth’s orbit when it is farthest from the sun (152.5
million km). Aphelion occurs on the 3rd or 4th of July.
Asthenosphere : Zone in the Earth’s mantle that exhibits plastic properties. Located
below the lithosphere at between 100 and 200 km.
Atmospheric Pressure : Weight of the atmosphere on a surface. At sea-level, the
average atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 mb. Pressure is measured by a device
called a barometer.
Aurora : Multicoloured lights that appear in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere)
over the polar regions and visible from locations in the middle and high latitudes.
Caused by the interaction of solar wind with oxygen and nitrogen gas in the
atmosphere. Aurora in the Northern Hemisphere are called aurora borealis and
aurora australis in the Southern Hemisphere.
Batholith : A large mass of subsurface intrusive igneous rock that has its origins
from mantle magma.
Big Bang : Theory about the origin of universe. It suggests that about 15 billion
years ago all of the matter and energy in the Universe was concentrated into an
area smaller than an atom. At this instant, matter, energy, space and time were
not existant. Then suddenly with a bang, the Universe began to expand at an
incredible rate and matter, energy, space and time came into being. As the Universe
expanded, matter began to coalesce into gas clouds, and then stars and planets.
Some scientists believe that this expansion is finite and will one day cease. After
this point in time, the Universe will begin to collapse until a Big Crunch occurs.
Biodiversity : The diversity of different species (species diversity), genetic variability
among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), and variety of ecosystems
(ecosystem diversity).
Biomass : The weight of living tissues usually measured per unit area over a
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particular time interval. Can include the dead parts of organisms like bark, hair,
and nails.
Biome : Largest recognisable assemblage of animals and plants on the Earth. The
distribution of the biomes is controlled mainly by climate.
Calcification : A dry environment soil-forming process that results in the
accumulation of calcium carbonate in surface soil layers.
Caldera Volcano : Explosive type of volcano that leaves a large circular depression.
Some of these depressions can be as large as 40 km in diameter. These volcanoes
form when wet granitic magma quickly rises to the surface of the Earth.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) : Is an artificially created gas that has become
concentrated in the Earth’s atmosphere. This very strong greenhouse gas is released
from aerosol sprays, refrigerants, and the production of fumes.
Cirrocumulus Clouds : Patchy white high altitude cloud composed of ice crystals.
Found in an altitude range from 5,000 - 18,000 m.
Cirrostratus Clouds : High altitude sheet like clouds composed of ice crystals.
These thin clouds often cover the entire sky. Found in an altitude range from
5,000 - 18,000 m.
Cold Front : A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air mass
displaces a warm air mass.
Continental Crust : Granitic portion of the Earth’s crust that makes up the
continents. Thickness of the continental crust varies between 20 - 75 km. See sial
layer.
Coriolis Force : An apparent force due to the Earth’s rotation. Causes moving
objects to be deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern hemisphere. Coriolis force does not exist on the equator. This force is
responsible for the direction of flow in meteorological phenomena like mid-latitude
cyclones, hurricanes, and anticyclones.
Cumulus Cloud : Large clouds with relatively flat bases. These are found in an
altitude range from 300 - 2,000 m.
Cumulonimbus Cloud : A well developed vertical cloud that often has top shaped
like an anvil. These clouds can extend in altitude from a few hundred m above
the surface to more than 12,000 m.
Desert Pavement : A veneer of coarse particles left on the ground after the erosion
of finer particles by wind.
Earthquake : A sudden motion or shaking in the Earth. The motion is caused by
the quick release of slowly accumulated energy in the form of seismic waves.
Earthquake Focus : Point of stress release in an earthquake (also known as
hypocentre).
Ebb Tide : Time during the tidal period when the water level in the sea is falling.
Ecosystem : A system consisting of biotic and abiotic components. Both these
groups are interrelated and interacting.
El Nino : The name given to the occasional development of warm ocean surface waters
along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. Recently this phenomenon has been used for
forecasting of climatic conditions in different parts of the world. The El Nino normally
occurs around Christmas and lasts usually for a few weeks to a few months.
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GLOSSARY 139
Epicentre : A place on the surface of the earth located at the shortest distance from
the focus of the earthquake, the point at which the seismic energy gets released.
Global Warming : Warming of the Earth’s average global temperature because of an
increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases.
Geomagnetism : A property of magnetically susceptible minerals to get aligned to
the earth’s magnetic field during the period of rock formation.
Geostrophic Wind : Horizontal wind in the upper atmosphere that moves parallel
to isobars. Results from a balance between pressure gradient force and Coriolis
force.
Greenhouse Effect : The greenhouse effect causes the atmosphere to trap more
heat energy at the Earth’s surface and within the atmosphere by absorbing and
re-emitting longwave energy.
Greenhouse Gases : Gases responsible for the greenhouse effect. These gases
include: carbon dioxide (CO2); methane (CH4); nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons
(CFC); and tropospheric ozone (O3).
Habitat : Location where a plant or animal lives.
Hail : It is a type of precipitation received in the form of ice pellets or hail stones.
The size of hailstones can be between 5 and 190 mm in diameter.
Halocline : The dinstinct zone in the ocean below which the salinity increases
sharply.
Hydration : A form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+
and OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.
Hydrolysis : Chemical weathering process that involves the reaction between mineral
ions and the ions of water (OH- and H+), and results in the decomposition of the
rock surface by forming new compounds.
Infiltration : A portion of the precipitation which reaches the earth surface seeps
into the ground in the permeable strata. This process is known as infiltration.
Insolation : Incoming solar radiation in short wave form.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) : Zone of low atmospheric pressure and
ascending air located at or near the equator. Rising air currents are due to global
wind convergence and convection from thermal heating.
Katabatic Wind : Any wind blowing down the slope of a mountain.
Land Breeze : Local thermal circulation pattern found at the interface between land
and water. In this circulation system, surface winds blow from land to water during
the night.
La Nina : Condition opposite of an El Nino. In a La Nina, the tropical Pacific trade
winds become very strong and an abnormal accumulation of cold water occurs in
the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.
Latent Heat : It is the energy required to change a substance to a higher state of
matter (solid > liquid > gas). This same energy is released from the substance
when the change of state is reversed (gas > liquid > solid).
Neap Tide : Tide that occurs every 14 - 15 days and coincides with the first and
last quarter of the moon. This tide has a small tidal range because the gravitational
forces of the moon and sun are perpendicular to each other.
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Nimbostratus Clouds : Dark, gray low altitude cloud that produces continuous
precipitation in the form of rain or snow. Found in an altitude range from the surface
to 3,000 m.
Occluded Front : A transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold air
mass sandwiches a warm air mass between another cold air mass pushing the
warm air into the upper atmosphere.
Ozone : Tri-atomic oxygen that exists in the earth’s atmosphere as a gas. Ozone is
highest in concentration in the stratosphere (10-50 km above the earth’s surface)
where it absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Stratospheric ozone is produced
naturally and helps to protect life from the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet
radiation.
Ozone Hole : It is a sharp seasonal decrease in stratospheric ozone concentration
that occurs over Antarctica in the spring. First detected in the late 1970s, the
ozone hole continues to appear as a result of complex chemical reaction in the
atmosphere that involves CFCs.
Palaeomagnetism : The alignment in terms of inclination from horizon acquired
by magnetically susceptible minerals in the rock during the period of their formation.
Photosynthesis : It is the chemical process where plants and some bacteria can
capture and organically fix the energy of the sun.
Plate Tectonics : Theory suggesting that the earth’s surface is composed of a
number of oceanic and continental plates. Driven by convection currents in the
mantle, these plates have the ability to slowly move across the earth’s plastic
asthenosphere.
Precipitation : Showering of the raindrops, snow or hailstones from the clouds
onto the surface of the earth. Rainfall, snowfall, cloud burst and hailstones are
forms of precipitation.
Runoff : It is the flow of water over land through different channels.
Solar Wind : Mass of ionised gas emitted to space by the sun. Plays a role in the
formation of auroras.
Subsurface flow : It is the movement of water below the surface of the earth. After
infiltration, the subsurface water returns to the surface through seepage into the
streams or eventually goes into the ocean. The subsurface water flow is influenced
by land slope, rainfall, intensity of groundwater extraction, etc.
Thermocline : Boundary in a body of water where the greatest vertical change in
temperature occurs. This boundary is usually the transition zone between the layer
of warm water near the surface that is mixed and the cold deep water layer.
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FUNDAMENTALS

