T

Taboo embarrassment within a given social group. This

is likely only part of the story, since most taboo
Morgan Stebbins subjects that are not abhorrent carry an edge of
Faculty of the New York C.G. Jung Foundation, allure or even excitement in the right circum-
New York, NY, USA stances, bringing the concept closer to the
Tongan sense. Furthermore, there are relatively
few things that appear to be repugnant in all
Something that is taboo is so powerful that it must societies, these being confined to corpses and
be approached only with the proper attitude and incest (and even here, there is some disagree-
training or not at all. The concept of taboo derives ment). So most things that are taboo in one
from the Tongan tapu or the Fijian tabu. group or society are not taboo in another,
In both cultures it carries a double meaning: it showing that something about the dynamic of
refers to what is both sacred and forbidden. the taboo must be more important than the
That is, it indicates that which is so powerful that particular item, topic, or action (Durkheim 1912).
it is dangerous unless treated the right way, or by Evolutionary biologists suggest that
the right person, under the right circumstances. In taboos originated from a hardwired repulsion of
original usage, taboo could refer to certain foods, disease vectors (in the case of the dead) or social
to bodies of the deceased, to the resting places of bonding habits (in the case of patricide); how-
powerful spirits, to tribal rulers and to warriors ever, this explanation does little to explain the
who have slain others, and often to women’s men- multiplicity and richness of the concept as it is
strual periods, as well as even mentioning some of found in practice or in its religious formulation
the above in conversation (Frazer 1990). Thus, we (Pinker 1997).
see that it can apply to words, objects, actions, and Sigmund Freud noticed a similarity
concepts (including metaphysical actors such as between obsessive states and the descriptions
divinities) and also that there is a temporal aspect; of taboo. This connection shows that taboos
for instance in some warrior cultures we find can be understood as “a psychological condi-
a taboo on sex but only before battle. In many tion that prevails in the unconscious” and
religious traditions, the complex mythopoeic indi- states that the only two “universal” taboos
cations combined in the term taboo have been are that of incest and patricide which formed
differentiated into the categories of sacred, the eventual basis of modern society. This
protected, holy, ritual, and sin. conception is not far from the biological and
Social usage indicates that a taboo action or again does not account for the liminal quality
conversation is likely to cause shame or of the concept.

D.A. Leeming (ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2,

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
T 1774 Taboo

Freud continues with his classic statement pressing for a change in conscious attitude.
about taboo, one which has helped shape Rather than holding this change at bay, if it is
a generation of understanding: instead possible to be informed by the images that
Taboos, we must suppose, are prohibitions of
arise (i.e., the symbolic form of the symptoms),
primeval antiquity which were at some time exter- then the invasion could be completed on its own
nally imposed upon a generation of primitive men; terms, and the conscious mind would break free
they must, that is to say, no doubt have been of the inertia and move forward.
impressed on them violently by the previous
generation. These prohibitions must have
A similar situation is detailed in the poetry of
concerned activities towards which there was Hölderlin – this theme can be seen as central to
a strong inclination. They must then have persisted the theme of the German aesthetic philosophers
from generation to generation, perhaps merely as in general from Kant to Goethe and Schiller and
a result of tradition transmitted through parental
and social authority (Freud 1998).
which is now seeing a resurgence in, of all
places, the post-Lacanian work of Slavoj
So, for Freud, the incest taboo keeps the Zizek – particularly in his increasing estrange-
subject from doing the abhorrent, and so a more ment from reality. “The god/Is near and hard to
refined outlet must be found through the process grasp/But where there is danger/A rescuing
of sublimation. element grows as well” (Hölderlin 2004). This
Jung’s view of taboo (and especially the incest indicates that regression is an involuntary intro-
taboo) is typically prospective, psychological, version, of which depression is an unconscious
and serves to uncover progressively more subtle compensation. The psychological task, in this
layers of process. On one hand, it does not settle case, is to make the introversion voluntary, both
the question, but on the other, it allows for activating the imaginal realm of the mind and
the mystery, the social importance, the allure, lifting the depression (since it has gotten what it
the horror and the psychological complexity, was after). Jung uses psychological material as
and importance of taboo. Taboo indicates, after well as Holderlin’s poems to illustrate that regres-
all, that which we are inexplicably drawn to and sion is actually a link with primal material. This
repulsed from at the same time and in certain primal material contains both the energy that is
meaningful ways. dammed up and the specific form of a new
Concepts and impulses that arise from the conscious attitude. However, both of these must
unknown, regardless of the term used for that be assimilated by the conscious mind lest the
other place, are dangerous. Religious symbolic primal material keeps its chaotic form and pro-
systems, including the forms and laws of the duce disorientation or even, in severe cases,
church arise due to the desire of the human schizophrenia.
subject to avoid revelatory contact with these This very regression, being dangerous to the
unconscious forces. Because of this, from ancient conscious mind as well as social norms, is the
times to the present, societies construct ritual and subject of taboo. However, it is clear that the
taboo to protect them from the uncanny voices of object of desire is rebirth, not (as in Freud’s
dreams and the content of the unconscious in literalist interpretation) incestuous cohabitation.
general (Jung 1960). In this conception, incest refers to the draw
For Jung, the pressure to make some personal towards, and horror of, immersion in the uncon-
psychological change is an automatic response to scious as the source of the conscious subject.
something in the psyche being stuck, like water The incest taboo indicates the danger of this
building up behind an obstruction in a stream. In regression, and religion aids in systematizing
cases of stuckness, or libidinal obstruction the canalization (or routine, even automatic use)
(including such symptomatic descriptions such of libido into safe and socially acceptable forms.
as depression and the various neuroses), the con- Thus, symbolism and symbol formation are civ-
scious mind feels threatened by an invasion from ilizing processes at the collective level (such as
the unconscious, since the unconscious itself is found in religious traditions), whereas when the
Talmud 1775 T
symbol is engaged personally, it represents an Bibliography
individuating and internal psychological truth
(Jung 1967). Taboo can be seen as a form of Durkheim, É. (1912). The elementary forms of religious
life. New York: Free Press.
collective mediation of overwhelming uncon-
Frazer, J. (1990). Taboo and the perils of the soul. The
scious forces. However, the advent of neurotic golden bough (3rd ed., Pt. II). New York: St. Martin’s
symptoms shows that this collective mediation Press.
has broken down, such as when religion no longer Freud, S. (1998). Totem and taboo. New York: Dover.
Hölderlin, F. (2004). Patmos (trans: Mitchell, J.). San
seems to mean anything. In these cases,
Francisco: Ithuriel’s Spear.
a symbolic interaction with the taboo under care- Jung, C. G. (1960). Psychology and religion. New Haven:
fully controlled circumstances (the container of Yale University Press.
analysis, e.g.) allows the instincts to be mediated Jung, C. G. (1967). Symbols of transformation. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
in a new and personal way, resolving the neurotic
Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: W. W.
suffering. Norton.
Finally, since the canalizations or routines
surrounding symbol making and the taboo are
collective (i.e., shared by populations), we can
see that the evolutionary instinct has as its goal Talmud
the making of meaning. These instincts mani-
fest also as mythological figures born to the Mark Popovsky
unconscious. That is, it was not the incest Department of Pastoral Care, Weill Medical
taboo that forced mankind forward but rather College of Cornell, New York Presbyterian
the evolutionary instinct from which this and Hospital – Chaplaincy, New York, NY, USA
other taboos came. Certainly, the making of
meaning is most safely done in a collective
setting, such as a political or religious tradition, From the Hebrew verb “to learn,” Talmud refers
since these structures are mediating symbol to the central text in the vast corpus of rabbinic
systems that let only a small amount of the literature which serves as a repository of legal
primal libido through to an individual. When discussions, biblical exegesis, theology, philoso-
a symbol system no longer works, the individ- phy, hagiography, legend, history, science, anec-
ual must take special precautions not to become dotes, aphorisms, and humor. The Babylonian
overwhelmed by an unconscious and unmedi- Talmud was edited over several generations by
ated flood of affect and imagery. To reiterate, the rabbinic authorities of Babylonia, probably
the cultural injunction against introversion has attaining a somewhat fixed form in the sixth cen-
led, in modern times, to the rituals of the ana- tury. However, individual passages included may
lytic container (other responses to this injunc- be up to several hundred years older having been
tion occur as well, from the development of the transmitted orally prior to their inclusion in the
projection of the numinous out onto UFOs to text. A second Talmud exists, edited in the land of T
the various new age attempts to encounter the Israel during the fifth century. Know as the Jeru-
unconscious) and the methodical withdrawal of salem or Palestinian Talmud, it is smaller, more
projections as a safe way to approach the numi- opaque, and less authoritative in later legal
nous (life-giving but dangerous) core indicated debates. The term Talmud unqualified always
by the term taboo. refers to the Babylonian Talmud which is written
primarily in Aramaic though it often cites large
passages in biblical or Rabbinic Hebrew.
See Also The Talmud is structured around a second
century rabbinic document called the Mishnah or
▶ Freud, Sigmund “recitation.” Composed in terse Hebrew, the Mish-
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav nah compiles unresolved legal debates among
T 1776 Tantrism

rabbis on a wide range of subjects including wor- from surface level ambiguities or inconsistencies
ship, dietary laws, torts, family law, criminal law, in the text. Some scholars claim that Freud
agricultural practices, mourning customs, sexual fashioned elements of his therapeutic technique
mores, and holiday observance. These legal dis- from methods of traditional Talmudic analysis. In
cussions are often surrounded by related narratives modern times, the Talmud is almost always
and relevant biblical interpretations. The Mishnah printed together with the commentary of Rashi,
settles very few of the legal debates it presents and an eleventh century scholar from Provence,
frequently suggests no rationale supporting the whose glosses guide the reader through the diffi-
various opinions cited. The Talmud begins as cult text which often assumes that its readers
a commentary on the Mishnah elucidating its know the entire contents already.
cases and alternatively challenging or defending
each of its legal opinions.
While the Talmud retains its structure as See Also
a commentary on the Mishnah, it functions much
more broadly, citing new legal cases, relating ▶ Judaism and Psychology
stories about rabbinic figures, and opening moral
or theological debates unimagined by the Mishnah.
The different material included is woven together Bibliography
in a complicated arrangement that is only some-
times topical. Often, connections between Talmu- Katz, M., & Schwartz, G. (1998). Swimming in the sea of
Talmud. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of
dic passages rely on free associations or any
America.
number of other nonlinear progressions. The Tal- Rubenstein, J. L., & Cohen, S. J. D. (2002). Rabbinic
mud gives great weight to material from dreams, stories (Classics of Western Spirituality). Mahwah:
wordplay, and the exploration of fantasy. Paulist Press.
The Talmud’s primary method of expression
is debate. No legal precedent, biblical passage, or
other ostensibly authoritative statement stands
immune to challenge. Much like the psychoana- Tantrism
lytic process, rather than attempting to avoid or
resolve conflict, Talmudic discourse identifies Kathryn Madden
and even elevates disputes among principles, National Institute for the Psychotherapies,
teaching the reader to embrace discord rather New York, NY, USA
than repress it. While the Talmud rarely affirms
or rejects one opinion outright, ironically, it often
signals its preference for one opinion over Tantrism is a religious and philosophical
another by challenging the favored opinion movement appearing in India around 400 CE
more extensively. Biblical laws are almost that existed within both Hinduism and Buddhism.
never explicitly repealed, but, with some In medieval India, Tantrism was a common
frequency, problematic biblical passages are element of all the major religions. Tantrism
interpreted through Talmudic debate to be so focuses upon ritual aspects that involve the use
narrow in scope as to be practically irrelevant in of the physical in sacred and worshipful settings
contemporary society. to access the supernatural. Tantrism also can be
The Talmud is traditionally studied in pairs or traced to Jainism and Bön, and elements of Tan-
small groups, reflecting the conversational tric practice are also evident in Burma, China,
question-and-answer style of the text itself. Japan, Mongolia, and Tibet. The word Tantrism
Many have argued that the process of studying originates from the Sanskrit word Tantra:
Talmud parallels the psychoanalytic task as the
reader is directed to infer underlying conflicts
Tantrism 1777 T
which is translated variously as “weave, warp, or a profound force that manifests itself by igniting
loom,” offering a sense of bringing together or energy at the base of the spine and winding its
connecting into a whole. Tantrism is comprised way through the chakras (centers of spiritual
of numerous texts referred to as Tantras. The power in the human body of which there are
primarily philosophy and goal underlying the seven) toward the opening of the third eye – the
practice of Tantrism is that it promotes spiritual highest chakra – enlightenment. In many Tantric
growth and leads to personal freedom. forms of meditation, such as Kundalini yoga,
The concept of evolution and involution is the initiate undergoes a ritual in which he or she
central precepts. Tantric practice leads to an receives divine Shaktipat through the touch of
outgoing current of energy as well as the return a master who has achieved a level of union
of the current, which is taken back in toward the with the divine. This touch ignites the movement
source of reality rooted in the consciousness of of Shakti energy. The central object of the Tantric
the human being, revealing the pure being of the ritual, then, is to awaken kundalini energy and to
infinite. In time, with practice, the outgoing merge with the godhead. To sustain the activation
current is changed into the return current. This of this vibrant energy in meditation, tantric prac-
specific interchange is believed to release the tices focus upon the breath, or prana.
chains created by maya (the illusion of the phe- Concentrating upon the breath relinquishes the
nomenal world) and to free one from illusory practitioner from worldly distractions and
existence. Unlike the more orthodox tenets of removes obstacles from the chakras. Some tantric
the Hindu or Buddhist religions, the Tantric aim forms use mantras, incense, chanting, and singing
is to engage with rather than negate reality by to activate the breath, followed by silent
undergoing phases of purification, elevation, and meditation. Meditating upon a specific yantra (a
finally reaffirming one’s identity on the plane of geometrical diagram) or mandala (a circular fig-
pure consciousness. ure symbolizing the universe) associated with
Tantric bodily disciplines and techniques in a deity is a technique employed for the purpose
ritual settings are combined with the learning of of subjecting the body to the will. As the progres-
specific doctrine. The practitioner of Tantrism sive phases of enlightenment occur and deepen,
develops a more expansive internal awareness the experience becomes a mystical one, and the
and ideally achieves union with the divine. presence of the divinity grows ever more real as
In Hindu Tantrism, Shakti is active female energy the energies of Shakti weave their way like
and Shiva is passive, male consciousness, a double serpent around the spine, always moving
whereas in Buddhist Tantrism, Prajna is the pas- upwards. To learn these meditative practices, an
sive female element and Upaya the active, male initiate works the guru or a master teacher.
element. In the Hindu tradition, Shakti, the active Consistency in practice yields a greater response
female energy is promoted as the main deity or of the universal vibration of Shakti. If one
god worshiped and is personified as the divine achieves a state of union with the divine, often
active force. In the Tantric tradition, clearly depicted in symbol as the opening of a lotus, or as T
female energy penetrates male essence. an illumination of the third eye, then one is
The doctrine of the Tantras claims that an considered to have become the Ishta-deva or
individual practitioner can tap the interplay meditational deity. Developing the attributes of
between these two dynamic universal forces, an Ishta-deva is an important phase, for it means
internalize these energies, and apply them in one is able to visualize oneself as the deity or
life. It is believed that the human body itself is to achieve darshan and experience a vision of
a symbol of these universal energies. Sexual the deity.
union between two persons can become Tantric practices are also known for the ritual
a symbol of liberation when symbolically under- use of wine, meat, and rituals that involve
stood as the union of Shiva and Shakti or of mystical-erotic sexual practices, emphasizing
Prajna and Upaya. Shakti is also understood as the primacy of divine union. Participants were
T 1778 Tantrism

prepared in the art of controlled sexual inter- “Lovers,” who worshiped the feminine principle
course, maithuna, (L., coitus reservatus) as the source of divine energy. Eventually, Sufi
meaning sex without male orgasm. Through intri- influence predisposed European troubadours, fol-
cate training, the male partner learned to store up lowing the crusades, to found the renowned move-
his own sexual fluid and to absorb through his ment of Courtly Love. Courtly Love appeared in
penis the fluid engendered by his partner’s literature, poetry, and song for centuries until the
orgasm. This discipline prolonged the sexual act powerful patriarch that was simultaneously brand-
for an extended period of time. In this way the ing women as witches and devils condemned such
male partner became similar to Shiva, the god in activity as heterodox. Although sexual practices
perpetual union with the goddess. The conserved clearly have been an aspect of Tantric rituals,
vital fluids were to be stored in the man’s spinal ultimately the Tantras stressed sexual ritual more
column, working their way through the chakras to as a conduit to the underlying creative energies of
unfold into the inspiration of divine wisdom. the universe and were practices by a minority of
For both partners, the goal was to awaken the sects. The ritual sexual practices centered upon
kundalini energy culminated in samadhi harnessing the more mundane human impulses of
(contemplative rapture). Each of the persons was desire toward higher aims in order to replicate the
to be completely dissolved in the unity of the activity of the divine couple. The sexual acts were
godhead represented on the earthly plane by the less for pleasure and intended as an offering
energy field created by the synthesis of Shiva and toward higher aspirations. The psychological sym-
Shakti in the couple. The male linga and the female bolism of the internal male and female energies
yoni were symbolic of the generative powers of the was the major focus.
two coexisting principles of nature (White 2000).
The production of fluids represented a sacred offer-
ing to Tantric deities and was described as an Psychology
ambrosia-like nectar that permeated the entire spi-
nal cord, genitalia, and brain. Carl Jung, along with other academics and intellec-
Tantric sexual practices conflicted with tuals (Heinrich Zimmer and Mircea Eliade), exam-
orthodox Buddhism, which promoted chastity ined the Hindu and Buddhist Tantric teachings.
and, like Christianity, split the feminine principle Sigmund Freud tended to interpret all religiously
into virginal and compassionate or bodily and endowed and emotionally significant experience as
sexual opposites. Nonetheless, variations of derived from or a substitute for basic physical sex.
Tantric practices survived in both Eastern and Religious and emotional acts were equated as irra-
Western civilizations through forms of goddess tional and needed to be sublimated, modified into
worship originating from early Pythagorean and a cultural higher form. Freud’s emphasis was on the
Neoplatonic sources. Certain sects such as the biological; thus, sex was primarily a biological func-
Christian Gnostic Ophites performed Tantric tion. Unlike Freud, Jung found that there are specific
sexual rites in devotion to the symbol of the Holy commonalities between the practice of Tantrism
Spirit in the orthodox church, Sophia. The ortho- and depth psychology. Jung considered sexuality
dox church found these practices to be promiscu- itself to be a symbolic, numinous experience. Ana-
ous and completely unorthodox. Similarly, Islamic lytical psychology compliments the aims of Tan-
religious authorities condemned the Sufi sects who trism by performing a soul-seeking or soul-retrieval
worshiped the feminine principle of love, although function within a ritualized setting that invokes the
Ibn ’Arabi claimed that the most complete union divine and effects the embodiment of imaginal
possible was the sexual act between a man and transformation. This union is analogous to the
woman, which he associated as a state of bliss notion of the coincidentia oppositorum in analytical
beyond pure interior contemplation of God. psychology in which the anima and animus (non-
Thus, Sufism achieved life in sexual mysticism. gender-specific female soul and non-gender-
Sufism was kept alive by troubadours, self-named specific male soul) are united with spirit to form
Tantrism 1779 T
a whole or oneness. Additionally, the internalization the third space shared by the two persons. The
of the universal feminine principle is not unlike process of conuinctio, or divine marriage, is
internalizing the good mother through which a goal much like that of the early alchemists
a person can relate positively to a feminine princi- who projected upon matter symbolically to
ple, fleshing out and healing the wound of previous achieve transformative ends.
emptiness of this aspect of the psyche. Tantrism and Tantrism and Jungian psychology place
Jungian depth psychology offer methods for arriv- emphasis upon a temenos, a sacred container,
ing at a more complex and intimate relationship of and both emphasize the numinous and mystical
self (ego in Western psychological terms) with self. in the physical and phenomenal realm. Tantrism
The notion of self in Jungian psychology would strives toward internalization of the divine
find its analog in the Tantric notion of unity imago. Jungian theory likewise seeks this empha-
achieved through oneness with the divine sis. The notion of individuation is analogous to
feminine, in which the essence of female follows the Tantric understanding of the exchange of
the lineage of Shakti, Shiva, Sophia and currents, once internalized, flowing to and from
Courtly Love. the source with an ongoing reciprocity (ego and
Jung affirmed the nature of the opposites as self or ego-self axis in analytical terms). Just as
being bi-gendered. The anima and animus are the goddess Shakti seeks to create an imprint or
contained within each human psyche. Like the image in human form, the self of the psyche seeks
dual-serpents of kundalini energy, these twofold us, fueled by the divine source that fuels it. The
aspects must be set in motion to realize psychic divine intentionally comes into a human form.
equilibrium. The combination of these opposites Tantrism, like depth psychology, affirms the
does not depend as much upon two opposite gen- tumultuousness of the descent that the individual
ders but is based more upon the achievement of an psyche must undergo into the chthonic realm in
embodied non-dualistic consciousness. order to attain higher consciousness. Similar to
The ultimate image that guided the practitioner Tantric practice, analytical psychology under-
of Tantrism was that of a male and a female con- stands the role of the healer as one engaged in
joined in sexual intercourse. The contemplative a liturgical ritual as a priest. Depth psychology
aspect of the practice required “meditating upon presumes that the therapist, like the master in Tan-
emptiness and emanating supreme immutable trism, has sufficiently developed an element of the
bliss – a state of passionate desirelessness”(Emery divine within that enables one to guide the patient
2005, p. 6), thus, a unified divine consciousness. in bringing an element of the divine into fruition.
Analogously, the conuinctio of anima and animus Psychoanalysis, in general, mirrors Tantrism,
does not pertain to sexual gratification but repre- in that it has specific tenets such as the frame
sents an integrated expression of harmonious (time, place) and an alliance between two persons
wisdom that surpasses mundane sexual longings. comparable to the relationship between initiate
The capacity of Tantrism to comprehend the effi- and guru/master. The authority of the therapist is
cacy of the symbolic demonstrates how these early not derived solely from intellectual theory, any T
practices offer valuable tools to psychoanalysis in more than the guru’s power is a mere derivative
terms of working beyond words, a helpful factor of Tantric doctrine. Differences would be that
with preverbal patients, and dealing directly with a therapist would not consider himself to be
the essential being of the person. equated with the divine, for this would be an
Tantric sexual practices more rightly might be inflation of narcissistic grandeur. Nor does
compared to the transference between a modern a therapist intend to transform himself into
day therapist and patient, although the bodily a divinity. The guru, however, is assumed to
emphasis is transformed into emphasis upon the have achieved a non-dualistic state of being.
imaginal and the symbolic. If desire is ignited in In contrast, a therapist will struggle in an
a positive transference, it finds life in the imaginal ongoing way with various issues of countertrans-
and sacred realm of the therapeutic space and ference (individual response to what the patient
T 1780 Tantrism

induces in him or is already a vulnerable aspect of that neglected the sensation of the body, while also
the therapist’s psyche). Unlike the psychoanalyst, relegating the feminine principle to a secondary or
for whom the transference can induce potentially nonexistent status. Psychology emphasizes that
negative psychic effects, the guru remains instinct and imagination are aspects of the bodily
untouched by the initiate’s damaging energies, senses and thus necessary parts of the ritual
having attained high spiritual awareness. healing. Depth psychology, inclusive of both
Depth psychology maintains a very structured Freudian and Jungian schools of thought, arose
system of ethics comparable to Tantric doctrine. specifically as a humanistic form of healing prac-
Yet, unlike some Tantric practices in which the tice in response to the inability of medicine, theol-
priest enacted sexual practice with virgins ogy, and religion to sufficiently address many of
representing the divine goddess, a therapist the issues of the ailing person.
adheres to a completely different code of ethics. Analogous to the notion in analytical psychol-
If a therapist were to act out with a patient, this ogy that both persons in the therapeutic process
would be considered to be not only unethical, but undergo transformation, in Tantrism, the initiate
an abuse of the patient’s vulnerability in light of transfers his or her inborn self-healing potential
the therapist’s authority. Further, as the alche- to the guru. The guru, like the analyst, “holds”
mists would say, the bird has flown out of the this potential until it becomes conscious to the
vessel, meaning that such an action would patient/initiate.
entirely disrupt the growth of the patient up to Similarly, the guru assists the initiate in real-
this point and that the patient would need to begin izing images and symbols through the specified
all over again in the process of healing. preparation and purification processes. Tantrism,
The downside of removing the bodily aspect with its openness to the instincts and emotions of
from actual proximity to analytic psychology is the body, allows considerable access to potent
that the body, along with the desires (Shakti) and numinous symbols, accompanied by the psy-
aroused within certain psychotherapeutic transfer- chic energies that are freed along with making the
ences, must find a conduit in life, or these energies unconscious conscious. The Tantric mind is anal-
will go underground again like a recoiled serpent. ogous to the embodied psyche – the experience of
The separation of the body from ritual practice has the body being penetrated or infused by spirit.
promoted a split between the fields of psychology Perhaps the most essential insight is that, in
and “body work.” This split has yet to be resolved either case – imaginal or actual – desire in relation
successfully in our time. to the feminine was not despoiled in Tantric prac-
The Tantric ideals of preparation and initiation tices but offered multiple levels of conscious spir-
are equally evident in psychological practice. itual attainment through practices involving mind,
Initiation might be compared to the power of body, and psyche. In our contemporary world,
the positive or negative transference that the how do we embrace the significance of phenome-
patient transfers onto the therapist, which nal experience in relation to spirituality? Is real or
changes over time as the two persons create an imaginal affinity for the feminine figure more sig-
energy field. The individual, like the Tantric ini- nificant in the process of spiritual consciousness?
tiate, comes to the therapist/master with the pro- Tantric practice as it informs analytical
jection that the person possesses the capability of psychology suggests how feminine conscious-
changing his or her future. The very existence ness and the inclusion of the body offers
of the transference maintains a specific kind of a transformational process in spiritual growth
authority needed by the therapist to impart that effects the maturation of psychological and
“insights” comparable to the hidden truths or spiritual development. We differentiate ourselves
mysteries of the Tantras. through participation with otherness – what is
Tantrism arose historically as a movement that most opposite and other than ourselves – toward
developed in reaction against the authoritative a jouissance of being that is inclusive of spiritual
high forms of orthodox Hinduism and Buddhism embodiment.
Tara 1781 T
See Also The concepts of Yin (feminine) and Yang (mascu-
line) energies flow all through the worldview of
▶ Buddhism the Taoists. The classic text, the Tao te Ching, is
▶ Depth Psychology and Spirituality believed to have been written by the poet and
▶ Freud, Sigmund philosopher Lao Tzu. Much of Chinese culture
▶ Hinduism has been deeply influenced by these Taoist ideas,
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav including statesmanship, religion, medicine (e.g.,
acupuncture), physical exercise (Tai Chi or Qi
Gong), and even auspicious placement of build-
Bibliography ings and interior decorations (Feng Shui).
Psychologically, a Taoist perspective could be
Arthur, A. (Sir John Woodroffe). (Ed.). (1960). Principles considered to be quite counterculture in the
of Tantra (3rd ed.). Madras: Ganesh.
United States today. The emphasis on yielding,
Avalon, A. (1972). Tantra of the great liberation –
Mahanirvana Tantra. New York: Dover. for example, would be contrary to the current
Emery, L. (2005). Trans-forming Tantra: Tibetan Buddhist psychotherapeutic emphasis on assertiveness.
Tantra, imaginal western alchemy and gendered con- Among Asians, however, this Taoist outlook
sciousness. www.adolphus.nl/xcrpts/xckkrsha.html
may permeate their worldview, and the influence
Harper, K., & Brown, R. L. (Eds.). (2002). The roots of
Tantra. Albany: State University of New York Press. of Asian culture (including martial arts) has had
Rosen, S. J. (1994). Sri Pancha Tattva: The five features of its impact on the mainstream US culture as well.
God. New York: Folk Books.
Tompkins, P. (1984). The magic of Obelisk. New York:
Harpercollins.
Urban, H. (2003). Tantra: Sex, secrecy, politics, and See Also
power in the study of religions. Los Angeles:
University of California Press. ▶ Chinese Religions
White, D. G. (Ed.). (2000). Tantra in practice. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Yeshe, L. T. (1987). Introduction to Tantra: The transfor-
mation of desire. Boston: Wisdom. Bibliography

Firebrace, P., & Hill, S. (1994). Acupuncture: How it

works, how it cures. New Canaan: Keats.
Izutsu, T. (1983). Sufism and Taoism: A comparative study
of key philosophical concepts. Los Angeles:
Taoism University of California Press.
Mitchell, S. (Ed.). (1989). The enlightened heart: An
Fredrica R. Halligan anthology of sacred poetry. New York: Harper & Row.
Mind Body Spirit Institute, Stamford, CT, USA

T
Lao Tzu wrote in the sixth to seventh century: Tara
“Every being in the universe is an expression of
the Tao. . . .The Tao gives birth to all beings, nour-
ishes them, maintains them, cares for them, com- Ann Moir-Bussy
forts them, protects them, takes them back to School of Social Sciences, University of
itself. . . .That is why love of the Tao is in the very Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia
nature of things.” (Lao Tzu in Mitchell 1989, p. 13)

The Tao (pronounced “Dao”) is “The Way” of

the ancient Chinese philosophers. The central idea Origins
is that harmony with nature is the way to live
graciously. To live in harmony with the way the The goddess Tara, one of many female deities, was
universe works is to keep in tune with natural laws. first found in early Hinduism and later was adopted
T 1782 Tara

by Tibetan Buddhism in the early third century Aphrodite, also said to be born from water and
BCE. She is worshiped throughout Tibet, Nepal, known as the Morning/Evening Star. In other
and parts of Southeast Asia. Some schools of Bud- cultures, there are vibrations of her name. In a
dhism recognize 21 Taras. The Chinese call her Polynesian myth, Tara is a beautiful sea goddess;
Kwan Yin, the Bodhisattva of Compassion, her in Latin, she is Terra or Mother earth; the Druids’
name meaning “one who hears the cries of the mother goddess was Tara; in Finland the Women
world.” Tara is known as the Mother of Mercy, of Wisdom were known as Tar; in South Amer-
the Goddess of Compassion, the “mother of libera- ica, an indigenous tribe in the jungle called her
tion,” and the “one who saves.” According to one Tarahumara; and, finally, Native American peo-
legend, she emerged from a lotus that grew in a lake ple speak of a Star Woman who came from the
made by the tears of Avalokitesvara as he wept for heavens and from whom all essential food grew
the world’s sufferings. In the early Sanskrit tradi- (http://www.crystalinks.com/tara.html). As with
tion, she was also known as Dhruva, the Pole Star, many female deities, “Tara governs the Under-
and so has also been associated with Mary, the world, the Earth and the Heavens, birth, death and
Mother of God known as Star of the Sea. There regeneration, love and war, the seasons, all that
are different forms of Tara represented by different lives and grows, the Moon cycles - Luna - femi-
colors, including blue, green, red, yellow, black, nine - creation” (http://www.crystalinks.com/
and white aspects of White Tara, reflecting her tara.html).
responsiveness to the needs of beings in different
circumstances. The colors also represent the many
facets of wholeness or balance. The Green Tara is Psychological Images
known for her activity of compassion for all beings.
Some say the Green Tara represents the night. The From the standpoint of psychology, Tara is sym-
White Tara contains all the colors and is also bolic of the Great Mother archetype, the feminine
the symbol of compassion, healing, and serenity. principle. Embodied in men and women, Jung
The Red Tara is recognized as the fierce aspect of refers to this feminine principle as the anima or
Tara, but the fierceness is not about destructiveness soul (Jung 1969). It is the principle of relationship
but about magnetizing all good things. Some rep- and of feeling, eminently expressed in Tara as
resentations depict her as wrathful, destroying neg- compassion. The mother is responsible for birth
ativity, and overcoming disharmonious conditions. and life, for nurturing and development, and for
In these pictures, Tara sits in the center of a raging fertility and fruitfulness. “The place of magic
fire destroying the enemies within: all that is delu- transformation and rebirth, together with the
sion and that gets in the way of liberation and underworld and its inhabitants, are presided over
enlightenment. The Black Tara is often associated by the mother” (Jung 1982, p. 16). Hence, the task
with power, the Yellow Tara with wealth and pros- of each individual is the development of all the
perity, and the Blue Tara with the transmutation of qualities embodied by Tara, in order to achieve
anger (http://www.crystalinks.com/tara.html). wholeness and completeness and inner wisdom. In
The Buddhist tradition has 21 different Tibetan symbolism, green is considered to be
manifestations of Tara, and there are mantras or a color that embodies all other colors. Hildegarde
songs of praise to each, describing her attributes (for of Bingen spoke of the “greening of the earth,”
reference to these, see Praises to the 21 Taras – http:// implying that all of us need to develop this whole-
www.fpmt.org/prayers/21taras94rdr.pdf). ness and greenness. We can learn from Tara sim-
ple and direct means of discovering within oneself
the wisdom, joy, and compassion of the goddess as
Other Manifestations we travel along the path to enlightenment. As
a female bodhisattva, Tara combines the spiritual
Tara can be likened to the Virgin Mary – known with the human – heaven and earth. Each human
also as Stella Maris – Star of the Sea, or to being is a potential bodhisattva, learning to bring
Teilhard de Chardin 1783 T
into balance, yin and yang, male and female, con- Across the immensity of time and the disconcerting
sciousness and unconsciousness, and the self and multiplicity of individuals, one single operation is
taking place. . .. one single thing is being made:
no-self. The bodhisattva within each of us chal- the Mystical body of Christ (Teilhard de Chardin
lenges us to keep on the journey towards matura- 1960, p. 143).
tion or individuation and to reach out in
compassion to all other sentient beings. Reflecting on Teilhard’s worldview, Catholic
scholar Ewert Cousins wrote:
Clearly, the earth is on a trajectory toward unifica-
See Also tion. That we of the twenty-first century can
conceptualize this process spiritually is due in
large part to the prophetic vision of the Jesuit
▶ Bodhisattva mystic-scientist (Cousins 1985).
▶ Buddhism
▶ Guanyin
▶ Individuation
Teilhard the Man

Bibliography Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) was born

into an aristocratic family in France, where he
Gadon, E. (1989). The once and future goddess: A symbol acquired both traditional Catholic piety with mys-
for our time. San Francisco: Harper. tical interests, and scholarly, scientific traits. He
Goddess Tara. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www. was educated by the Jesuits and ordained a priest
crystalinks.com/tara.html. Accessed 6 Oct 2008.
Jung, C. G. (1969/1959). Four archetypes: Mother/rebirth/
in 1911. As a member of the Society of Jesus, he
spirit/trickster (trans: Hull, R. F. C.). In The collected briefly taught physics and chemistry but devoted
works of C. G. Jung (Vol. 9, Pt. 1). Princeton: most of his life to the pursuit of scientific knowl-
Princeton University Press, Bollingen Series XX. edge. Evolution was his passionate study. Involved
Jung, C. G. (1982). Aspects of the feminine (trans: Hull,
R. F. C.). In The collected works of C. G. Jung (Vols. 6,
in many archeological digs in China and Outer
7, 9(1), 9(2), 10, 17). Princeton: Princeton University Mongolia, he was a key member of the paleontol-
Press, Bollingen Series XX. ogy team that discovered Sinanthropus pekinensis
Meckel, D., & Moore, R. (Eds.). (1992). Self and (“Peking Man”), an important early link in the
liberation: The Jung/Buddhism dialogue. New York:
Paulist Press.
evolution of humankind (Teilhard de Chardin
1966). Reflecting deeply on the process of evolu-
tion, Teilhard brought his contemplative conscious-
Teilhard de Chardin ness to bear on what he called the “diaphaneity of
matter.” In Hymn of the universe he wrote:
Fredrica R. Halligan Blessed be you, mighty matter, irresistible march
Mind Body Spirit Institute, Stamford, CT, USA of evolution, reality ever new-born; you who, by
constantly shattering our mental categories, force
us to go ever further and further in our pursuit of the
T
truth. Blessed be you, universal matter, immeasur-
Many spiritually oriented individuals have as able time, boundless ether, triple abyss of stars and
their personal aim the realization of union with atoms and generations; you who by overflowing
and disordering our narrow standards of measure-
the Divine. Many spiritual paths view the sense of ment reveal to us the dimensions of God (Teilhard
union with all humanity as being preliminary or de Chardin 1961, p. 68f).
at least concurrent with Divine union. It is to
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, S.J., that contempo-
rary religion owes its increasing capacity to Teilhard’s Thought
see humanity as an interrelated whole and its
will to transform religious thinking into global As a mystic, Teilhard viewed evolution in both
consciousness. Teilhard wrote: scientific and spiritual light. He saw repeated
T 1784 Teilhard de Chardin

patterns, with life emerging from the simple to today’s threats from terrorism as well as climate
the complex. From atoms to cells to living crea- change, Teilhard’s call remains the same.
tures, he recognized the processes inevitably Our task, from a psychological perspective, is
requiring first differentiation and then unifica- to deepen our personal awareness of the intercon-
tion. Human life, for example, begins with single nections among us and to help others to become
cells that differentiate into two and then four, then aware of those deep spiritual interrelationships.
multiple cells, each cell finding its purpose in the In so doing, we participate as co-creators in the
development of neonatal life. He saw that the evolution of human consciousness. The
process is one of repeated “complexification.” interreligious dialogue is today a vibrant venue
Extrapolating from the intelligent, complex for such deepening awareness, helping humanity
beings in the human species, Teilhard foresaw first to differentiate, to appreciate diversity, and
the next phase of development wherein humans then to integrate, through comprehending our
will first differentiate and then unite into a higher essential spiritual unity.
level of being, i.e., humanity as a whole. This will Teilhard himself always saw the Omega Point
occur, he predicted, when a shell of intellect, or in Christian terms. However, others who follow
“noosphere,” envelopes the earth. This is an him have realized that in true global unity, no one
irresistible physical process, the “collectiviza- religion can dominate all the rest. Thus, a true
tion” or “planetization” of humanity (Teilhard sense of dialogue must be established wherein
de Chardin 1964). To Teilhard, the endpoint of mutual respect is engendered. Psychology has
this evolutionary unification would be what he a significant role in fostering and facilitating
called the Omega Point, wherein humanity would that dialogue. Seen in breadth and depth of per-
be united by the force of love. The “fire of love,” spective, the world religions have not only differ-
as he called it, is what Teilhard thought to be the ent theologies and philosophies but also, in
power of Christ. essence, vastly different worldviews (Panikkar
Teilhard’s ideas were so radically new in the 1999). Toward furthering cross-cultural under-
1940s and 1950s that he was prohibited from standing and appreciation of religious differences
publishing his magnum opus. Although and similarities, psychology has the opportunity
Teilhard’s thoughts seemed new, they are really to foster understanding with persons from vary-
quite in tune with the unitive insights of the mys- ing cultures and religions. In like manner, in the
tics both East and West throughout the ages. In spirit of Teilhard, psychological understanding
1955 the Jesuit Order permitted posthumous pub- can facilitate globalization by dialogue
lication of The Phenomenon of Man. Since then, addressing such problems as global warming
his ideas have had a tremendous impact not only and combating deleterious climate change.
on Catholic thinking but also on scientific
thought.
See Also

Global Consciousness ▶ Christianity

▶ Creation
If Teilhard and all the great mystics are right, ▶ Omega Point
then there is de facto unity among us, and what
is emerging is global awareness of that underly-
ing unity. Today the Internet, which was not yet Bibliography
known in Teilhard’s life, is a manifestation of the
“noosphere” or shell of intellect enveloping the Cousins, E. H. (1985). Global spirituality: Toward the
meeting of the mystical paths. Madras: Radhakrishnan
earth. When Teilhard foresaw the tide of destruc-
Institute.
tive forces that threaten the planet, he called upon Panikkar, R. (1999). The intrareligious dialogue. New
all people to unite in building the earth. With York: Paulist Press.
Teilhard de Chardin: Cosmic Christ 1785 T
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1959). The phenomenon of man point for the notion of a Cosmic Christ (as distin-
(trans: Wall, B.). New York: Harper & Row. (Original guished from the historical Christ) may be found
publication 1955. Le phenomene humain. Paris:
Editions du Seuil). later in Matthew Fox’s 1988 book The Coming of
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1960). The divine milieu. the Cosmic Christ. This vision can be expanded to
New York: Harper Colophon. embrace world religions.
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1961). Hymn of the universe. Although Teilhard’s writings were suppressed
New York: Harper & Row.
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1964). The future of man (trans: by his Catholic superiors and he was forbidden
Denny, N.). New York: Harper & Row. from teaching and publishing his major master-
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1966). Teilhard de Chardin pieces, many volumes were made available
album (J. Mortier & M. -L. Aboux, Eds.). London: to readers in the years following his death on
Collins.
Easter Sunday, 1955. A new era of a uniquely
global vision of transcendent cosmic spirituality
emerged within 5 years. Chardin is often rightly
seen as a main ancestor of Western religion.
Teilhard de Chardin: Cosmic Christ Psychologically his vision can be seen as an
evolving union of human consciousness with the
Steven B. Herrmann divine Light. But this is not the same metaphor of
Oakland, CA, USA the Cosmic Christ we see in New Age spirituality,
where it is all about incense and love and a Light
that is typically unaware of its own shadow; for
If Western religion can be characterized by Teilhard the divine is the “combined essence of
a pivotal notion around which it has turned in all evil and all goodness,” filled with compassion
the last century in anticipation of the new millen- as well as with “violence” (Teilhard de Chardin
nium, it might best be encapsulated in a single 1965, pp. 60, 61).
image: the Cosmic Christ. The bold theory of A similar but broader vision of the
combining the scientific evolution of nature and divinization of consciousness was coined by
consciousness that played such a powerful role in Richard Maurice Bucke in his seminal book
ushering in a call by many contemporary writers Cosmic Consciousness. It is not Jesus who
for a metaphor to unite science with the globe’s emerges in Cosmic Consciousness as the book’s
perennial philosophies and religions had its primary exemplar of the type of expansion Bucke
inception in the writings of the French Jesuit felt the world needs to experience in order to
priest and mystical visionary Teilhard de Chardin know the meaning of divine evolution in the
(1881–1955). He spent 20 years in China doing universe. It was America’s seminal bard:
paleontology, and he had a wide view of history Walt Whitman and I would not characterize
and culture, nature, and spirit. He sought to blend Whitman’s spirituality as “New Age”
science and religion into a single theory of evo- (Hanegraaff 1998) either. Nevertheless, I do see
lution with the early postmodern insight that Whitman as a major ancestor of autochthonous T
a scientific study of nature and psycho- American spirituality that has a direct link to
spirituality cannot be separated, because: shamanism. I think we can trace the image of
the Self in the human psyche to the archaic
. . . the investigations of science have proved
beyond all doubt that there is no fact which exists shamanic archetype, which is at the center of all
in isolation, but that every experience, however religions: from Shaivism to Buddhism, from
objective it may seem, inevitably becomes Zoroaster to Moses, Jesus to Mohammed, and
enveloped in a complex of assumptions. . . the Goddess to Whitman (see Herrmann below).
(Teilhard de Chardin 1960a, p. 30).
This gives a psychological grounding to the
Thus, Teilhard worked to blend physical evo- history of consciousness and the Self’s emer-
lution with the evolution of consciousness moving gence at a critical period of the approximately
towards a divine “Omega” Point. The apotheosis 30,000–40,000 BCE. As archeologists have
T 1786 Teilhard de Chardin: Cosmic Christ

shown, this is the crucial time in human evolution union between yourself and the universe”
when we see a sudden explosion of conscious- (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 36).
ness, which we see, for instance, with the prolif- In “Hymn to Matter” Teilhard acclaims fur-
eration of shamanistic art. ther the “melodious fountain of water” and the
Many spiritual writers have latched onto the “limpid crystal” from which the “new Jerusalem”
idea of a Cosmic Christ. It is essentially a vision or divine milieu of the Cosmic Christ springs
of the “divinization” of consciousness throughout (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 70) to be a living
all of the universe (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, fountain of our common origination in anthropo-
p. 23). It can be seen as an evolution of nature centric cosmogenesis. This is also (I would add)
and consciousness towards a “convergence a shaman’s crystal: an object of clear light that
point” (Omega) that culminates in a grand phe- shines at the heart of every religion, in every
nomenon of “cosmogenesis” and “hominization” culture on earth from the radiating heart of spirit
of humanity into a “divine milieu,” as Teilhard and matter. Significantly, Teilhard refers to such
called it, with the Christ image at its center of a crystallizing prism as a “psychic cosmic center”
psychological and spiritual metamorphosis. or “supreme pole of consciousness” towards
Teilhard felt the Christ image was large enough which all of the “elementary consciousnesses of
and evolved enough, to appeal to everyone. But the world shall converge” towards the “rising
now the same could be said of a Cosmic Buddha, of a God” (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 90).
Cosmic YHWH, or Cosmic Allah, to satisfy the Today a major conceptual confusion in
demand of the world’s faithful for a spiritually Chardin’s attempts to sketch out the lineaments
democratic vision that allows all religions to be of a Cosmic Christ rests, at least from a depth-
embraced as equals. psychological angle, in the exclusively Christian
First of all and perhaps most importantly, accent of his vision, as opposed to a more univer-
Chardin was a visionary mystic, and he was sal one, such as we find at apotheosis, for
also an archeologist who was one of the first instance, in Matthew Fox’s The Coming of the
researchers to excavate Peking man in China. Cosmic Christ. The main questions to ask our-
All of his writings are an attempt to portray one selves here are (1) What is the image of God that
spectacular picture of physical, psychic, and is coming? (2) Is the Christ image large enough to
spiritual evolution in the human species, subsume the all towards which all religions turn?
tending towards an apex of Light. He was daz- Another term that became popular in the
zled by a grand vision of this in China in 1916. 1970s was spiritual “energy” and once again
At the center of this powerful pulsating vision is Chardin anticipated this energy concept by over
the radiant Light of the cosmos that infused 40 years with his concept of “cosmic energy”
Chardin in China, insofar as that great explosion (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 96), although this
could be imagined then. At the beginning of is by no means a new spiritual concept, as the
Chardin’s theology are cosmic Fire (Teilhard Chinese called it qi (“chi”) divided and united in
de Chardin 1965, p. 21), “The Whole Universe is Yin and Yang. It may be a reawakened con-
aflame” (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 78), and sciousness in industrial society, but most reli-
“Blazing Spirit, Fire. . . This is my Body. . . This gious traditions have had what one might call
is my Blood” (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 22). spiritual emotion, or “energy,” as part and parcel
Chardin’s view of the mystical body of Christ of their world views, such as in the notions of the
extends from the wafer of the consecrated host Shekinah, Holy Spirit, or Kundalini. In Melanesia
to the entire “cosmos itself” (Teilhard de Char- the term mana, for moreover, is a forerunner of
din 1965, p. 14). This is a highly personal, G. G. Jung’s notion of psychic energy. Mana has
psychological, and mystical vision, one that parallels in Native American religions with the
sees the very purpose of your being, my being, notions of wakan in the Siouxan language,
and all of your love and life, and mine, and his, wakonda among the Dakota Indians, oki among
as dependent on an interrelatedness of “the the Iroquois, and manitu among the Algonquins
Teilhard de Chardin: Cosmic Christ 1787 T
(Jung 1960, p. 61). The psychological notion of And Fox too has been wrongly pegged as a New
psychic energy ¼ Cosmic Energy in Teilhard’s Age writer. The main question for the history of
thought. Such cosmic/psychic energy is in the psychology and religion is the important question
process of emerging towards an ever-increasing of antecedents in the notion of cosmic awareness,
point of spiritual intensity: “the bubbling up of as we see, for instance, in the following question
the newly-formed life-centre as it explodes upon asked by him in The Divine Milieu: “Could there
itself” (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 102). This be a more up to date or more faithful version of
explosive extension of the global consciousness St Paul’s doctrine of the ‘cosmic’ Christ?”
towards an Omega Point is what Chardin calls the (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b, p. 41). Yes, certainly
“critical point of species-formation” (Teilhard de there can, given the new cosmology.
Chardin 1965, p. 110), and it has been in the Teilhard appears to answer his own question
process of progressive psychosocial evolution definitively when he says:
during the “whole process of hominization” Such has been my experience in contact with the
(Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 116). In The Phe- earth—the diaphany of the Divine at the heart of
nomenon of Man he points in the chapter “The the universe on fire. . . Christ; his heart; a fire;
Homo Sapiens Complex” to the Neolithic age of capable of penetrating everywhere and, gradually,
spreading everywhere” (Teilhard de Chardin
the reindeer, when “a definitely liberated thought 1960b, p. 46).
explodes, still warm, onto the walls of the caves”
of our ancestors (Teilhard de Chardin 1960a, p. This is Chardin’s subjective truth, his personal
202). This is the central nucleus at the heart of the belief, or subjective confession. What is true for
human psyche that I have called the enduring Teilhard may not be true for a Hindu or Sufi,
shamanic impulse: the impulse towards poetry, where Shiva, or Allah, or Khidr might be formu-
healing, science, and art. lations for the better consciousness at the center
In Teilhard’s overall vision “The mystical of the cosmos, whether as a Divinity of compas-
Christ has not yet attained its full growth; and sion, blazing annihilation, or love.
therefore the same is true of the cosmic Christ” The personalization and divinization of the
(Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 133). The Cosmic universe is what most writers on the Cosmic
Christ is, therefore, a world phenomenon that is in Christ agree on: a vehicle of “vocation” is the
the process of becoming. This is not the Christ of way the Cosmic Christ may be ushered in
the “old cosmos” only “but also of the new (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b, p. 46). Central in
cosmogenesis” (Teilhard de Chardin 1965, this vision is the realization that there can be no
p. 139). More, the most “cosmic” of sacred Chris- mention of a divine milieu, anthropogenesis,
tian writers was not St. Augustine wrestling with hominization, or Omega Point without mention
evil, but St. John and St. Paul mysticism (Teilhard of personal vocations. The universal divine
de Chardin 1965, p. 144). At the end point of milieu is the ultimate point upon which “all real-
Chardin’s notion of the Cosmic Christ, finally, is ities converge” (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b,
his belief that the “most massive blaze of collec- p. 114) and the reason for the radical spiritualiza- T
tive love that has ever appeared in the world burns tion in the human species is the creative voca-
here and now in the heart of the Church of God” tional channel the Cosmic Christ carved in the
(Teilhard de Chardin 1965, p. 155). collective psyche (Jung) or noosphere (Teilhard):
This is the primary point of contention between Christ—for whom and in whom we are formed,
Chardin’s view of the Cosmic Christ at inception each with his own individuality and his own
and the Cosmic Christ at apotheosis, in Fox’s vocation—Christ reveals himself in each reality
writing. Whereas Teilhard sees the Church as the around us, and shines like an ultimate determinant,
like a centre, one might almost say like a universal
vehicle for divinization, Fox envisions something element (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b, p. 125).
much wider that may include all Temples of God,
shrines to the great Goddess, and Mosques, as The divine milieu is not a fixed point in the
places for the world’s spiritual transformation. universe, but a moving center that we each, in our
T 1788 Temenos

own individual ways, have to follow like example, psychologically in Jung’s hypothesis
a loadstar and to this end: “That star leads each of the Self, as it appears variously in the world’s
man differently, by a different path, in accord religions and now reawakens in the Age of
with his vocation” (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b, Aquarius (Herrmann 2010).
p. 139). Thus, the soul of each person is not the
entire cosmos. Rather, the end point is reached in
“the body of him who is and of him who is See Also
coming” (Teilhard de Chardin 1960b, p. 155).
What is the nature of the Divinity “who is com- ▶ Creation Spirituality
ing”? This remains the main question to many, ▶ Fox, Matthew
not to Chardin. For him belief in the second ▶ Omega Point
coming of Christ is enough, for it had already ▶ Teilhard de Chardin
occurred in Teilhard. ▶ Whitman, Walt
While Chardin’s notion of the Cosmic Christ
began with a vision in 1916 in China, it was not
until 14 years later, in 1930, that the idea of the Bibliography
“convergence of the cosmos” and the whole train
of consequent ideas evolved in him into “the Law Fox, M. (1988). The coming of the cosmic Christ. San
Francisco: Harper & Row.
of Complexity-Consciousness, the Confluence of
Hanegraaff, W. (1998). New age religion and Western
human branches, and existence of an Omega culture. New York: SUNY Press.
Point at the head of Noogenesis” (Teilhard de Herrmann, S. (2009). William Everson: The Shaman’s
Chardin 1978, p. 48). In a section called “The call. New York: Eloquent Books.
Herrmann, S. (2010). Walt Whitman: Shamanism, spiri-
Religion of Tomorrow” he adds: “In a system of
tual democracy, and the world soul. Durham: Eloquent
cosmo-noo-genesis, the comparative value of Books.
religious creeds may be measured by their Jung, C. G. (1960). The structure and dynamics of the
respective power of evolutive activation” psyche (Bollingen series 20). In H. Read, M. Fordham,
G. Adler, & W. McGuire (Eds.), The collected works
(Teilhard de Chardin 1978, p. 97).
of C. G. Jung (2nd ed., Vol. 8). New York: Bollingen
What Chardin actually means by Cosmic Foundation.
Christ was stated perhaps most succinctly in one Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1960a). The phenomenon of man.
of his last statements written in March 1955, one New York: Harper & Row.
Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1960b). The divine milieu. New
month before he died: the Truth had to appear
York: Harper & Row.
only once to begin its spreading effect univer- Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1965). Hymn of the universe.
sally, with the aim of setting “everything ablaze” New York: Harper & Row.
with a Light that testified that “sooner or later Teilhard de Chardin, P. (1978). The heart of matter. New
York: Harvest.
there will be a chain-reaction” (Teilhard de
Chardin 1978, p. 102). This chain reaction is the
spirituality of the earth’s peoples that is coming.
In sum, we all evolved from the massive
explosion of a supernova that burst beautifully Temenos
against a sea of dark energy and dark matter 13.7
billion years BCE, and that incredible blaze of Ronald Madden
cosmic Light can still be perceived both in the National Institute for the Psychotherapies,
physical world and in the inward mirror reflection New York, NY, USA
of human consciousness, at its dawn state; pre-
served as it has been, for at least 30,000 years in
Paleolithic cave paintings, the first explosions of Temenos [Greek temenoB] refers to a piece of
cosmic thought appeared in portrait representa- land set aside or cut off from everyday use and
tions of shamanistic art and continued, for assigned as a special domain for the veneration of
Temenos 1789 T
a temporal ruler or a god. It may also be a built visible and invisible, conscious and unconscious,
structure as in a temple that has been consecrated inner and outer, and spiritual and earthly.
for a sacred purpose, such as a place of sacrifice to In a certain sense, the work of depth psychol-
a deity or of worship. ogy, as experienced in the encounter between ana-
A temenos, in a narrow sense, is a Greek sanc- lyst and analysand, is soul work. The work of this
tuary that has been constructed in a specific loca- interaction is benefited by a space that is experi-
tion that has significance for a ruler or god to be enced by both therapist and patient as quiet, safe,
venerated. The temenos dedicated to the chief of and sacred, where it is possible to access the uncon-
the gods at Olympia is called the temenos of scious without fear of distraction from the profane
Zeus. A temenos may be demarcated by bound- world outside. The therapist’s office is a form of
ary stones possibly erected as a colossal wall or holding place or vessel; its walls and ambiance cut
rampart. It is frequently associated with a special it off from the rest of the world, so that the work of
tree, such as the Bodhi tree (Sri Maha Bodhi), healing can be done. The therapy room may be
under which Siddhartha Gautama sat and seen to function as a thin place or temenos for the
achieved enlightenment and which was to practice of psychotherapy. It might even be thought
become the site of the Mahabodhi Temple of of as a sacred enclosure where a symbolic journey
Buddhism. The temenos may, itself, take the through death and rebirth can occur.
form of a sacred grove of trees, such as Plato’s
grove of Academe outside of Athens.
The practice of dividing the world into sacred See Also
and profane precincts is observed throughout pre-
historic, ancient, and civilized societies. The ▶ Axis Mundi
temenos universally represents a sacred place set ▶ Bodhi Tree
aside from the secular or profane world. It is an ▶ Celtic Spirituality
integral part of so-called primitive cultures where ▶ Communitas
the sacred place was seen as the center of the ▶ Depth Psychology and Spirituality
cosmos (the Axis Mundi) and was often marked ▶ Gardens, Groves, and Hidden Places
by a sacred tree which represented death and ▶ Psychotherapy and Religion
rebirth and the connection between heaven, ▶ Water
earth, and hell. Stone and water were usually also ▶ Western Wall
a part of the sacred place – stone for its symboli-
zation of permanence and water for purification.
From Celtic spirituality comes the concept of Bibliography
the thin place, an idea that is related to that of
temenos. A thin place is a sacred place where the Adams, L. D. (1990). The world of myth. New York:
veil or membrane between heaven and earth is Oxford University Press.
thin or where one can pass easily back and forth Burkert, W. (1985). Greek religion. Cambridge, MA: T
Harvard University Press.
between the material and spiritual worlds. A thin Eliade, M. (1958). Patterns in comparative religion. Lon-
place may be a specific location where great don: Sheed & Ward.
spiritual energy is experienced by many as Eliade, M. (1974). The myth of the eternal return.
being received, such as at Stonehenge, Glaston- Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Eliade, M. (1987). The sacred and the profane: The nature
bury, Luxor, or Mecca. It may be situated on of religion. Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
a mountain such as Sinai, Ararat, Machu Picchu, Erich, N. (1989). Mystical man. In J. Campbell (Ed.), The
Fuji, or Athos. A temenos or temple is often mystic vision: Papers from the Eranos yearbooks.
erected at or near the site of a thin place in Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Gray, M. (n.d.). Sacred sites: Places of peace and power.
response to the presence of spiritual energy that http://www.sacredsites.com
is found there. The temenos serves to facilitate Jung, C. G. (1968). Psychology and alchemy. Princeton:
passage between the opposing realms of the Princeton University Press.
T 1790 Teresa of Avila

never be neglected. . .” (St. Teresa of Avila,

Teresa of Avila 1960, p. 145).
In The Interior Castle, she explores her “inte-
Ann M. Rothschild rior” self in a journey through seven “mansions.”
Private Practice, New York, NY, USA Consistent with modern psychotherapeutic the-
ory, houses often represent the self. This is
a spiritual journey but a psychological one as
St. Teresa was born on March 28, 1515, in Avila, well. As in therapy, it is a voluntary journey. It
Spain. She joined the contemplative Carmelite is also a heroic journey into the unknown. As in
order, taking the habit on November 2, 1535. therapy there are stages. In St. Teresa’s first three
She founded her first monastery, St. Joseph, in stages or “mansions,” we are more active.
Avila, in 1562. She then founded 17 convents, all We meet and become aware of our demons.
smaller and simpler and with more discipline We fight and subdue them. But after the fourth
than the traditional ones of her times. mansion, we can become less active and more
Teresa is best known for her three main works. receptive. We can go deeper. In the psychological
The first was her autobiography, The Life of journey, St. Teresa can be a guide to finding
Teresa of Jesus, written when she was in her and growing an inner self, becoming clearer and
40s and completed in 1565. The Way of Perfec- deeper room by room. Especially for those with
tion was written a year later in 1566. Finally, near a lack of a sense of self, or those dealing
the end of her life, in 1577, when she was 62 years with a narcissist or a schizoid dynamic, reading
old, she completed The Interior Castle, a work St. Teresa can be very helpful.
she considered a masterpiece, her best work. She Therapists can find a model in St. Teresa as well.
died on October 4, 1582. She was canonized in Often a new therapist is very active like the seeker
1622. In 1970 Pope Paul VI declared her a Doctor in the beginning mansions. As she notices by
of the Church. exploring her own vices, like the religious person
St. Teresa suffered from serious illnesses. She seeing what keeps her away from God, she sees that
was bedridden for years. She had emotional activity gets in the way. And as she reflects on how
issues as well. From the beginning of her reli- her own dynamics contribute to excessive activity,
gious life, she faced enormous physical and spir- she can become less active, able to use Freud’s
itual challenges. She had to find her way, and she suspended, free-floating attention. Few words are
began by exploring herself. Her spiritual/psycho- required. There is less effort, more listening.
therapeutic journey was typically a slow, arduous
journey requiring courage. Yet she was always
attentive, constantly and consistently moving See Also
toward self-integration. She visited those places
we might call mad or unreasonable. She noticed ▶ Contemplative Prayer
and then abstained from her “old passions,” her ▶ Ecstasy
neuroses. She prayed, she meditated, she contem- ▶ Individuation
plated, and she looked within, all the time. Her ▶ Mysticism and Psychoanalysis
journey to God was a journey to herself. She was ▶ Self
a strong individual and example of a woman
who strived through discipline, through prayer,
through contemplation, and through seeking self-
knowledge, to actualize herself. We can easily Bibliography
apply these spiritual struggles to a psychological
Humphreys, C. (1992). From ashes to fire. New York:
perspective. She has been called a “psychological
New City Press.
mystic.” Self-knowledge was very important St. Teresa of Avila. (1960). (E.A. Peers, Ed.), The life of
to her. “This matter of self-knowledge must Teresa of Jesus. Garden City: Doubleday.
Thanatos 1791 T
St. Teresa of Avila. (1989). (E.A. Peers, Ed.), The interior Discontents: “And now it is to be expected that
castle. Garden City: Doubleday. the other two ‘Heavenly Powers,’ eternal Eros,
St. Teresa of Avila. (1991). (E.A. Peers, Ed.), The way of
perfection. New York: Doubleday. will make an effort to assert himself in the strug-
St. Teresa of Avila. (2007). The book of my life (trans: gle with his equally immortal adversary. But who
Starr, M.). Boston: Shambhala. can foresee with what success and with what
Welch, J. (1982). Spiritual pilgrims, Carl Jung and Teresa result?” (1930/2001, p. 145). On the other hand,
of Avila. Mawah: Paulist Press.
perhaps the omission of the title Thanatos was
intentional, as it could intimate that the powers of
Eros are more integrated, whereas the powers of
the death instincts are more diffuse. Another
Thanatos explanation could be that the term Thanatos was
first used by Wilhelm Steckel (Jones 1957,
Nathan Carlin p. 273) and Freud and Steckel had a falling out
McGovern Center for Humanities and Ethics, (Gay 1988, pp. 213–124, 232), perhaps
University of Texas Medical School, Houston, prompting Freud to never use the term in his
TX, USA writings. In any case, in Freud’s thinking, Eros
is associated with the sexual and life instincts,
instincts that tend to be constructive and have
The Greek word Thanatos literally means a uniting quality, whereas Thanatos is associated
“death.” Thanatos also can have metaphorical with the death instincts and have a destructive,
meanings, such as the personification of death aggressive, sadist, and even masochistic quality
(cf. Romans 5.14 and 1 Corinthians 15.26), as about them.
well as spiritual meanings, such as eternal death Freud first put forth his notion of the death
(cf. 2 Corinthians 7.10). Edward Tripp (1970) instinct in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and
notes that in classical mythology, “Thanatos he did so first in speculation to make sense of
was born of Nyx (Night)” and that Thanatos a problem with his theory of dreams. Since Freud
“and his brother Hypnos (Sleep) lived together earlier argued that all dreams are wish fulfill-
in Tartarus” (p. 555). He also notes that “Thana- ments, anxiety in dreams was problematic for
tos appears in Euripides’s Alcestis to carry off the his theory. How, for example, could recurring
heroine from her tomb. Heracles wrestles with traumatic dreams possibly be wish fulfillments?
him, however, and brings her back to life” What we normally think of as nightmares, on the
(Tripp 1970, p. 555). Tripp also directs us to other hand, did not pose such a problem, because
these passages in mythology: Iliad, 16.453–455, Freud explained nightmares as repressed wishes
16.672–673, 16.682–683; Theogony, 211–212 coming too close to consciousness. That is, night-
and 758–766. This article will focus on Thanatos mares are revisions of dreams that have come too
as it relates to psychology and religion, focusing close to exposing repressed desires. But
in particular on the thought of Sigmund Freud, explaining recurring dreams that produce anxiety T
Norman Brown, and Robert Dykstra. proved to be much more difficult for Freud, so
much so that he eventually postulated the idea of
the death instinct. Freud talked of this recurring
Freud on Thanatos as a “compulsion to repeat.” And he believed that
it was an attempt to gain control over past situa-
In psychological circles, Thanatos always recalls tions retrospectively. He also likened the death
Freud’s theory of the death instinct (some prefer instinct to the property of inertia. He observed
the translation “death drive”), despite the fact that that there is a tendency in organic life to return to
Freud never used the word Thanatos in his writ- an earlier state of being – in religious language,
ings. However, Freud all but invites the term “from dust to dust.” Freud famously proclaimed,
when he writes in Civilization and Its “the aim of all life is death,” and in this sense,
T 1792 Thanatos

the death instinct can be thought of as a suicidal neurosis must embrace a theory of history; and
impulse. But why, one might object, does not conversely a theory of history must embrace
all life perish immediately? To this, Freud a theory of neurosis” (1959, p. 13). Brown
responded that our life instincts prevent this. believed that psychoanalysis “can provide
And this seems to mean that the death instinct a theory of “progress,” but only by viewing his-
and the life instinct, taken together, guide organic tory as a neurosis” (1959, p. 18). He elaborates:
life to die on its own terms. The death instinct If therefore we think of man as that species of
also provides an explanation for aggression. animal which has the historical project of recover-
Aggression, Freud came to believe, is the projec- ing his own childhood, psychoanalysis suggests the
tion of the death instinct. The upshot of Freud’s historical proposition that mankind will not put
aside its sickness and its discontent until it is able
notion of the death instinct is that aggression is to abolish every dualism (Brown 1959, p. 52).
instinctual and basic to human nature. This means
that attempts to eliminate particular aggressive The reunification of Life and Death, Brown
behaviors will not solve any problems, which is writes, can be envisioned as the end of the histor-
why Freud argued that communism could not ical process (1959, p. 91). David Greenham has
contain our aggressive impulses, because these written the first systematic work on the work
impulses are not rooted in property (they are of Norman Brown. Greenham (2006) notes
a part of human nature). Aggression cannot be that “Brown is not writing history from
eliminated; it can only be directed or channeled in a psychoanalytic point of view–a study in the
better and worse ways (cf. Carlin 2009). Oedipal motivations of “great individuals” for
Freud’s views on aggression and the notion of example–but he is interpreting the very drives
Thanatos have been debated and applied inside of history using the implications of Freud’s late
and outside of medical and psychological circles metapsychology” (p. 77). And, in his chapter on
(see, e.g., Afkhami 1985; Arundale 2006; Brown’s Life Against Death, Greenham notes
Bennett 2005; Brady 1974; Cho 2006; Groves that, “For Brown history has no ontological
1999; Hutcheon and Hutcheon 1999; Marcuse weight, it is rather only a symptom; it is neurosis
1966; Menninger 1938, 1942; Percy 1987; pure and simple,” for “nature has not history; it
Ricoeur 1970; Stepansky 1977). just is, it does not become” (2006, p. 64). He
elaborates:

Norman Brown on Thanatos So by the transformation of psychoanalysis into

a theory of history . . . he means a theory of the
end of history, as we find in the Bible, as well as in
One of the more interesting philosophical and Hegel and Marx. Brown’s history “ends” not with
theological interpreters of Freud on the death revelation or absolute knowledge or the dictator-
instinct has been Norman Brown. In Life Against ship of the proletariat–though in part it is all of
those things. His history ends by plunging human-
Death: The Psychoanalytical Meaning of His- ity into the immanence of “nature” (Greenham
tory, Brown (1959) notes that in 1953 he “turned 2006, p. 65).
to a deep study of Freud, feeling a need to
reappraise the nature and destiny of man” It is difficult to imagine what it would mean to
(p. xi). And in this book Brown argues that “man- plunge humankind back into the immanence of
kind, in all its restless striving and progress, has nature. But if one were to be able to imagine it, it
no idea what it really wants,” that “Freud was would be even more difficult to imagine how this
right: our real desires are unconscious,” and that might be possible. But what is clear is that Brown
it “also begins to be apparent that mankind, is articulating a critique of western civilization
unconscious of its real desires and therefore and its denial of death. Greenham writes:
unable to obtain satisfaction, is hostile to life So, according to Brown, humans repress their death
and ready to destroy itself” (1959, p. xii). and in so doing create history as the history of
Brown further suggests that “the theory of repression: civilization as neurosis. It is the
Thanatos 1793 T
human failure to recognize, at the most basic level, curtain change all this, and that the lament is at the
that life and death are the “same,” one half of the very heart of this decisive, even earth-shattering
dialectic; which both fuels history and its meaning. change . . . . God’s own nakedness is at last
Freud, perhaps, suggests this conclusion when he revealed. In this, God the Father fully identifies
argues that the goal of all life is death, but he shies with God the Son (Dykstra 2005, p. 62).
away from the truth as Brown sees it, and retains
a dualism (2006, p. 79). Such an interpretation as Eilberg-Schwartz’s
Greenham argues that, for Brown, Eros is the regarding God’s body – i.e., God’s body is
key to unlocking–and ending–history (2006, concealed in the biblical text so as to conceal the
p. 67), and Religion is important for Brown not implicit homoeroticism of the men of Israel unit-
because he is putting forward any particular faith, ing with their male God – accounts, Dykstra
but because he sees religion as a half-way house believes, for why there seems to be “an enduring
to curing history (2006, p. 66). Again, it is diffi- underlying anxiety among men that faith somehow
cult to understand how religion can cure history threatens masculinity” (2005, p. 62). However,
in the sense that Brown is suggesting, that is, by God’s lament, then, drives God–and this underly-
reuniting life and death. But another author, ing anxiety among men of faith–from the closet; an
Robert Dykstra, a pastoral theologian, has written unbearable grief, shame, and rage in response to
Jesus’ death compel God to step out from behind
more clearly about how aggression – what, in the the curtain in all God’s desperate glory. In Jesus’
context of this essay, we might call Thanatos – death, we at last get a full frontal glimpse of God.
ought to be integrated into the lives of Christian God’s lament removes the dividing line between
men, uniting, in other words, Eros and Thanatos. the holy and the profane. As the curtain is rent in
two, so too the old division between sacred and
profane is forever torn apart (Dykstra 2005, p. 62).

Robert Dykstra on Aggression For too long, Dykstra rightly notes, “good
Christians” have falsely believed that they are
In his “Rending the Curtain: Lament as an Act of not supposed to express or delight in such emo-
Vulnerable Aggression,” Dykstra (2005) reflects tions. Men are to be composed, especially in
on God’s own lament over the death of Jesus to difficult times, but the result is that men “tend,
address the lives of contemporary Christen men. as a result, to experience a diminished capacity
His central theme, as his title indicates, is what is for intimacy, mutuality, and authentic forgive-
called “the rending of the curtain.” When Jesus ness with God and one another” (2005, p. 63).
died, Dykstra notes, the biblical text records that But because of the cross, we find “a God now
the curtain in the temple was torn in two. Dykstra suddenly revealed in lament, angry, and aggres-
argues that here God not only revealed Himself sive while naked and vulnerable, a God engaging
but also exposed Himself. Just as the Son was in a sacred exhibitionism,” and Dykstra’s hope is,
exposed on the cross, literally crucified naked, as he so eloquently puts it, “Would that those men
God the Father likewise exposed His genitals in who have the most to lose could love a God like
the rending of the curtain. Dykstra draws on this, could love God like this, could finally, in the T
Howard Eilberg-Schwartz (1994) to suggest that end, simply love like this” (2005, p. 68).
“the veiling of God may serve as a theological Dykstra offers one way – a compelling way, to
legitimation of male hegemony. Unable to iden- be sure – to think theologically about Thanatos:
tify God’s sex, Israel’s men maintain their status God here is destructive and aggressive, ripping
as God’s beloved, while at the same time the curtain in two, while also naked and vulnera-
remaining safe from insinuation of homoeroti- ble, breaking the conventions of public decency.
cism” (Dykstra 2005, p. 61). He elaborates, There are surely other ways to think theologically
about the vicissitudes of Thanatos. In any case,
If Eilberg-Schwartz’s provocative thesis about
ancient Judaism’s prohibitions against speculation the theme of Thanatos has persisted since ancient
about God’s sexual anatomy is correct, I suggest days and haunts us even today. Those interested
that Gospel accounts of the rending of the temple in psychology and religion cannot afford to
T 1794 Theodicy

neglect these forces, whatever their ontological Greenham, D. (2006). The resurrection of the body: The
status may be, since they are nevertheless real work of Norman O. Brown. New York: Lexington
Books.
mythologically and emotionally (cf. Menninger Groves, P. (1999). Eros and Thanatos. Chester Springs:
1938, 1942). Dufour Editions.
Hesiod. (2006). Theogony; and, works and days (trans:
Schlegel, C. & Weinfiled, H.). Ann Arbor: University
See Also of Michigan Press.
Homer. (1810). The illiad (trans: Pope, A.). London:
G. Hazard.
▶ Dreams Hutcheon, L., & Hutcheon, M. (1999). Death drive: Eros
▶ Eros and Thanatos in Wagner’s “Tristan und Isolde”.
▶ Freud, Sigmund Cambridge Opera Journal, 11(3), 267–293.
Jones, E. (1957). The life and work of Sigmund Freud
(Vol. 3): The last phase (1919–1939). New York:
Basic Books.
Marcuse, H. (1966). Eros and civilization:
Bibliography A philosophical inquiry into Freud. Boston: Beacon
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Afkhami, G. (1985). The Iranian revolution: Thanatos on Menninger, K. (1938). Man against himself. New York:
a national scale. Washington, DC: Middle East Harcourt, Brace.
Institute. Menninger, K. (1942). Love against hate. New York:
Arundale, A. (2006). Eros and Thanatos in context. British Harcourt, Brace.
Journal of Psychotherapy, 20(4), 453–454. Percy, W. (1987). The Thanatos syndrome. New York:
Bennett, E. (2005). Eros and Thanatos: A psycho-literary Farrar, Straus, Giroux.
investigation of Walter Vogt’s life and works. Oxford, Ricoeur, P. (1970). Freud and philosophy: An essay on
UK: P. Lang. interpretation. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Brady, P. (1974). Manifestations of Eros and Thanatos. Sears, T. A. (2001). Clio, Eros, Thanatos: The “novella
L’Etranger: Twentieth Century Literature, 20(3), sentimental” in context. New York: P. Lang.
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Brown, N. (1959). Life against death: The psychoanalyt- Psychological Issues, 10(3), Monograph 39.
ical meaning of history. New York: Vintage Books. The Holy Bible (King James Version). (1978). New York:
Carlin, N. (2009). Christianity and the death instinct: American Bible Society. (Original work published in
Perfect together? Pastoral Psychology, 58(2), 1611).
127–132. Tripp, E. (1970). Crowell’s handbook of classical mythol-
Cho, D. (2006). Thanatos and civilization: Lacan, Mar- ogy. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.
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4(1), 18–30.
Dykstra, R. (2005). Rending the curtain: Lament as an act
of vulnerable aggression. In S. Brown & P. Miller
(Eds.), Lament: Reclaiming practices in pulpit, Theodicy
pew, and public square (pp. 59–69). Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press.
Eilberg-Schwartz, H. (1994). God’s phallus and other David M. Moss III
problems for men and monotheism. Boston: Beacon Atlanta, GA, USA
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Euripides. (2007). Alcestis. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Freud, S. (2001a). Beyond the pleasure principle. In The term “theodicy” was adapted from the
J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.). The standard edition of French theodicée which is a compound of the
the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud Greek theós (God) and dı́kē (justice). Etymolog-
(Vol. 18, pp. 1–64). London: Vintage. (Original work
published 1920). ically it means the “justification of God.”
Freud, S. (2001b). Civilization and its discontents. In Generally speaking, theodicy refers to the vin-
J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of dication of divine government given the exis-
the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud tence of evil.
(Vol. 21, pp. 57–145). London: Vintage. (Original
work published 1930). Whatever else may be said of evil, it is cer-
Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. New York: tainly the abuse of a sentient being, a being that
W. W. Norton. can feel pain. It is the pain that matters. Evil is
Theodicy 1795 T
grasped by the mind immediately and felt by the indifference are not divinely enabled but will-
emotions immediately; it is sensed as hurt delib- fully enacted human behavior.
erately inflicted. Evil is never abstract. It is an The subject of theodicy rarely appears in psy-
existential reality and has to be understood in the chology texts or mental health journals. It is peri-
personal context of suffering. odically addressed by grief literature and
In fourth-century Athens, the Epicureans thanatology studies. The pastoral counseling
challenged the Stoics with a trilemma: if God movement has made some unique contributions
could have prevented evil and did not, he is to the literature via hospital chaplains who min-
malevolent; if God would have prevented evil ister to the terminally ill. Pastoral counseling also
but could not, he is impotent; if God could not explores the clinical significance of theodicy and
and would not, why call him God? Here is the how it can be used to intellectually block the grief
primary moral quandary for any monotheism process.
claiming God to be omnipotent, omniscient, Theodicy may be seen as an indirect denial of
and omnipresent. The problem is inescapable God’s inconceivable nature or mysterium. For the
as well as profound. Si deus bonus, vede justification of God’s permission of evil requires
malum? “If God is good, why evil?” The insis- a comprehension of the incomprehensible. Nev-
tence behind this question is the concentration ertheless, the belief in an all-good and all-
of theodicy, a specific dimension of natural powerful God naturally leads to a faith in provi-
theology that attempts to justify or vindicate dence – bonum ex nocentibus – “out of evil good
God’s morality vis-à-vis the evil that infects emerges.” Providence is hope that out of even the
mankind. most negative experience, no matter how evil, as
The word “theodicy” was coined by the long as one chooses to look with insight, benefi-
German mathematician and philosopher cial results will be revealed. To quote Milton’s
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. In 1710 he used it Paradise Lost, “. . .to the height of this great
as a theme and title of a book on metaphysics, argument I may assert eternal Providence and
Essais de Théodicée sur la Bonté de Dieu. Leib- justify the ways of God to man.”
niz was a “theodician” who believed some error
is unavoidable in any creature less perfect than its
creator, all possible worlds contain some evil, and See Also
evil reveals good through contrast. If goodness
was constant, we would take it for granted with- ▶ Evil
out realizing the blessings of God. In this life, evil ▶ God
is a necessary element like the shade in a picture, ▶ Pastoral Counseling
throwing into relief the beauty and harmony of
the whole.
There are numerous dogmatic expressions of
Bibliography T
theodicy from two basic perspectives. The first
emphasizes God’s ultimate goodness in spite of Hick, J. (1968). Evil and the God of love. London:
the existence of evil. Evil is negative but neces- Macmillan.
sary. It eclipses the good which produces Leibniz, G. W. (1985). Theodicy: Essays on the goodness
a contrast that ultimately clarifies God’s omni- of God, the freedom of man, and the origin of evil.
(A. Farrer, Ed.). La Salle: Open Court.
science. Yahweh, for example, allows Job to be Lewis, C. S. (1962). The problem of pain. New York:
tortured and then rewards him. The second per- Macmillan.
spective is concentrated more on mankind’s Lowe, W. (1983). Evil and the unconscious. Chico:
responsibility than God’s because, in creation, Scholars Press.
Oden, T. C. (1966). Kerygma and counseling. Philadel-
the latter endowed the former with free will. phia: Westminster.
The abuse of this freedom originates from within Ward, K. (1983). Rational theology and the creativity of
the human psyche. Injustice, cruelty, and God. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
T 1796 Theophany

Moses’ theophany on Mount Sinai, during

Theophany which God inscribes God’s law on the tablets of
stone (Exodus 19:16–32:14); and Ezekiel’s
Emily Stetler vision of the four living creatures and the wheels
Department of Theology, Mount St. Mary’s (Ezekiel 1:1–28). Two especially paradigmatic
University, Emmitsburg, MD, USA theophanies are Jacob wrestling with God
(Genesis 32:22–33) and Moses and the burning
bush (Exodus 3:1–4:7). In the former narrative,
Coming from the Greek theophaneia, “appear- Jacob’s body attests to the contact with God;
ance of god,” a theophany is a revelation of god after the encounter, Jacob’s hip is dislocated. In
in which the divine is mediated by sensible the burning bush account, we see the divine
matter. A theophany, then, is distinct from utilizing the material world, yet transcending
other mystical experiences in that it involves natural laws: the bush burns, but it is not con-
material, rather than merely psychic, phenome- sumed, as it would be by a merely natural flame.
non. Indeed, in a theophany, the natural world Although inhabiting the material world, and
may exhibit characteristics unable to be thus less ephemeral than other mystical experi-
explained by laws of nature or unable to be rep- ences, most theophanies are, nonetheless,
licated and verified by empirical experimenta- temporary; after the deity has revealed its
tion. Further, while achievement of a mystical purpose to the visionary, the divine presence
state oftentimes depends upon, or is at least withdraws, and the natural world assumes its
facilitated by, entrance into a receptive emotional normal workings. The most enduring instances
or psychological state, a theophanic experience of theophanies are incarnations, in which the god
does not; it seems to spring from a source external assumes human (or animal) flesh and remains
to the visionary. In scriptural accounts, theopha- revealed for the duration of its earthly life.
nies seem to be an interruption of the visionary’s For Christianity, the incarnation of the Second
psychic state rather than an outcropping of it. Person of the Trinity as the historical Jesus is
Nonetheless, a person can induce the ultimate revelation of God. The Eastern
a hallucination that he describes as theophanic Orthodox churches, in fact, observe January 6 as
through meditation practices or the use of the Feast of the Theophany, commemorating the
psychedelic drugs. Baptism of Jesus. (In the Western churches,
It must be noted that a theophany specifically January 6 is celebrated as the Feast of Epiphany
reveals the deity. A mystical vision of a saint and recalls the visitation of the Magi to the new-
(such as a Marian apparition in Catholicism) born Jesus.) As narrated in the Gospel accounts
does not qualify as a theophany. “Theophany,” (Matthew 3:13–17; Mark 1:9–11; Luke 3:21–22),
thus, is a more restrictive term than is Jesus’ baptism portrays a unique theophany in
“hierophany,” Mircea Eliade’s preferred term Christianity – one that features the manifestation
for a manifestation of the divine. of all three Persons of the Trinity: the Father
Theophanies may be found in any theistic speaks, “This is My beloved Son,” as the Son
religious tradition and, in modern times, have emerges from the waters of the Jordan, and the
even been reported by individuals not subscribing Spirit descends in the visible form of a dove.
to any religion. From both a doctrinal and Hinduism, too, has incarnational theophanies
a literary perspective, though, theophanies often in its idea of avatars. In Hinduism, a god may
function to make immanent a god who is become incarnate more than once through the
typically characterized as being transcendent. ages, and each incarnation is known as an avatar
The Hebrew Bible recounts several theopha- (from the Sanskrit avatāra, “descent”). The most
nies, including Abraham’s reception of the divine well-known examples are the ten avatars of
visitors at Mamre, where God tells him that he Vishnu. The versions vary slightly, but the
will bear a son by Sarah (Genesis 18:1–15); Garuda Purana provides a standard list: a fish,
Theophany 1797 T
a tortoise, a boar, a lion man, a dwarf, the man probing the unconscious and assigning to the
Parashurama, the man Rama (legendary king of “vision” a particular theological significance.
Ayodhya and hero of the Ramayana), the god Additionally, theophanic visions can be induced
Krishna, and Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha). through the use of psychedelic drugs. The use of
The tenth avatar, Kalki, is anticipated to come at peyote in Native American ceremonies and refer-
the end of the present age (the Kali Yuga) to ences to soma in the Rig Vedas attest the wide-
combat evil and corruption and usher in a new spread phenomenon of psychedelic theophanies.
golden age (the Satya Yuga). In all cases, avatars Finally, a theophany may also be explained as
become incarnate in order to respond to a specific a symptom of a psychotic or neurotic condition.
need of the cosmos. Schizophrenics, in particular, may experience
Although generally Islam eschews theoph- hallucinations that they describe as theophanic,
any in order to safeguard the utter transcen- particularly when the schizophrenia is marked by
dence of God, the notion of theophany appears delusion, as well.
in the thought of some Sufi Muslims. For
instance, the Andalusian Sufi Ibn ’Arabı̄
(1165–1240 CE) developed a cosmology in See Also
which all of creation, including humankind, is
essentially a theophany. According to Ibn ▶ Active Imagination
’Arabı̄, God desired to know Godself in others ▶ Analytical Psychology
who know God. God’s being unknown (both to ▶ Avatar
others and, as one who is known, to Godself) ▶ Baptism
caused God sorrow, a creative sorrow out of ▶ Bible
which God reveals Godself through creation. ▶ Buddhism
Creation is an exhalation of God or God’s ▶ Christ
shadow; God creates within the space of ▶ Depth Psychology and Spirituality
God’s own breath. Ibn ’Arabı̄’s system is ▶ Eliade, Mircea
panentheistic, a world in which all is in God ▶ Freud, Sigmund, and Religion
and is thus not totally other than God. Creation ▶ God
is necessarily theophanic. In particular, ▶ God Image
according to Ibn ’Arabı̄, the divine names of ▶ Hallucinations
God are theophanic; through each name, God ▶ Hierophany
reveals to creation (and, therefore, to Godself as ▶ Hinduism
well) an attribute of God’s own divinity. ▶ Ibn al-‘Arabi
▶ Incarnation
▶ Jesus
Commentary ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Religion
▶ Mysticism and Psychoanalysis T
In psychoanalytic theory, mystical experience in ▶ Sufis and Sufism
general can be explained as misdirected sexual
feelings, the mystical ecstasy proving for the
sexual energy an outlet without directly engaging Bibliography
the sexual. Also, the psychic struggle between
a superego and a force placing strictures on it Chittick, W. (1982). The five divine presences: From
can bring about a theophany when the psyche Al-Qūnawı̄ to Al-Qayşarı̄. The Muslim world, 72:2.
surrenders to exhaustion. (pp. 107–128). Maldon: Wiley.
Coogan, M. D. (Ed.). (2001). New Oxford annotated bible.
On the other hand, Jung ascribes theophanies Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
to the unconscious. A theophanic experience, Corbin, H. (1997). Alone with the alone. Princeton:
then, could be explained as the active imagination Princeton University Press.
T 1798 Theosophy

D’Aquili, E., & Newberg, A. (2000). The neuropsychol- many Victorian minds, perceiving both pulpit
ogy of aesthetic, spiritual, and mystical states. In and laboratory as, in his day, representing
Zygon, 35:1. Maldon: Wiley-Blackwell.
Ibn ’Arabı̄ (1999). Al-Futūhāt al-Makkı̄yah [The meccan shallow, dogmatic views of truth. The real solu-
revelations]. Beirut: Dar al-Kotob al-Ilmiyah. tion, he contended, lays in the rediscovery of an
Ibn ’Arabı̄ (2001). Fuşūş al-Hikam [Bezels of wisdom]. “Ancient Wisdom” known in former times but
Beirut: Dār al-Mahajjah al-Baydā’: Dār al-Rasul now nearly forgotten, except to various esoteric
al-Akram.
Kakar, S. (1991). The analyst and the mystic. Chicago: lodges and teachers, which could show anew the
The University of Chicago Press. oneness of matter and spirit and the way to its
Laine, J. (1989). Visions of God: Narratives of theophany realization.
in the Mahābhārata. Vienna: Gerold. Oneness and the Path constituted the essential
Merkur, D. (1993). Gnosis. Albany: State University of
New York Press. message of the Theosophical Society. It was indi-
Moloney, J. (1954). Mother, God, and superego. Journal cated in different words in the three objectives
of the American Psychoanalytic Association, stated by the society, agreement with which is the
2, 120–151. only criterion for membership. Abbreviated and
Parrinder, G. (1970). Avatar and incarnation. London:
Faber and Faber. in current wording, they are to form a nucleus of
Smith, H. (1970). Psychedelic theophanies and the reli- the universal brotherhood of humanity; to
gious life. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 3(1), 87–91. encourage the comparative study of religion,
Smith, H. (2005). Do drugs have religious import? A forty philosophy, and science; and to investigate
year follow-up. In R. Walsh & C. S. Grob (Eds.),
Higher wisdom: Eminent elders explore the continuing unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent
impact of psychedelics (pp. 223–239). Albany: State in humanity.
University of New York Press. Other teachings, developing implications of
these principles and found in the writings of
H. P. Blavatsky and other classic Theosophical
writings, are also associated with the movement.
Theosophy One is that there are several “planes” or “bodies”
in a human being and correspondingly in the
Robert S. Ellwood cosmos. These embody different aspects of
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, nature, but also in their interrelatedness express
CA, USA the ultimate oneness of reality. They are named
and divided somewhat differently in different
sources but include the physical, etheric or
“Divine Wisdom,” is a system of thought energy field, the “astral” (roughly emotional and
emphasizing mystical insight into the inner work- mental-image sphere), mental, “buddhic” or intu-
ings of the divine nature. The term is often used itive, and “atmic” or divine.
more restrictively to refer to the modern Each individual is seen as a “monad” or
movement inaugurated by the creation of the “pilgrim” on a long journey, the “cycle of neces-
Theosophical Society in New York in 1975. sity,” passing through countless aeons, worlds,
The principal founders were the enigmatic and lifetimes out from the one into the realm of
Russian noblewoman Helena P. Blavatsky manifestation, therein to experience it in innu-
(1831–1891) and the US lawyer and journalist merable ways, finally returning to the one
Henry Steel Olcott (1832–1907). enriched by all experience.
Blavatsky articulated an ideological basis for A corollary of this teaching is that some
modern Theosophy in her writings, especially the individuals are well ahead of the common run of
monumental Isis Unveiled (1877) and The Secret humanity on the pilgrimage. They serve as guides
Doctrine (1888). Olcott in turn was the first and instructors to those willing to accept their
president of the organization. In his inaugural tutelage. These persons are often called Masters,
address of 1875, he referred to the conflict Mahatmas, or Elder Brethren. It was said that
between religion and science which so disturbed Blavatsky had a close relationship with certain
Tillich, Paul 1799 T
of them and that they had a role in the establish- father, Johannes Oskar Tillich (1857–1937), was
ment of the Theosophical Society. a conservative Lutheran minister and church
Modern Theosophy’s history has been administrator. In 1900, Tillich and two younger
sometimes colorful, producing several divisions. sisters, Johanna Marie (1891–1920) and
All Theosophical groups have been relatively Elisabeth (b. 1893), moved with their parents to
small but have had a significant cultural influence Berlin, the city where their father was born and
through their promulgation of concepts important educated. Their mother, Mathilde D€uselen Tillich
particularly to modern art, poetry, and the “new (b. 1860), died in 1903.
age” movement. After studying Greek and Latin at humanist
Gymnasien in Königsburg and Berlin, Tillich
pursued theological studies at the University of
See Also Berlin (1904), the University of T€ubingen (1905),
and the University of Halle (1905–1907). He
▶ Pilgrimage completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree with
a dissertation on philosophy of religion and Frie-
drich Schelling (1775–1854) at the University of
Bibliography Breslau in 1911. Tillich earned his Licentiate of
Theology at the University of Halle with a thesis
Ashcraft, W. M. (2002). The dawn of the new cycle; point titled Mysticism and Guilt-Consciousness in
Loma Theosphists and American culture. Knoxville:
Schelling’s Philosophical Development (1912/
University of Tennessee Press.
Blavatsky, H. P. (1877). Isis unveiled. New York: J. W. 1974). By the age of 25, Tillich was prepared to
Bouton. lecture in both philosophy and theology at the
Blavatsky, H. P. (1888). The secret doctrine. London: university level.
Theosophical Publishing.
Ordained a Lutheran minister in his father’s
Blavatsky, H. P. (1889). The key to theosophy. London:
Theosophical Publishing. church in Berlin in 1912, Tillich first served
Campbell, B. F. (1980). Ancient wisdom revived: A history a parish in an inner city district of Berlin where
of the theosophical movement. Berkeley: University of he ministered to the working poor (Tillich 1931/
California Press.
1948). He also began to imagine ways to revive
Ellwood, R. (1986). Theosophy: A modern expression of
the wisdom of the ages. Wheaton: Theosophical the relevance of Christian teachings among mem-
Publishing. bers of the educated classes.
Prothero, S. (1996). The white Buddhist: The Asian odys- In 1913, Tillich began his academic career with
sey of Henry Steel Olcott. Bloomington: Indiana
postdoctoral work on a Habilitationsschrift at the
University Press.
University of Halle, a thesis on philosophy and
truth in theologians prior to Friedrich Schleierma-
cher (1768–1834) which would help him secure
university employment. That same year he mar-
Tillich, Paul ried Margarethe (Greti) Wever (1888–1968), T
a union that did not survive Tillich’s volunteer
Mark Gonnerman service as a German army chaplain on the Western
Sofia University, Palo Alto, CA, USA Front from September 1914 to December 1918. At
war, Tillich witnessed countless horrific scenes,
including the epic Battle of Verdun (February–
Tillich’s German Years (1886–1933) December 1916), where he was responsible for
the care and burial of thousands of combat casu-
Paul Johannes Tillich (1886–1965), a Protestant alties. Twice he suffered nervous breakdowns in
Christian theologian and philosopher of religion, response to what might now be diagnosed
was born in the village of Starzeddel, East Prus- as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The
sia, a province of the German Empire where his World War, writes Tillich in 1919, “caused a tear
T 1800 Tillich, Paul

in the deepest foundations for me and my genera- Tillich’s American Years (1933–1965)
tion so great that it could never be closed up again”
(Bayer 2009). At the age of 47 and with rudimentary English
Following the war, Tillich began lecturing at skills, Tillich arrived in New York City at the
the Theology Faculty at the University of Berlin invitation of Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971)
as an untenured lecturer (Privatdozent). There with the promise of shelter and employment as
he presented an inaugural address entitled “The a lecturer in philosophy of religion and system-
Existence of God and the Psychology of Reli- atic theology at Union Theological Seminary.
gion” and offered a course on “Christianity and He entered fully into New York cultural life and
the Social Problems of the Present.” In 1920, he was promoted to the rank of Professor of Philo-
met Hannah Werner Gottschow (1896–1988). sophical Theology in 1940, the same year he
They married in 1924, the same year Tillich became a United States citizen. The sermons,
became Associate Professor of Systematic The- courses, and lectures he offered to Union semi-
ology at the Phillips-Universit€at Marburg narians, Columbia University graduate students,
where, for a brief time, he was a distant col- émigré intellectuals, and the general public were
league of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). In usually oversubscribed.
1925, he assumed a position as Professor of the Until his retirement from Union in 1955, Til-
Science of Religion at the University of Dresden lich was especially interested in relating pastoral
where he produced The Religious Situation theology to depth psychology, a project furthered
(1926), a critique of the spirit of capitalist soci- by the New York Psychology Group he began
ety. In 1929, he was appointed Professor of with Erich Fromm (1900–1980), a social psy-
Philosophy and Sociology at the University chologist he first knew in Frankfurt. The group
of Frankfurt. There he taught with Max met monthly in the years 1941–1945, often gath-
Horkheimer (1895–1973) and Theodor Adorno ering in Tillich’s apartment. Members included
(1903–1969), who arrived at Tillich’s invitation anthropologist Ruth Benedict (1887–1948), Pres-
to submit a Habilitationsschrift on the Danish byterian minister Seward Hiltner (1909–1984),
existentialist philosopher, Søren Kierkegaard psychoanalyst Rollo May (1909–1994), psychol-
(1813–1855). ogist Carl Rogers (1902–1987), and Jungian ana-
With Frankfurt as a base, Tillich became lyst Frances G. Wickes (1875–1967) (Stokes
well known through speeches and lectures pro- 1985; Cooper 2006).
moting Christian socialism. His growing public In the autumn of 1955, Tillich became one of
presence brought him into conflict with the four University Professors at Harvard,
National Socialist government. At the end of a prestigious appointment that allowed him to
1932, he published The Socialist Decision, an freely explore and integrate various domains of
appeal to the German people to choose social- knowledge in relation to what he called the “ulti-
ism over Nazism. In April 1933, Tillich’s name mate concerns” of human beings. His stature as
appeared in German newspapers as an “enemy a public intellectual grew during this time to the
of the state,” and he became the first non-Jewish extent that he was featured on the cover of Time
professor dismissed by a German university magazine in March 1959. In 1962, he left Harvard
after Adolph Hitler (1889–1945) came to for the John Nuveen Professorship at the Univer-
power. In May, he witnessed the public burning sity of Chicago Divinity School. There he lec-
of his Socialist Decision in a scene that tured on the history of Christian thought and, in
reminded him of paintings from the Spanish a joint seminar with Mircea Eliade (1907–1986),
Inquisition. In December 1933, Tillich emi- developed his thinking on systematic Christian
grated to the United States with his wife and theology in relation to the history of the world’s
daughter, Erdmuthe (b. 1925). (A son, René [b. religions. He died following a heart attack in
1937], has been a practicing psychologist in Chicago on 22 October 1965 at the age of 79.
Hawaii since 1968.) His ashes were interred on Pentecost in 1966 at
Tillich, Paul 1801 T
Paul Tillich Park in New Harmony, Indiana, the first encountered in 1912, the year of his ordina-
former site of a community founded by the Welsh tion. His engagement with Freud led him to con-
socialist reformer, Robert Owen (1771–1858). clude that “a religion that does not appeal to the
subconscious basis of all decisions is untenable in
the long run” (Tillich 1931/1948). As he became
Tillich’s Theology and Psychology more involved with the theology of pastoral care
at Union Seminary, he realized it had become
Over the course of his American years, Tillich impossible to develop a Christian theological
published the three-volume Systematic Theology anthropology “without using the immense mate-
(Tillich 1951, 1957a, 1963) that he began to con- rial brought forth by depth psychology” (Tillich
struct while teaching at Marburg in 1924. This 1952b/2000). Moreover, Tillich recognized that
magnum opus is a sustained demonstration of the very idea of God was changing under the
Tillich’s method of correlation, a question-and- influence of psychotherapy on pastoral care, for
answer approach to theological inquiry that the therapeutic encounter offers a “modification
shows how symbols that carry the substance of of the image of the threatening father—which is
Christian teachings point toward answers to ques- so important in Freud’s attack on religion—by
tions that arise out of particular life situations. elements of the image of the embracing and
This method is an expression of what Tillich calls supporting mother” (Tillich 1960/1984).
the Protestant principle: a protest against abso- Tillich’s most sustained psychological inves-
lute claims for relative realities. The Protestant tigations concerned the existential status and
principle and method of correlation serve as theo- function of anxiety in the history of western
logical defenses against idolatry: the substitution thought, especially with regard to the numbness,
of something for God that is not God, a reality meaninglessness, doubt, loneliness, and cynicism
referred to by Tillich as ultimate concern, ground he thought characterized his age. In his popular
of being, being-itself, the unconditional, or God 1950 Terry Lectures at Yale, published as The
beyond God. Courage to Be, Tillich argues that the psycho-
The Protestant principle thus functions as therapeutic approach fails to distinguish between
a constant reminder that human beings are existential and neurotic anxiety. For this reason,
prone to forget or distort their reliance on the the psychotherapist needs what the theologian is
contingent circumstances that enable their exis- able to provide: “Only in the light of an ontolog-
tence. This leads him to define sin as estrange- ical understanding of human nature can the body
ment from the way things actually are, of material provided by psychology and sociol-
exemplified by the love (agape)-centered New ogy be organized into a consistent and compre-
Being revealed in Jesus as the Christ, the one hensive theory of anxiety” (Tillich 1952b/2000).
who bears witness to the New Creation antici- Tillich’s main contribution to psychology may be
pated by the Spiritual Community that is the that he developed an ontology – a theory about
essential or ideal church. Whether and how one the nature of being – in psychological terms. T
participates in the life of this community is A modern spiritual classic, The Courage to Be
a matter of faith, “the state of being grasped by examines and demonstrates qualities of character
an ultimate concern” (Tillich 1963). As such, and intellect that enable resistance to forces of
faith includes the experience of doubt and is dehumanization through the technical and psy-
different from belief, important points Tillich chological controls refined in the perpetual war-
elaborates in his Dynamics of Faith (Tillich time economies of the twentieth century. Tillich
1957b/2009). is particularly interested in the ways “an existen-
The method of correlation requires that theo- tialist revolt in art and literature” informed by
logians grapple with major issues and ideas of depth psychology probes beneath surface-level
their time, so Tillich turned his attention to reality in order “to save life from the destructive
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), whose work he power of self-objectivation” (Tillich 1952b/2000).
T 1802 Tillich, Paul

Artists such as Nietzsche, Sartre, Camus, Kafka, produce a coherent, comprehensive yet relatively
Auden, and Arthur Miller, among others whom he isolationist theological system would soon be
mentions, are courageous because they do not back outmoded and thrown onto the “dustheap of the
away from the anxiety of meaninglessness, but past” (Pauck and Pauck 1974). However,
take it into themselves so that they might perform Tillich’s work continues to inspire and inform
and thereby reveal the persistent and creative research in Christian and comparative theology,
power of being in the face of the constant threat psychology, and religious studies.
of nonbeing. “Being,” writes Tillich, “must be It is, for example, fairly well known that
thought as the negation of the negation of being” Martin Luther King, Jr., (1929–1968) produced
(Tillich 1952b/2000). He concludes these chal- a doctoral dissertation on A Comparison of God
lenging lectures by pointing to a middle way of in the Thinking of Paul Tillich and Henry Nelson
faith in a “God above God” who experienced the Wieman (King 1955/2000), yet scholars are only
dialectical play of an individual’s mystical partic- beginning to explore the relation of Tillich’s the-
ipation and self-affirmation. onomous social ethics to King’s thought and the
Tillich assumed that every supposedly secular American Civil Rights Movement generally.
inquiry is rooted in largely unconscious premises Second, while Tillich gave more attention to
that betray a religious impulse. He wrote, “every- Freud than to Carl Jung (1875–1961) in his
thing is secular, and every secular thing is poten- published works, recent studies by John Dourley
tially religious” (Tillich 1931/1948). Hence, (2009) underscore affinities between Tillich and
Freud or anyone’s claim to scientific objectivity Jung in their approaches to understanding the
as an ultimate concern will rest on unscientific, power of religious symbols and the sacramental
largely unconscious foundations. Tillich puts it impulse. Third, Jonathan Z. Smith has examined
this way: “The naturalistic elements which Freud ways Tillich’s theological vocabulary informed
carried from the nineteenth into the twentieth the creation of religious studies as an academic
century, his basic puritanism with respect to field in America of the 1960s. “Tillich remains,”
love, his pessimism about culture, and his reduc- Smith claims, “the unacknowledged theoretician
tion of religion to ideological projection are all of our entire enterprise” (Smith 2010). Further
expressions of faith and not the result of scientific study of Tillich’s influence may help us better
analysis” (Tillich 1957b/2009). understand some of the biases that inform the
As a preacher and teacher, Tillich reminded academic study of religion.
his listeners that it takes courage to recognize and The passage of time allows for clearer and
accept that you are accepted in spite of the uncer- broader perspectives on Tillich’s contribution,
tainties, ambiguities, failures, demonic forces, and the recovery, translation, publication, and
and ever-present possibility of nonbeing that ongoing study of his sermons and writings further
threaten to undermine a felt sense of existence illuminate experiential and academic sources for
as a secure, centered, loving, and free human his thought (there are over 600 items in the Tillich
agent. “You are Accepted” is Tillich’s succinct bibliography). Thus we are better able to appre-
summary of the Christian gospel and title of his ciate the ways Tillich probed, interpreted, and
most famous sermon (Tillich 1948). related Christian spiritual truths to the human
sciences so that they remain relevant to the
many existential challenges of the present age.
Tillich’s Legacy

Tillich’s life and legacy represent a transition See Also

from the modern to the postmodern era in Prot-
estant Christian thought. As he entered into ▶ Anxiety
a practice of interfaith dialogue in the last decade ▶ Eliade, Mircea
of his life, Tillich sensed that his heroic effort to ▶ Faith
Traditionalism 1803 T
▶ Freud, Sigmund Tillich, P. (1912/1974). Mysticism and guilt-conscious-
▶ Fromm, Erich ness in Schelling’s philosophical development (trans:
Nuovo, V.). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University
▶ Hiltner, Seward Press.
▶ Kierkegaard, Søren Tillich, P. (1926/1956). The religious situation
▶ Love (trans: Niebuhr, R.). New York: Meridian Books.
▶ Luther, Martin Tillich, P. (1931/1948). The Protestant principle and the
proletarian situation. In The Protestant era
▶ May, Rollo (trans: Adams, J. L.) (pp. 161–181). Chicago: Univer-
▶ Nazism sity of Chicago Press.
▶ Protestantism Tillich, P. (1945/1965). The world situation. Philadelphia:
▶ Rogers, Carl Fortress Press.
Tillich, P. (1948). You are accepted. In The shaking of the
foundations (pp. 153–163). New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons.
Tillich, P. (1951). Systematic theology: Reason and
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University of Chicago Press.
Bayer, O. (2009). Tillich as a systematic theologian. In Tillich, P. (1952a). Autobiographical reflections. In
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University Press. Tillich, P. (1952b/2000). The courage to be (2nd ed.).
Cooper, T. (2006). Paul Tillich and psychology. Macon: New Haven: Yale University Press.
Mercer University Press. Tillich, P. (1957a). Systematic theology: Existence and the
Dourley, J. (2009). Tillich in dialogue with psychology. In Christ (Vol. 2). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
R. R. Manning (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to Tillich, P. (1957b/2009). Dynamics of faith. New York:
Paul Tillich (pp. 238–253). Cambridge, UK: HarperOne.
Cambridge University Press. Tillich, P. (1960/1984). The impact of pastoral
King, M. L. (1955/2000). A comparison of the psychology on theological thought. In Paul Tillich:
conceptions of God in the thinking of Paul Tillich The meaning of health, essays in existentialism,
and Henry Nelson Wieman. In C. Carson (Ed.), The psychoanalysis, and religion. Chicago: Exploration
papers of Martin Luther King, Jr (Rediscovering Press.
precious values, July 1951–November 1955, Vol. 2, Tillich, P. (1963). Systematic theology: Life and the spirit:
pp. 339–544). Berkeley: University of California History and the kingdom of God (Vol. 3). Chicago:
Press. University of Chicago Press.
May, R. (1973). Paulus: Reminiscences of a friendship.
New York: Harper & Row.
Pauck, W., & Pauck, J. (1974). Paul Tillich: His life and
thought (Life, Vol. 1). New York: Harper & Row.
Perry, J. M. (1972). Tillich’s response to Freud’s under- Traditionalism
standing of God and religion (Doctoral dissertation).
Marquette University, Milwaukee.
Marta Dominguez Diaz
Sch€ußler, W. (2009). Tillich’s life and works. In
R. R. Manning (Ed.), The Cambridge companion to School of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Paul Tillich (pp. 3–17). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University of St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
University Press. T
Smith, J. Z. (2010). Tillich[’s] remains. Journal of
the American Academy of Religion, 78(4), 1139–1170.
Stokes, A. (1985). Seward Hiltner, Paul Tillich, and Traditionalism is a contemporary esoteric current
the New York Psychology Group. In Ministry after that develops a philosophy critical of modernity,
Freud (pp. 109–141). New York: The Pilgrim based on a reinterpretation of the concept of
Press.
“Philosophia Perennis.” The notion is founded
Sturm, E. (2009). ‘First, read my sermons!’ Tillich as
preacher. In R. R. Manning (Ed.), The Cambridge upon monotheistic theologies, and it understands
companion to Paul Tillich (pp. 103–120). Cambridge, the world as a created reality that conceals
UK: Cambridge University Press. a system of divine signs. Signs, here, are partic-
Taylor, M. K. (2009). Tillich’s ethics: Between politics
ular manifestations of the truth; an absolute entity
and ontology. In R. R. Manning (Ed.), The Cambridge
companion to Paul Tillich (pp. 189–207). Cambridge, of divine nature manifested in all created things
UK: Cambridge University Press. and beings. Perennial philosophers sustain that
T 1804 Traditionalism

everything is divinely created and that an scholasticism as the referential core from which
ontological metaphysical essence exists in every all Christian teachings derive. The notion was
created being. That is to say, it has always been later employed by the mathematician Gottfried
and therefore its existence is not historically or Leibniz (1646–1716) who uses it to designate
culturally framed. Owing to its immutability and a universal mystical core, not only existing in
eternity, this spiritual essence is regarded as Christianity but common to all the world reli-
divine. According to Perennialists, human gions. The notion “Philosophia Perennis”
spirituality in its diverse manifested religious reappears in the twentieth century in the work of
forms is the way that humankind has developed the English novelist Aldous Huxley
to participate of this Eternal Quintessence. Since (1894–1963). In his 1945s “The Perennial
it is believed that human participation in godly Philosophy,” Huxley describes it as a divine
essence is entirely divine, human reasoning is metaphysical entity existing in all substantial
regarded as not interfering in this process of things and beings, connecting the physical,
divine apprehension. substantial world to the transcendent. Further-
From its early formulations in the late more, for Huxley, this “Philosophia Perennis” is
antiquity, with thinkers such as the Christian something with basics that have been
neoplatonists Ficino and Pico, to its apprehended and incorporated in the wisdom of
flourishing during the Renaissance and its peoples of every region in the world since the
later modern and postmodern adaptations, origins of humankind, but has only been more
Perennial philosophy has been expressed in sophisticatedly articulated by what he called
diverse ways while remaining faithful to its “higher religions” – meaning the main world
driving ideas: Firstly, Perennial philosophy is religions: the three monotheistic creeds,
understood to be both divinely received and Buddhism, and Hinduism. Accordingly, the
beyond human action; secondly, Perennial phi- plurality of religions of the world is, in this
losophy assumes a divine original spirit in view, only a kaleidoscope of diverse manifesta-
each being, who is aware of its originality. tions of one unique divine truth, generally
This process gradually distances the spirit referred to – among modern authors – with the
from its source beginning immediately after term “Tradition.” Tradition is for Traditionalists
creation. When people wish to regain the what the inner spirit was for former Perennialists,
absoluteness of the origin, religious experi- eternal, infinite, unaffected by contextual vari-
ences are meant to be open accesses to the ables, cross cultural, and a historical.
Divine, a way of returning to the original Although Huxley’s work already made
standpoint; and, lastly, the created world is use of the term to build up a criticism towards
ectypal of the primordial essence; there exist the “modern world,” it was the French thinker
various explanations – remarkably, the neopla- René Guénon (1886–1951) who popularized
tonist and the neo-Pythagorean – on how this the turned-into-critique term. Thus, it can be
reproduction process occurs. suggested that Traditionalism uses Perennialism
to elaborate a variety of criticisms towards “the
modern.”
History In Guénonian Traditionalism, European civ-
ilization has progressively distanced itself from
Although these tenets have been present in the “Tradition” that once was part of. This lack
Western esoteric thought since the third century of memory, the forgetting of Tradition, makes
CE, it was not since the Renaissance that the European civilization entering a state of demen-
actual term “Philosophia Perennis” was literally tia, ultimately responsible for the supposed
used. It first appears in Agostino Steuco’s terminal decline in which Europe is in modern
(1497–1548) book “De perenni philosophia libri times immersed. Since it is only “Tradition” that
X” (1540), and it was used to describe can produce the foundation of a genuine
Traditionalism 1805 T
civilization, and its wholeness is somewhat The first followers of Sufism appeared in
quintessentially embodied in “Traditional reli- the West at the beginning of the twentieth
gions,” only the return to this common wisdom century – writers such as Doris Lessing and
can save Europeans or Westerners, in general, Robert Graves. There have been other famous
from the debacle. Christianity is generally Traditionalist converts, but it is by far the
discredited of being capable of such transforma- figure of René Guénon, who has been most
tion. Hence, Traditionalists rely on non-Western influential in inspiring many Western Tradi-
religious wisdoms with the hope of, individual tionalists’ conversion to Islam. Coming from
by individual, return to the West, its original a catholic family, it is sometimes said,
spiritual sense, and with it saving from the although it has not been proved yet, that Gué-
moral crisis, if not the whole civilization as non was first initiated into Hinduism through
such, the souls of those individual spiritually the line of Shankarâchârya. However, he is
awakened Westerners. more famous for moving to Cairo in 1911 –
Despite of the fact that Perennialism has where he did live the rest of his life and where
a longstanding trajectory, its instrumenta- he had entered Sufism, adopting the Muslim
lization as a critical discourse is much more name of “Abd al-Wahid.”
recent. Traditionalism as such originates in Traditionalist thought has also been crucially
Europe in the interwar period, taking its inspira- influential in the academic field of religious
tion from the writings of René Guénon. The first studies where instead of Traditionalists are gen-
Traditionalist groups were established before erally called Perennialists. The school initiated
the Second World War, and they were the seed by Eliade posed the notion of “mystical experi-
of what was going to become a relevant move- ence” at the center of a scholarly debate about
ment of international dimensions. In the particular/universal nature of religious feel-
1948–1950, the initial Guénonian school suf- ings. Scholars such as Rudolf Otto, Ananda
fered its first division, creating the scission of Kentish Coomaraswamy, Walter Terence
a group led by one of the most prominent Stace, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, and Robert
Guénonian disciples, the Swiss Muslim convert Forman are outspoken voices of this trend, deci-
Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998). Decades later, sive in the emergence of an academic school
Traditionalism has taken three main directions: specialized in comparative religion. Perennialist
(1) the one of Schuon, who created the Western authors have supported the idea that mystical
Sufi order Maryamiyya, that grew in importance experiences are ephemeral but ineffable, unme-
in Europe and North America and uprooted in diated contacts with the Divine. They belong to
Iran led by Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933); the “One Core” though find expression in mul-
(2) the political orientation of the Italian Julius tiple forms, becoming what all Traditions world-
Evola (1898–1974), who transformed it into wide have in common. Furthermore, in the
a post-Second World War fascist-inclined ide- hermeneutics of religious studies, the concept
ology inspiring some Italian terrorist groups of is commonly used to question the authority of T
that time; and (3) the scholarly approach of the empirical methods seeking objectivity to priori-
Romanian Mircea Eliade (1907–1986), who tize the value of the individual pulse and subjec-
turned Traditionalism into a hermeneutical per- tivity. Today, authors such as William Chittick,
spective to be used for the comparative study of James Cutsinger, Huston Smith, Harry
religions. Oldmeadow, and Seyyed Hossein Nasr use
markedly Traditionalist perspectives in their
scholarly works.
In Religion Critics of the Traditionalist approach suggest
that Traditionalists apply Perennialist signifying
Since its inception, Traditionalism has been layers to Sacred Texts, meanings that the text
closely connected to Western forms of Sufism. itself does not necessarily contain; critics suggest
T 1806 Traditionalism

that such misinterpretation derives from (1842–1910) and Carl Gustav Jung
Traditionalists’ a priori loyalty to their Tradition- (1875–1961). In his Gifford lecture (1901) at
alist ideological stance. the University of Edinburgh (published in 1902
under the title of the varieties of religious expe-
rience), James became the first in supporting the
In Psychology study of religious experience using psychology’s
hermeneutics. Well versed in a wide variety of
Traditionalism has supposed an important influ- religiosities, ranging from Sufism, Buddhism,
ence in the development of new trends of psycho- and Vedanta to the New Church, American Tran-
logical theory, remarkably Transpersonal scendentalism, the Theosophical Society, or
psychology. Transpersonal psychology is some forms of Christian mysticism, James per-
a modality that takes into consideration some ceived the depth of human psyche as primordially
aspects hitherto neglected by the previous spiritual.
schools of psychological thought. Transpersonal Also attracted by several forms of religiosities
authors wanted to promote altered states of con- was the Swiss Carl Gustav Jung. A former
sciousness and mystical experiences as effective disciple of Sigmund Freud, Jung strongly
tools to consummate people’s potentialities. The disagreed with the Freudian conceptualization
term “Transpersonal” is here used to denote that of religion as an outcome of neurosis. In contrast,
which goes beyond the self. Hence, for Transper- he considered religion as genuine expressions of
sonal psychologists, psychical cure can only the psyche’s universal patterns of human
occur by abandoning the perceived as behavior. He typified religious feelings (mystical,
constraining self in order to gain access to an philosophical, doctrinal, and so on) in accordance
eternal meaningful reality of esoteric nature. to the existing behavioral models. Further, in line
This state may eventually help individuals to with Perennialism, he suggested that religiosities
overcome “negative” feelings such as guilt or were outer expressions of a “universal collective
unease. unconscious.”
Transpersonal psychology is commonly Despite these earlier contributions, it was not
known as the “fourth force,” because it aims to until the 1970s that Transpersonal psychology
overcome the limitations that Transpersonal psy- properly became a consistent, though controver-
chologists perceive in the so-called first force sial trend of psychological thought. The actual
(Freudian thought), second force (behaviorist term “Transpersonal psychology” was for the
school), and third force (humanist approach). It first time employed by the Czech Stanislav Grof
yearns to develop a radical new perspective by (b. 1931) who became famous for using LSD with
conceptualizing a leveled human psyche. his patients to help them “recover” pre- and
Accordingly, it considers that both psychoanalyt- perinatal memories. Since the 1970s, Transper-
ical Freudian thought and behavioral theorist sonal psychology has experienced a significant
have approached the lower levels of this scale increase in popularity, when ideas of spiritual
but have failed to address the higher more sophis- growth have extended beyond the psychological
ticated stages, those of the Transpersonal belong- arena influencing various forms of New Age
ing to the transcendental. ethos and other manifestations of new spirituali-
The work of the Greek-Armenian Traditional- ties (notably, neo-paganism).
ist George Ivanovich Gurdjieff (1877–1949) has Transpersonal psychology is markedly
been of particular relevance for the Transpersonal Perennialist in that it assumes a timeless ahistor-
movement, specifically with regard to the insis- ical dimension common to all human beings, and
tence on a need for spiritual awakening and his it proposes a return to the original source – here
theorization of “The Fourth Way” notion. Among labeled as “high consciousness.” It also shows
the most prominent predecessor psychologists of a notable Traditionalist influence in that it uses
the Transpersonal school are William James a Perennialist perspective to build up its criticism
Traditionalism 1807 T
on modern society in general – its materialist Coomaraswamy, A. K. (1943). Eastern wisdom and west-
excesses and superficial concerns – and in partic- ern knowledge. Isis, 4, 359–363.
Guénon, R. (1975). The crisis of the modern world.
ular on modern psychological trends. However, London: Luzac.
Transpersonal psychology differs from Hanegraaff, W. J. (2012). Esotericism and the academy.
Perennialism and Traditionalism alike, in its Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
notorious, sometimes posed as problematic and Heelas, P., & Woodhead, L. (2000). Universalization. In
Religion in modern times: An interpretive anthology
contradictory, emphasis on the self that contrasts (pp. 386–428). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
with the claim of abandoning the self to embrace Hunter, I. M. L. (1987). James, Williams. In R. L. Gregory
a collective wisdom. Perennial philosophy also (Ed.), The Oxford companion to the mind. Oxford,
attributed a seed of divine nature contained in England: Oxford University Press.
Huxley, A. (1945). The perennial philosophy. New York:
every individual, but the stress the Transpersonal Harper & Brothers.
circles put on self-experience denotes an individ- Huxley, A. (2004). The perennial philosophy. New York:
ualistic shift not present in Perennialist or Tradi- Harper Perennial Modern Classics.
tionalist discourses. Further, even though King, R. (2005). Mysticism and spirituality. In J. R.
Hinnells (Ed.), The Routledge companion to the study
Transpersonal’s higher consciousness entails of religion. London: Routledge.
some kind of spirituality, Transpersonal psychol- Lings, M., & Minnaar, C. (2007). The underlying religion:
ogy is in most cases detached from the An introduction to the perennial philosophy. Bloom-
Perennialist and Traditionalist theistic compo- ington: World Wisdom.
Oldmeadow, H. (2005). The betrayal of tradition: Essays
nent. Nevertheless, its nontheistic approach has on the spiritual crisis of modernity. Bloomington:
not exempted it from criticism. Transpersonal World Wisdom.
psychology’s incorporation of Perennialist/Tra- Oldmeadow, H. (2008). Mediations: Essays on religious
ditionalist principles into psychology has brought pluralism and the perennial philosophy. San Rafael:
Sophia Perennis.
about fierce criticism from more secular-oriented Putnam, R. A. (1997). The Cambridge companion to
psychologist sectors. William James. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Rooth, G. (2008). Prophet for a dark age: A companion to
the works of René Guénon. Brighton: Sussex
See Also Academic.
Schmidt-Biggemann, W. (2004). Philosophia perennis:
▶ Eliade, Mircea Historical outlines of western spirituality in ancient,
▶ James, William medieval and early modern thought. Dordrecht:
Springer.
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav Schuon, F. (1975). The transcendent unity of religions.
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Eastern Religious London: Harper & Row.
Traditions Sedgwick, M. (2003). Western Sufism and traditionalism.
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Gnosticism Retrieved from www1.aucegypt.edu/faculty/
sedgwick/trad/write/WSuf.htm. Accessed 15 Aug
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Religion 2008.
▶ Jungian Self Sedgwick, M. J. (2004). Against the modern world: Tra-
▶ Monotheism ditionalism and the secret intellectual history of the T
▶ Orthodoxy twentieth century. Oxford, England: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Sharf, R. H. (1998). Experience. In M. C. Taylor (Ed.),
Critical terms for religious studies (pp. 94–115).
Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Bibliography Steuco, A. (1542). De perenni philosophia libri X. Basle:
Nicolaum Bryling. et Sebastianum Francken.
A good source of information on Traditionalism is the Tart, C. T. (1992). Transpersonal psychologies: Perspec-
blog compiled, edited and moderated by Mark tives on the mind from seven great spiritual traditions.
Sedgwick. http://traditionalistblog.blogspot.ch/ New York: Harper San Francisco.
Bocking, B. (2006). Mysticism: No experience needed Waterfield, R. E. (1987). René Guénon and the future of
(Vol. 7). Diskus. Retrieved from www.basr.ac.uk/ the west: The life and writings of a 20th century
diskus/diskus7/bocking.htm. Accessed 17 Aug 2008. metaphysician. Wellingborough: Crucible.
T 1808 Transcendence

would result in God’s eventual decay and

Transcendence mutability along with the rest of immanent
reality. A decaying god is not a god at all for
Todd DuBose Augustine and other likeminded thinkers
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, (Augustine 398/1961; Fitzgerald 1999).
Chicago, IL, USA Moreover, trying to resolve the finite/infinite
dilemma by stating that the ability to understand
transcendence is simultaneously professing the
Transcendence is an experience central to both grandeur of God and stating that the infinite
spirituality and therapeutic transformation. In mystery is simply beyond the grasp of the finite
fact, it may be considered the most important mind left a blatant inconsistency unaddressed:
and distinguishing factor in any form of liberation How can a finite person “know” an unknowable
as transcendence is an experience of moving transcendent reality? Nevertheless, said other
from one mode of existence to another, for vari- apologists, the very fact that one can even
ous reasons, and done in a myriad of ways. imagine a transcendent God was evidence
Understanding the nature of transcendence as enough of the empirical reality of transcendence.
a phenomenon is essential to any theory of With the impact of logical positivism and nat-
change. uralistic empiricism, however, transcendence as
Transcendence originally meant “going an immaterial reality is simply rejected as
beyond or outside” one’s situation. This sense a viable possibility, and no amount of faith in
of transcendence is clarified only in relation to the unseen was able to squelch the need among
what was meant by “immanence.” The differen- natural scientists for observable proof as
tiation of transcendence from immanence was a prerequisite for assent. Empirical theologians
a theological concern as it became central for of “The Chicago School” focused their energies
theologians to distinguish between the nature, on responding to the apparent scientific/religious
relationship, and place of God in contradistinc- rift, gaining particular ground with process
tion to humankind and the rest of the natural theology based on Alfred North Whitehead’s
world. While these apologists sought to defend thought (Meland 1969). The tradition of empiri-
God’s existence as immutable and as the uncre- cal theology opened other possibilities of under-
ated Creator of life, other thinkers took a contrary standing transcendence as a natural phenomenon
route than proposed God is immanent within, and that is consistent with natural science convictions
as, nature. The latter positions became known as while remaining meaningful to human
pantheism or pan-en-theism. Either way, the significance.
debates, often ending in accusations of heresy, Transcendence is also understanding in other
sought to understand and/or explain ways within various religious traditions. In
a metaphysical puzzle of how finite existence Judaism, for instance, transcendence has been
comes to know and relate to the infinite. understood as that which is “hidden” or inex-
Part of the difficulty in resolving the puzzle of haustible or, better yet, as the overwhelming
transcendence and immanence was the presump- power of the numinous. Thus, we hear of the
tion that both realities were places in space and inability to look on the face of God. What is
time. In other words, transcendence was a state of also emphasized in Judaism is the poverty of
existence beyond or out of physical existence. language to capture and denote what is
Immanence, on the contrary, was finite physical represented by transcendence. References to the
existence. This raised problems for theologians, divine are pointed differently in Hebrew or
though, particularly Augustine of Hippo written in transliterated English as G-d. In
(354–440), who defended the belief that God Buddhism, we experience the possibility of
could not be understood in terms of created shunyata, or emptiness, the void, or no-thing,
existence in time and space because doing so which transcends attachments and binding
Transcendence 1809 T
images. This is achieved within immanence, are contextual and co-constructive of experience
which is unlike the Hindu goal of escaping rebirth in the world.
by transcending material desires. Both Buddhism Transcendence, then, becomes a hermeneuti-
and Hinduism, therefore, see transcendence as cal activity for Heidegger in which the interpre-
the state of relinquishing attachments, a theme tive process unveils authentic ways of being in
which is present in any ascetic tradition. For the world. Jean Paul Sartre (1905–1980), the
Islam, and other traditions emphasizing the abso- French existential phenomenologist who saw
lute transcendence of the divine, however, any much of his work as a continuation of
link of immanence with God drifts lands us in Heidegger’s project, saw transcendence as
into idolatrous conditions and should be describing various relations of the self to the
abandoned. object-oriented world, including our relations
Another very interesting conundrum in the with others. For Sartre, the “for-itself” is some-
history of transcendence, a nuance of the finite/ times called transcendence, as such a state of
infinite dilemma, is the paradox of personalistic existence seeks the freedom to create one’s
relationships with God, when God’s transcen- meaningful existence. This is opposed, for Sartre,
dence is supposedly beyond any personalistic to an unfree existence in which one forfeits one’s
and/or anthropomorphic representation. Never- subjectivity in collusion with the other’s objecti-
theless, transcendent experiences are related to fying gaze (Sartre 1956). Finally, the Swiss psy-
prayerful and mystical experiences of intimate chiatrist Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) saw
encounters with God as a person, despite the transcendence as that which is beyond time and
belief in the Eckhartian-flavored understanding space, or what he called the encompassing, which
of the experience of God as beyond any concep- is ultimate nonobjectivity (no-thing-ness) (Jas-
tualization of God. Understanding God as an pers 1971).
enigmatic experience beyond any and all theistic Current discussions of transcendence continue
conceptualizations. These challenges to under- to resolve age-old dilemmas of describing the
standing transcendence in theological and reli- experience in ways that are respectful of freedom
gious traditions join other philosophical ones. and transformation while attempting to resist
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) stood at the reductionism. This is the case in theology,
interstices of theology, philosophy, and psychol- philosophy, and psychology. A few remaining
ogy and defined the transcendent as that which issue merits address, however, for the future of
lies beyond what our faculty of knowledge can clarifying transcendence.
legitimately know, thus, placing the transcendent
beyond the scope of epistemology. At the same
time, Kant saw the “transcendental” as the very Commentary
conditions of the possibility of knowledge itself
(Kant, 1781–2008). The father of transcendental What is vital in a contemporary understanding of
phenomenology, Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), transcendence, particularly as it relates to imma- T
borrowing from his teacher Wilhelm Dilthey nence, is to understand it as a qualitative experi-
(1833–1911), understood transcendence as that ence and not to equate it with a location in
which is beyond or separate from the constructs physical space and time or as something that
of our consciousness (Husserl 1962). Martin Hei- can be measured. We are still squeamish about
degger (1889–1976), Husserl’s student and assis- immaterial realities. The recent debates on reduc-
tant, came to a view of transcendence that ing transcendence to genetics and/or neurosci-
reversed his teacher’s position. For Heidegger, ence are cases in point (Hamer 2005; Zimmer
transcendence is always and already occurring 2005), although it can be relieving to align with
within the context of our finitude and throwness the “hard” scientists in order to receive their kind
(Heidegger 1962). States of consciousness, of evidence as further legitimization of transcen-
therefore, are not separate from the world but dence. At the same time, it very well may be the
T 1810 Transcendence

inaccurate approach with which to address this and suffering in this existence can lead to a lack
matter. Something seems anticlimatic about of concern for this life at least, and a hatred for it
knowing that God’s name is “Gene VMAT2!” at best, much like Friedrich Nietzsche
Again, the perpetuated mistake in approaching (1844–1900) predicted. Agreeing with the
transcendence in this way is in misunderstanding sentiments of Nietzsche, Erich Fromm
transcendence as a person, place, or thing. (1900–1980) noted that the pull away from life
Transcendence is an experience of liberation, and toward a Freudian return to inorganicity is
a type of qualia that is invisible, immeasurable, more appropriately driven by an escape from
and incomparable, because not substantial. freedom. Contrary to common assumption, we
Is the relationship between transcendence and often fear the freedom from which and to which
immanence oppositional? Can one hold transcendence delivers us (Fromm 1941).
a respectable postmodern position without fusing In fact, what may fuel the pain of this life may
transcendence with immanence? If transcen- be the perpetual desire to transcend-as-escape it.
dence is immanence, then how can we discern The remedy to our unnecessary suffering, then,
one experience from the other? These questions may be to give oneself over to another kind of
presume a faulty assumption, which is that imma- immanent transcendence, which lives out life all
nence and transcendence are antagonistic polari- its pathos, as Michel Henry (1922–2002) advised,
ties. The morphing of our understanding of and experience the paradox of transcendence: We
transcendence has shown the contrary to this con- transcend existence when we enter it (Henry
clusion. The relationship between transcendence 2002). This is not an invitation to ignore oppres-
and immanence is a dialectical one, and, more- sion or deafen calls for liberation and deliver-
over, one in which each one cannot be understood ance. On the contrary, an invitation to live life
without presuming the other. Tom Driver (1985) in its fullness and uniqueness can very well
noted how transcendence is radical immanence. inspire a more vivid respect and sensitivity to
As Jean-Luc Nancy (1993) has proposed, we creating free, meaningful, and fulfilling lives for
understand freedom only in light of “throwness.” each and every person and/or sentient creation.
Finally, although discussions of transcendence
as ascendance, as escape, as dissociation, or as
a Gnostic extrication of our physicality mitigate See Also
against an existential conviction of transcendence
within immanence, these experiences are none- ▶ Daseinsanalysis
theless popular understandings of transcendence. ▶ Hermeneutics
The desire to escape one state of existence for ▶ Homo Religiosus
another is at the heart of trance induction and ▶ Lived Theology
other religious rituals. Opening ourselves to ▶ Meaning of Human Existence
“other worlds” can give perspective to this one. ▶ Transcendent Function
Dissociating during the horrors of physical and
sexual abuse can be the only freedom one may
have during such a tragic time. Imagination of Bibliography
other worlds, other comportments, and other pos-
sibilities is perhaps the most powerful form of Augustine, A. (398/1961). Confessions (trans: Pine-
Coffin, R.S.). New York: Penguin Books.
transcendence available to any of us and can be Driver, T. (1985). Patterns of grace: Human experience as
considered an existential. On the other hand, word of God. Landham: University of America Press.
transcendence as escape is the project of the Fitzgerald, A. (Ed.). (1999). Augustine through the ages:
suicidal candidate, though a project carried out An encyclopedia. Grand Rapids: W. B. Eerdmans.
Fromm, E. (1941). Escape from freedom. New York:
through a narrowed attunement to possibilities.
Farrar and Rinehart.
Moreover, encouraging otherworldliness as Hamer, D. (2005). The God gene: How faith is hardwired
a solution to confronting the complexity, pain, into our genes. New York: Anchor.
Transcendent Function 1811 T
Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time (trans: other way around. In analysis, the analyst can
Macquarrie, J., & Robinson, E.). Oxford, UK: Basil mediate the transcendent function for the analy-
Blackwell.
Henry, M. (2002). I am the truth: Toward a philosophy of sand through the transference, and in this way, the
Christianity (trans: Emanuel, S.). Stanford: Stanford patient experiences the analyst as indispensable.
University Press. Jung defined his approach to transference as
Husserl, E. (1962). Ideas: General introduction to pure “constructive” which is based on evaluating the
phenomenology (trans: Gibson, W.). New York:
Collier. symbol via dreams and fantasies. It is the symbol
Jaspers, K. (1971). Philosophy of existence (trans: that is “the best possible expression for a complex
Graubau, R.). Philadelphia: University of fact not yet clearly apprehended by conscious-
Pennsylvania Press. ness” (Jung 1960, p. 75).
Kant, I. (2008). Critique of pure reason (trans:
Weigelt, M.). New York: Penguin. (Original work In his paper on the transcendent function, Jung
published 1781). writes about his constructive approach to dream
Meland, B. (Ed.). (1969). The future of empirical theology analysis. In order to exemplify this, he cites
(VIIth ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. the dream of a woman patient in which someone
Nancy, J. L. (1993). The experience of freedom. Stanford:
Stanford University Press. gives her a wonderful, richly ornamented, antique
Sartre, J. P. (1956). Being and nothingness: An essay sword dug up out of an ancient burial mound.
on phenomenological ontology (trans: Barnes, H.). He interpreted this as her need for the inner father
New York: Philosophical Library. she needs to relate to in order to help her
Zimmer, C. (2005). The soul made flesh: The discovery of
the brain – And how it changed the world. Tampa: Free disidentify with remaining in a perpetual passive
Press. childlike state. Her actual father was a passionate,
energetic man, and it is this energy that the
patient needs to find in her inner father in order
to live life fully.
Transcendent Function According to Jung, the self-regulating func-
tion of the psyche can be helped through dreams
Ann Casement but more importantly through fantasy which
British Jungian Analytic Association, enables unconscious material to become
London, UK activated through activating the transcendent
function. In order to do this, he advocates the
use of active imagination via drawing, painting,
Transcendent Function is a term that first or sculpting which can give expression to uncon-
appears in a paper Jung wrote in 1916 where scious material which may be expressed in
he states it is neither mysterious nor meta- a mood. Critical attention must be eliminated
physical but is, instead, a psychological func- during this process and creative formulation
tion “comparable in its way to a mathematical allowed to break through. The second, more
function of the same name, which is a function important stage of active imagination is for ego
of real and imaginary numbers. The psycho- not to be overwhelmed by unconscious contents. T
logical ‘transcendent function’ arises from the An important way forward is the development of
union of conscious and unconscious contents” an inner dialog in bringing together the opposites
(Jung 1960, p. 69). As Jung states, the uncon- for the production of the third, which is the
scious behaves in a compensatory or comple- symbol. Through this transcending of opposites,
mentary manner to consciousness and vice consciousness is widened by confrontation with
versa. If consciousness is too one-sided, the unconscious contents, and the transcendent func-
unconscious may break through via slips of tion proceeds not without aim and purpose but
the tongue. can enable an individual to move beyond
The transcendent function is so called because pointless conflict and avoid one-sidedness.
it enables the transition of contents from the As Jung says, truth, law, guidance is said to be
unconscious to consciousness as well as the nowhere save in the mind. “Thus the unconscious
T 1812 Transcendent Function

is credited with all those faculties which the process of the transcendent function we not only
West attributes to God. . . the transcendent struggle with opposites in ourselves, we also
function. . . the phenomenon of spontaneous inhabit the opposites of our historical time”
compensation, being beyond the control of man, (Ulanov 1997, p. 137).
is quite in accord with the formula ‘grace’ or the Ulanov relates the transcendent function and
‘will of God’” (Jung 1958, p. 506). transference to transcendence which is not an
The mediatory process of the transcendent abstraction but exists in the here and now. “Spirit
function forms the material of construction “in and body go together. Transcendence always
which thesis and antithesis both play their part. . . effects a striking conjunction of the particular
in the shaping of which the opposites are united and the universal, the awe-inspiring and the
(in) the living symbol” (Jung 1971, p. 480). This humdrum, the vast and the concrete.” She quotes
symbol formation through the mediation of the Jung as follows: “Analysis should release an
transcendent function in the conflict of opposites experience that grips or falls upon us as from
is to be found in the struggle between Jesus and above, an experience that has substance
Satan, Buddha and Mara, or the regeneration of and body . . . . It must be organically true, that
Faust through the pact with the devil. is, in and of our own being. If I were to symbolize
it I would choose the Annunciation” (Jung 1925/
1989, p. 80).
Transference, the Transcendent
Function, and Transcendence
Jung and Hegel
The analytical psychologist, Ann Ulanov’s
paper of the above title illustrates how transfer- The analytical psychologist, Hester Solomon,
ence, like dreams and symptoms, inevitably states that the schema of psychological function-
introduces the transcendent function in the ing that Jung developed in the Transcendent
course of analytic treatment. “The transcendent Function has a parallel in the philosophical
function is part of the compensatory function of vision of Hegel’s dialectic. In the immediacy
the transference” (Ulanov 1997, p. 125). The of the disintegrating psychological experiences
analyst and analysand consciously take up that he went through in the years between 1912
what the psyche does spontaneously in produc- and 1916, Jung swung from one pole of experi-
ing opposite points of view in order to reach its ence to the other. Through this dynamic inter-
goal of individuating or broadening conscious- play, he was able to achieve a personal
ness. The analysand is dependent on the ana- synthesis, a position of relative integration
lyst’s involvement and Jung’s approach to the between the conscious and unconscious atti-
analytic process “consisted essentially in tudes. So Jung himself was living the dialectic
a dialogue and a mutuality requiring the emo- (Solomon 2007).
tional involvement of the analyst for change to As Solomon goes on to say:
occur” (Casement 2001, p. 79). Ulanov also Hegel’s grand design is an attempt to understand
alerts to the dangers of analyst and analysand reality as constructed historically in pairs of oppo-
“bumping around in the psyche” together which sites that are not dichotomous but are rather in
can take the form of inflation, seduction, power intimate, dynamic, albeit oppositional relation to
one another. The dialectical model allows for
plays, and defensive intellectualizing. a twofold view of reality, on the one hand in
“The transcendent function inaugurates terms of bipolar opposites in dynamic relation to
transition to arrival of the new” (Ulanov 1997, each other, and on the other hand a unity of oppo-
p. 126). This initiates the arrival of a third point of sites towards which each strives. . .The task of dia-
lectical philosophy is to strive for greater and
view which surpasses the conflicting opposites greater comprehension until a kind of totality of
and creates a space between consciousness and understanding is achieved. This is what Hegel
the unconscious wherein symbols arise. “In the called ’absolute reason (Solomon 2007).
Transcendent Function 1813 T
The tripartite structure of the dialectical pro- with beliefs and judgments that may differ from
cess, like the transcendent function, expressed as one’s own. . .Both transcendent function and
thesis/antithesis/synthesis reflects an archetypal reflective function are descriptions of the capac-
pattern with the third position consisting of ity to relate to other people as psychologically as
a resolution that has the capacity to hold two well as physically separate” (Knox 2003, p. 164).
apparent opposites together. It is through the She goes on to say:
tension and conflict created by the dynamic There would seem to be sound neurophysiological
relationship that a creative, forward-moving support for Jung’s model of the transcendent func-
resolution is achieved between, for example, tion as a dialog between conscious and uncon-
self and another whether it be mother/infant or scious processes of appraisal. Allan Schore draws
on empirical research to support his view that the
analyst/analysand. This is also to be met in the right hemisphere is predominant in “performing
“Christian idea of the threefold nature of God as valence-dependent, automatic, pre-attentive
Father, Son and Holy Spirit; Spinoza and appraisals of emotional facial expressions” and
Descartes’ threefold vision of reality as that the orbito-frontal system, in particular, is
important in assembling and monitoring relevant
consisting of three different kinds of substance past and current experiences, including their affec-
(thought, nature and God); the Socratic dialectic tive and social values. Crucially, he extends this
whereby rigid positions are confronted and appraisal function of the orbito-frontal cortex to
thereby changed by adroit questioning. . .all attest underpin reflective function itself. (Knox 2003, p.
198)
to the ubiquitous, deep structural nature of the
tripartite dialectical vision” (Solomon 2007). It is this capacity for integrating opposites,
Solomon’s conclusion is as follows: “Jung’s emotional appraisal, and psychological separate-
concept of the transcendent function and Hegel’s ness that Jung was pointing to in his concept of
dialectical vision both seek to address similar individuation in which the transcendent function
understandings of psychic reality and as such plays such a major role. If “the ego is too unstable
demonstrate a remarkable similarity of structure” and weak to moderate impulsivity enough to
(Solomon 2007). allow for the constellation of the transcendent
function. . .Shadow roles and impulses are acted
out, without the appearance of a transcendent
Transcendent Function and Reflective function to bring about an integration of
Function opposites” (Stein 1998, p. 124).

The analytical psychologist, Jean Knox, explores

Jung’s concept of the transcendent function in See Also
relation to research on the reflective function in
attachment theory. She states: “The concept of ▶ Active Imagination
reflective function has emerged to explain the ▶ Dreams
vital role that the parent plays in facilitating the ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav T
child’s capacity to relate to other people as men- ▶ Psychoanalysis
tal and emotional being with their own thoughts, ▶ Transcendence
desires, intentions, beliefs and emotions” (Knox ▶ Transference
2003, p. 10).
Jung was using the term transcendent function
to describe an individual’s capacity to tolerate
difference in others and also in oneself. Bibliography
“In attachment theory it is the development of
Casement, A. (2001). Carl Gustav Jung. London: Sage.
this capacity which defines reflective function, in Jung, C. G. (1925/1989). Analytical psychology: Notes of
that reflective function depends upon the aware- the seminar (W. McGuire, Ed.). Princeton: Princeton
ness that other people have minds of their own University Press.
T 1814 Transcendental Meditation

Jung, C. G. (1958). On the Tibetan book of the Great Because of this remarkable openness, a wealth of
Liberation. In Psychology and religion: West and studies has been conducted on the salutary effects
East (Vol. 11, p. 506). London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul. of which practitioners of TM claim to be in
Jung, C. G. (1960). The transcendent function. In The receipt. The first wave of these studies was
structure and dynamics of the psyche (Vol. 8, pp. 69, published in the early 1970s and found that the
75). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. techniques utilized by practitioners of TM led to
Jung, C. G. (1971). Definitions. In Psychological types
(Vol. 6, p. 480). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. a state of “restful alertness.” Subsequent studies
Knox, J. (2003). Archetype, attachment, analysis: Jungian have investigated TM’s role in reducing blood
psychology and the emergent mind. Hove: Brunner- pressure, obesity, depression, and a host of other
Routledge. afflictions – somatic and otherwise. These results,
Solomon, H. (2007). The transcendent function and
Hegel’s dialectic vision. In A. Casement (Ed.), Who however compelling, are far from being
owns Jung? (pp. 270, 271, 273, 288). London: Karnac undisputed, however.
Books. This scientific turn, while relatively new in
Stein, M. (1998). Jung’s map of the soul. Peru: Open Court the history of religions, is certainly not
Publishing.
Ulanov, A. B. (1997). Transference, the transcendent restricted to TM, though it is emblematic of
function, and transcendence. The Journal of Analytical the trend to psychologize religion and in partic-
Psychology, 42(1), 119–138. ular spiritual praxes. TM is a particularly salient
example of how the religious and psychological
horizons can be imperceptibly fused in a single
tradition.
Criticism of TM has been harsh – even
Transcendental Meditation vituperative. Former members have come for-
ward alleging that it is a cult, entangling the
Nicholas Grant Boeving unsuspecting in the insidious web of its
Rice University, Houston, TX, USA rhetoric. Adherents, on the other hand, hail
the triumph of TM as the first truly universal
spiritual practice scientifically proven to aid
Transcendental Meditation, popularly known as in evolution. In any event, TMs reception in
TM, was introduced by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi the United States has irrevocably altered
(1917–2008) in 1958. Today, its programs and the landscape of the American religious
related initiatives are represented on six conti- imagination.
nents, claim upwards of six million adherents,
and boast campuses in the United States, Mexico,
England, India, and China. See Also
It was not until the Beatles went to India and
met with its founder, however, that TM made its ▶ Contemplative Prayer
appearance on the Western stage. Subsequently, ▶ Meditation
many artists followed suit and brought with them
into the Mahrishi’s fold innumerable devotees.
Such widespread – if fleeting – fervor was enough
Bibliography
to win the Maharishi the cover of Time Magazine
in 1975. Gilpin, G. (2006). The Maharishi effect: A personal jour-
The techniques of meditation are claimed by ney through the movement that transformed American
its founder to be “a path to God.” To follow this spirituality. New York: Tarcher-Penguin.
path, however, TM does not require any change Mason, P. (2005). Maharishi Mahesh yogi: The biography
of the man who gave transcendental meditation to the
in either faith or belief. world. Merchantville: Evolution Publishing.
TM has, since its inception, invited and Persinger, M. (1980). TM and cult mania. Hanover: Chris-
encouraged scientific investigation of its claims. topher Pub House.
Transference 1815 T
influence he achieves things that would ordinarily
Transference be beyond his/her power, and he leaves off his/
her symptoms and seems apparently to have
Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi recovered – merely for the sake of the analyst.
Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Another advantage of transference is that the
Haifa, Israel analysand produces and acts out a life story,
with the earliest attachments at its center.
But the transference phenomenon exists out-
The idea of transference is at the center of the side the analytic situation. As described by Freud,
classical psychoanalytic theory of object rela- it is a universal phenomenon of the human mind,
tions. Early object relations patterns, formed by which dominates the whole of each person’s rela-
our experiences within the family, become con- tions to his/her human environment. In other
solidated and remain relatively fixed throughout words, early object relations are acted out in
adult life. They are revealed as emotional reac- every instance of human contact and in every
tions in interpersonal situations which are highly instance of interpersonal fantasy.
intense and realistically speaking quite improper. Transference is a particular form of the more
Any strong emotional reaction formed quickly in general mechanism of projection, and as we
an interpersonal encounter, such as love or hate at know projective hypotheses explain the contents
first sight, represent a transference reaction, i.e., of religious beliefs as reflecting specific human
a reaction to a present object which is in reality an experiences and fantasies. In psychoanalytic
acting out of a childhood reaction to one’s parents writings, projection may be a general perceptual
or other close figures. mode, externalizing internal processes or needs.
Sigmund Freud claimed to have discovered In both cases the result is perceptual distortion.
transference through the practice of psychother- Psychoanalysis suggests an iconic correlation
apy according to his/her technique of psychoanal- between the internal world and religious ideas,
ysis. He reported that those being analyzed by so that these ideas are a reflection of the internal
him were not ready to regard the analyst merely, psychic landscape. Psychoanalytic theorists have
and realistically, as a helper and adviser. The provided us with various content hypotheses,
analysand sees in the analyst “the return, the specifying what is projected. Psychoanalysis
reincarnation, of some important figure out of also specified the recapitulation mechanism of
his/her childhood or past, and consequently trans- transference, through which early experiences in
fers on to him feelings and reactions” (Freud the family are recreated as cultural products. The
1940, p. 192). These feelings and reactions are presumably projected humans are the “significant
ambivalent, comprising both positive and affec- others”: father, mother, family relations, and
tionate and negative and hostile attitudes towards dynamics.
the analyst, who is put in the place of the analy- Because of the centrality of family dynamics
sand’s parents, either father or mother. The trans- in early childhood, psychoanalysis suggests that T
ference is made conscious by the analyst and is all religious traditions would contain projective
handled by showing that the transference is fantasies which construe the cosmic environment
a reexperiencing of emotional relations which in the shape of the family drama. Parental care
had their origin in the earliest object relations in varies in different cultures; the child’s concept of
childhood. the parents will similarly vary and so will the
Positive transference serves to create an resultant image of the deities. Not only are the
attachment to the analyst, as the analysand seeks images of the gods likely to vary in accordance
to please the analyst and win his/her applause and with early concepts of the parents, but also the
love. In Freud’s phrasing, it becomes the true means of communicating with them and
motive force of the patient’s collaboration, soliciting their help. A more complex view of
his/her weak ego becomes strong, under its the projection process notes that religious images
T 1816 Transfiguration

come before us ready-made as part of social transfigured. “The appearance of his countenance
learning, but then we as individuals project our was altered, and his raiment became dazzling
personal, unique experiences on them. What white” (1952, RSV).
a religious tradition teaches is an ambiguous
stimulus, and we develop it in the image of our
own private history and our own parents. Exegetical Origins

The original Greek term for this phenomenon was

See Also metemorphothe. Metamorphosis refers to
a conspicuous physical and rather sudden change
▶ Freud, Sigmund in one’s form or structure. In the biblical event,
▶ Object Relations Theory the disciples witnessed Jesus’ face shining like
▶ Projection the sun and his garments a brilliant white which
▶ Psychoanalysis they described as “light,” or “glory.” In his
altered form, Jesus speaks with Moses and Elijah
who also “appear in glory.” Glory stresses the
Bibliography concept of visible light (Luke 2:9; 9:31), the
divine presence as a luminous manifestation and
Freud, S. (1912/1958). The dynamics of transference. In God’s glorious revelation of God’s person as
The standard edition of the complete psychological
borrowed from the Old Testament concept of
works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 12, pp. 97–108).
London: Hogarth Press. kabod.
Freud, S. (1940/1977). An outline of psychoanalysis. In In the gospel narrative, the disciples were
The standard edition of the complete psychological “heavy with sleep but kept awake.” They witness
works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 23, pp. 139–207).
a conversation between Jesus, Moses, and Elijah.
London: Hogarth Press.
Luke tells us that they discussed what Jesus was
to accomplish at Jerusalem – his death.
Then “a cloud came and overshadowed them
[the disciples], and they were afraid as they
Transfiguration entered the cloud; and a voice came out of
the cloud” (1952, RSV) proclaiming Jesus to be
Kathryn Madden the Son of God. The voice instructed the disciples
National Institute for the Psychotherapies, to listen to Jesus as the “Chosen one” of God.
New York, NY, USA The disciples are to tell no one of what they have
witnessed.
In the image of cloud, (nephélē, néphos), we
The word transfiguration derives from the Latin find a cross-cultural commonality in meaning
trānsfigūrāre and refers to transformation and drawing from the Hellenistic and Greek worlds
change in form or appearance. The term is and in biblical literature. The cloud was an image
specifically used in reference to the change of of religious significance, a theophany, God’s vis-
appearance in Jesus Christ as narrated in the ible manifestation.
Christian biblical accounts of Matthew 17:2, God indwells the cloud as indicated by the
Mark 9:2–3, and Luke 9:28–36. voice arising from it and invites participation.
The gospels report the transfiguration event as The disciples do not merely observe; they “enter
Jesus taking three of his disciples – John, James, the cloud,” even if only as a foretaste of the
and Peter – to pray with him on a mountain top. eschaton (the final event of the divine plan),
Going up on the mountain (óros) is significant in the resurrected state in the afterlife, and the
that it is the place set aside for prayer. While he suffering and struggle which is to precede the
was praying at the top of the mountain, Jesus was resurrection with Jesus’ death on the cross.
Transfiguration 1817 T
Synchronous Literacy Motifs and Literary fragments from the Egyptian magical
Influences papyri were also comparable to the definitive
style and ethos of Hellenistic magic and, in turn,
The transfiguration story is influenced both by analogous to themes in the transfiguration: “once
Hellenistic categories, as well as by the genre of purified, the body is fit to receive a ritual
the Old Testament which also bears Egyptian and vestment. . .the true new body of immaculate
Persian influences by virtue of the exile of Israel whiteness” (Jacq 1985, p. 37).
into Babylon. Biblical scholars Helmut Koester The Jewish apocalyptic literature and
and W. G. K€ ummel place the transfiguration story Wisdom literature have narrative similarities:
in analogy with an epiphany story – K€ ummel the isolation of a special place, an extraordinary
in association with the Hellenistic motif (1990, appearance (i.e., a bright, luminous light), and
p. 122) and Koester, with the Old Testament the self-revelation of divinity, followed by
genre and Jewish apocalyptic literature. a description of the reactions of those who
Although Hellenistic literature often pur- are present, and finally a command (Koester
sued a more Gnostic strain which rejects the 1980a, p. 64).
material embodiment of the divine and speaks
of the miraculous transformation of a mythical
figure, nonetheless, many examples of litera- Social Need and Spiritual Longing
ture in the Hellenistic religions concerned
a metamorphosis. In the story of Apuleius, we Clearly the narrative accounts of the Christian
find persons and deities experiencing transfor- gospel did not arise in a religious-philosophical
mation and release as a first prediction before vacuum. The people of these times sought forms
a process of suffering. of knowledge and alternative channels of power
Thematic similarities also exist in early her- in a situation that was dominated by Rome. Phi-
metic literature, in the literature of the mystery losophers emphasized the theme of negotiating in
cults, in literature informed by Plato, and in a world that was disoriented.
parallel themes in other biblical literature. The Epictetus, a lame slave who was a philosopher
mystery religions offered an analogous genre to contemporaneous to the gospel writer Luke,
the Christian biblical narrative offering stories of writes of the “universal” phase: an effort to define
salvation on the basis of divine revelation. the free, moral persona as one who has freedom to
Other literature that may have informed the speak freely regardless of oppressive threat.
transfiguration story was Hermes Trismegistus. There was a collective desire for a new disposi-
Written between 100 and 200 CE, this series of tion of mind and heart. For those who felt mar-
tractates were astrological or magical. Some ginalized, there was a turning inward,
tractates contained writing that was religious a relativizing of political and social circum-
which demonstrates literary connection with the stances. By retreating inward, one could discover
Greek Old Testament. Hermes, a god, taught being part of a principal work, “a fragment of T
secret knowledge about salvation to a disciple. God himself” (Barrett 1989, p. 67).
Those who recorded these documents believed Persons pursued the mystery religions seeking
that they had received revelation of a gospel, a personal faith that would bring them into
the difference being that the material or physical immediate contact with deity and would promise
order is discounted. In Poimandres, powers them salvation. The inability to negotiate their
appear before a disciple’s eye, and Poimandres outer world increased their interest in astrology,
receives supreme vision. Receiving the benefac- fate, mysticism, and esotericism. Many of the
tion of Poimandres, the disciple rejoices, for mystery religions and cults contemporary to the
“the sleep of his body had become watchfulness writing of the gospel literature had existed for
of soul,” and he “moves into life and light” centuries. Mostly they were of Eastern origin
(Barrett 1989, p. 89). before Hellenized.
T 1818 Transfiguration

The mystery cult of Cybele, the Great Mother, show to the disciples that he would embody
had come from Asia, the cult of Isis and Osiris the reality of “glory” in the resurrection. He dem-
from Egypt, and Mithraism from Persia. These onstrates that glory is more than a temporary
cults shared the characteristic of being centered contact to the divine presence. Glory is a reality
about a god who had died and had been that is revealed as a divine mode of being but
resurrected. An initiate was inducted by specific a reality that is not visible to itself. It is a reality
rituals and secret symbols and participated in mys- that must be witnessed by an “other.” This per-
tical union through sacramental means to share in ception is analogous to the belief in the practice
the experience of the god to achieve immortality. of psychotherapy that healing is most efficacious
When Mark, the earliest of the gospels was in that two persons form a relationship in which
written, the tradition of Jesus had already become healing occurs.
saturated with the outlook of Hellenistic magic. The Jesus’ inclusion of the disciples as witness to
early stages of the interpretation of the miracles of the event of the transfiguration indicates the
Jesus, particularly his exorcisms and healings, were potential of metamorphosis inherent in each per-
understood to be magical. Jesus was understood to son. Analogous to the long years one undergoes
have entered into the central conflict of the magi- psychoanalytic or analytic reflection in the pro-
cian’s art – the struggle with evil powers. cess of therapy, Jesus teaches that the transfigu-
Informed by the collective psyche of the time, ration is a culmination of a long process and that
the spiritual world was understood as divided into we have to awaken from our “sleep,” our dullness
two realms of power. A battle ensues between of “seeing and hearing,” and recognize the light
Jesus and his foes analogous to a battle between of the invisible source – the eternal life of the soul
spiritual forces and magic. The folk belief in a transfigured reality.
was that Jesus overcame evil by his greater The manifestation of common images in the
power as indwelt bodily by mana, a charge of oral and written traditions points to how these
divine energy, a vital substance that emanated images represent universal motifs that arise
from the spirit world. This power could be passed within the human psyche. When a people in his-
from one person to another (Brown 1978, p. 560). tory find themselves in a disenfranchised stated in
Those who received this power would undergo an which their personal identity is in question or
initiation that would come to them as depersonalized, the human psyche reacts by
a Pentecostal event, an “inrush of God’s king- development of a common theme of divine
dom.” Christ was the vessel in the event of the manifestation. From the depths of the human
transfiguration, the intermediary from whom the psyche, a healing, guiding presence makes itself
disciples received mana directly. A foretaste of known and offers the potential for efficacious
the future glory was now in them. change.
Without hesitation, the early church attacked The deepest, most far-reaching change pos-
such magical beliefs and stressed that evil power sible for human beings is expressed by the word
yields to the superior power of God. Jesus was metamorphosis. When we undergo metamor-
different from the magicians who were concerned phosis, we are changed at the depths of our
with the control of the supernatural by techniques being and completely. Psychoanalysis, at its
to further their own desires. He desired to do the best, works at this level. The deeper psyche
will of the Father and to teach others to submit to becomes the transformative ground for the
that will. original unity of soul and spirit. We know that
we are in the terrain of deeper psyche when
primal archetypal images and symbols grasp
Spiritual and Psychological Impact us and startle us beyond what we typically
know and experience. Aspects of human exis-
Jesus was fully aware of God’s will for him. The tence replete with both light and dark sides
intention behind the transfiguration event was to begin to penetrate our personal consciousness,
Transfiguration 1819 T
analogous to the experience of persons in the individual which emerges in the self-ego relation-
first century and in all centuries. ship, a psychological reality that finds an analog
From a psychological perspective, in meta- in religious terms with Christ as exemplar and
morphic change, the ego may feel displaced as internal guide. The disciples proclaimed such
it changes experientially into new form informed lived experience and accepted revelation as an
by new knowledge emerging from the psyche as ongoing unfolding of divine presence in their
the unconscious becomes conscious. The ego lives. They discovered that through the mysteries
may feel distraught, uncomfortable, as if it is of the transfigured Christ, there is spiritual char-
dying unto its new role and existence. acter that may be embodied in the conscious and
Like the disciples’ realization in Jesus’ trans- visible world that transcends the manifest.
figured form, the ego in psychological analysis Similarly, the reflective and sacred space of
comes to recognize two layers of being. What the therapy can become the transformative vessel for
ego has known as self is not all that it is. This reaching toward the divine. Human deficiency
realization is accompanied by the profound and lack, as it appears in our most cast off and
awareness that archetypes and archetypal images vulnerable parts, may be the source of our
do not veil the eternal world. They lead to it. An greatest offerings. Our depletion may be the
archetype can arrest us in a mood or a state of stable of incarnation, life that translates into
biophysical seizure as it announces the new, tak- more life in contrast to evil which can translate
ing hold of our entire personality, as if, like the only into poverty. Therapy is analogous to
disciples, we were entering a cloud. Such a parent communing to a child whose healing is
inbreakings of the unconscious can transcend greatly aided in feeling “chosen” by a loving,
the injuries of our childhoods and fuel us with attentive presence.
an experiential faith, one that convinces us with The transfiguration event attests to the fact that
impenetrable faith that some precious aspect of a transformation mystery exists in which the
our being is impenetrable to death. The psycho- vessel character of the archetypal layer of the
logical movement we make between each image, psyche houses a creative principle. By means of
each point of being, each glimpse of transfigured receptivity, we are enabled to bridge the two
reality, leads us eventually to a world beyond worlds of consciousness and unconsciousness.
mere material surfaces. Our receptivity is the only thing that can recover
to some form of healing human suffering and
despair and give meaning to the inevitability of
Transfigured Transfiguration tragedy, death, dissociation, and developmental
traumas. Love has the power to break through our
As the ego surrenders to this process of aware- defenses. As the great story teller Ovid once said
ness, we come to realize that an archetype can of metamorphosis, “let me die loving and so
present itself only in a numinous way if it is never die” (Maidenbaum 1993, pp. 679–724).
clothed in an adequate symbol: a cloud, T
a mountain top, a cross, for instance. Symbolic
expression originates in the body and presents See Also
itself as a self-portrait of instinct. As we begin
to relate to the unconscious products of dreams, ▶ Archetype
waking imagination, and symbols, our conscious- ▶ Christ
ness is ignited into motion. Dreams point to that ▶ Christianity
which is not yet ready to be born but also to the ▶ Depth Psychology and Spirituality
advent of new birth and the eternal. ▶ Ego
In modern depth psychological terms, the ▶ Great Mother
notion of transfiguration and metamorphosis ▶ Jesus
translates into the goals of the fully individuated ▶ Osiris and the Egyptian Religion
T 1820 Transgender and Gender Identity

▶ Prayer girl who feels that her true self is really male
▶ Psychotherapy may experience gender dysphoria. Gender iden-
▶ Resurrection tity disorder is diagnosed when an individual
▶ Theophany experiences a strong and persistent cross-gender
identification, a persistent discomfort with his or
her own sex, or a sense of inappropriateness in the
Bibliography gender role of that sex which causes clinically
significant distress or impairment in social,
Barrett, C. K. (Ed.). (1989). New Testament background: occupational, or other important areas of func-
Selected documents. San Francisco: Harper & Row.
tioning. Gender identity disorder is currently
Brown, C. (1978). Magic. In C. Brown (Ed.), The new
international dictionary of New Testament theology a formal diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statisti-
(Vol. 3). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Corporation. cal Manual of Mental Disorders (American
Cloud, (1957). Nelson’s complete concordance of the Psychiatric Association 2000, p. 96). The term
revised study of the Gospels. Philadelphia: Fortress
transgender refers to all gender-variant persons,
Press.
Foerster, W. (1978). Mountain. In C. Brown (Ed.), The including cross-dressers (who are often
new international dictionary of New Testament theol- heterosexual males who cross-dress for pleasure
ogy (Vol. 3). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Corporation. or relaxation), and intersexed persons (those who
Jacq, C. (1985). Egyptian magic (trans: Davis, J. M.).
have both male and female physical sex
Chicago: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.
Kittel, G. (1978). Glory. In C. Brown (Ed.), The new characteristics) (Lev 2004). Transsexual
international dictionary of New Testament theology individuals are those who realize that their phys-
(Vol. 3). Grand Rapids: Zondervan Corporation. ical bodies do not reflect the inner understanding
Koester, H. (1980a). Introduction to the New Testament:
of who they are, and who may use both hormonal
History and literature of early Christianity (Vol. 2).
New York: Walter De Gruyter. and surgical therapy to augment or otherwise
Koester, H. (1980b). Introduction to the New Testament: alter their bodies (Newfield et al. 2006). Transi-
History, culture, and religion of the Hellenistic Age tion refers to the outer and inner process of mov-
(Vol. 1). Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
ing from one’s birth sex to one’s psychological
K€ummel, W. G. (1990). Introduction to the New Testa-
ment (trans: Lee, H. C.). Nashville: Abingdon Press. sex. For example, a person who was assigned as
Maidenbaum, A. (Trans.) (1993). The metamorphosis of male at birth (born with male sex characteristics)
Ovid. Book VIII: 679–724. San Diego: Harcourt. but who is changing or has changed his/her body
Weigle, L. (Trans.) (1952). The Holy Bible: Revised stan-
and/or gender role from birth-assigned male to
dard version. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons.
a more female body or role has pursued a male-
to-female (MtF) transition.
The World Professional Association for
Transgender Health (WPATH) is a multidis-
Transgender and Gender Identity ciplinary professional organization “whose mis-
sion is to promote evidence-based care,
Brenda Ibutu and Elizabeth Maynard education, research, advocacy, public policy,
Pastoral Counseling & Spiritual Care, Loyola and respect for transgender health” (WPATH
University Maryland, Columbia, MD, USA 2012, p. 1). The accepted standards of care for
transgender adolescents and adults developed by
WPATH include a period of psychotherapy, liv-
Most children and adults develop a gender ing as the other gender for a period of time,
identity – an intrinsic sense of being male, hormone replacement therapy, and often under-
female, or an alternative gender. Some going reconstructive surgery to alter the individ-
individuals develop gender dysphoria, distress ual’s anatomy (Lawrence 2002). Mental health
caused by a sense of disconnection between an professionals often assist transgender adults in
individual’s gender identity and their sex exploration of identity, making decisions about
assigned at birth. For example, an adolescent gender transitions, and ongoing adjustments
Transgender and Gender Identity 1821 T
when an individual has elected to transition either persons feel more able to seek help from mental
wholly or in part. Religious professionals are less health and spiritual professionals, they often gain
often involved in these processes for transgender a sense of a deeper connection with others in their
adults. lives and their God or higher power in a way that
The cultural and religious history of transgender had been closed to them previously (Bockting
communities show that, over time, there has been and Cesaretti 2001, p. 8). Further, some religious
a dichotomy of opinions surrounding the accep- groups have begun to accept transgender clergy,
tance of this group. Some Native American groups though this change appears to be slower than the
have held the idea of “two-spirited people” to changes made to accept gay, lesbian, and
describe those who are gender-variant, and those bisexual clergy.
in this group are often respected and honored The National Center for Transgender Equality
within their tribes. The use of cross-gender terms (NCTE) estimates that between 0.25 % and 1 % of
in indigenous cultures has been documented in the population is transsexual; however, accurate
over 155 tribes throughout North America, and statistics on the transgender population are
“two-spirited people” are often considered prized unknown because many individuals are not public
caregivers and mates, as well as the tribes’ most about their identities and no organization is sys-
gifted visionaries (Laframboise and Anhorn 2008). tematically collecting data (NCTE 2009, p. 1).
Several other cultural groups have also shown Based on estimates from an international survey,
some level of acceptance for individuals who the number of elder (65 and older) transgender-
differ from traditional gender expectations. For identified people worldwide is projected at
example, Myanmar has a group of people called 4.1–12.3 million (Kidd and Witten 2008). Given
the Acault who are feminine males possessed by that these figures do not include those under 65 nor
the female spirit Manguedon. The Maa Khii in any number of culturally variant transgender iden-
northern Thailand are primarily female-to-male tities, it is clear that there is a need for counselors,
persons, possessed by the spirit, Phii, who act as therapists, and others in the helping professions to
mediums for the family to help with well-being, be familiar with this group (Kidd and Witten
health, and harmony. European history also 2008). According to WPATH, those in the
includes gender-variant persons, such as Joan of counseling field are likely to encounter gender-
Arc (1412–1431), a Roman Catholic saint who variant clients in unexpected ways. Among gen-
was sentenced to death for cross-dressing. Joan’s der-variant individuals, mood, dissociative, and
followers revered her for her virginity and her sexual disorders, as well as substance abuse and
manly dress which portrayed power, and they borderline personality disorders are believed to be
considered the men’s clothes she wore to be common. Additionally, two groups who are often
sacred. Chevalier D’Eon (1728–1810), a French invisible are those transgender persons in the gay
diplomat who lived the second half of his life as and lesbian communities and biological females
a woman, reportedly believed his transformation (WPATH 2001).
to be a religious experience (Bockting and Little research into the levels of religiosity and T
Cesaretti 2001). spirituality in the transgender community has been
Western religious institutions, as a whole, tend conducted. Current findings suggest that, as with
to struggle significantly with gender-variant per- other populations, the transgender community
sons and tend to promote gender conformity. associates religion with construction of meaning,
Within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, particu- wisdom development, and a commitment to living
larly the mainline denominations, transgender a good life (Halkitis et al. 2009). Many transgen-
persons have, in the past, often become der individuals have felt forced out of their reli-
disenfranchised, dehumanized, and suffered gious communities or otherwise dislocated from
from discrimination. Some have reported their spiritual or religious traditions. The challenge
a tremendous loss of their spiritual selves. How- for mental health professionals is to be willing to
ever, that is beginning to change. As transgender accept this community and learn about the
T 1822 Transitional Object

struggles and resources that are part of the trans- disorders (6th ed.). Minneapolis: World Professional
gender experience, including meaningful explora- Association for Transgender Health.
World Professional Association for Transgender Health,
tion of the transgender individual’s spiritual and Inc. (2012). Standards of care for gender identity
religious experience. disorders (7th ed.). Minneapolis: World Professional
Association for Transgender Health.

See Also

▶ Anxiety Transitional