Navjivan Trust Building

` 90.00 Publication Team

Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Cover

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that children’s

CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES AT THE HIGHER

The National Council of Educational Research and Training acknowledges the

UNIT I : GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE 1-12

UNIT II : THE EARTH 13-38

UNIT III : LANDFORMS 39-70

UNIT IV : CLIMATE 71-106

UNIT V : WATER (OCEANS) 107-121

UNIT VI : LIFE ON THE EARTH 122-136

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY (i) Geomorphology is devoted to the study

Figure 1.2 : Branches of geography based on systematic approach

(v) Political Geography looks at the space 3. Biogeography

Figure 1.3 : Branches of geography based on regional approach

1. Multiple choice questions.

1. Meteorology A. Population Geography

(a) 1B,2C,3A,4D (c) 1D,2B,3C,4A

THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION

argument. At a later date, the arguments

The Star Formation

Distance* 0.387 0.723 1.000 1.524 5.203 9.539 19.182 30.058

Density@ 5.44 5.245 5.517 3.945 1.33 0.70 1.17 1.66

Radius# 0.383 0.949 1.000 0.533 11.19 9.460 4.11 3.88

Satellites 0 0 1 2 about 53 about 53 about 27 13

became a dumb-bell-shaped body and started getting separated depending on their

Geological Time Scale

Origin of Life inanimate matter into living substance. The

1. Multiple choice questions.

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

(iii) What is meant by the process of differentiation?

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

Indirect Sources information about the interior of the earth.

Emergence of Shadow Zone

(v) The earthquakes that occur in the areas

Frequency of Earthquake Occurrences STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

been released out in the recent past. The layer

its way to the surface during volcanic Shield Volcanoes

VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Composite Volcanoes These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.

Flood Basalt Provinces

Batholiths conduit from below. It resembles the surface

Activity : Locating an Epicentre

For this you will need

1. Multiple choice questions.

2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.

mountain ranges as well as deep trenches, Abyssal Plains

Figure 4. 2 : Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes

Figure 4. 3 : Sea floor spreading

think about the consumption of the oceanic PLATE TECTONICS

The motions of the continents during the past 540

Figure 4.4 : Position of continents through geological past

concept termed Plate Tectonics. A tectonic I Antarctica and the surrounding

Figure 4.5 : Major and minor plates of the world

(v) Caroline plate : Between the Philippine Transform Boundaries

this idea in the 1930s, which later influenced

MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE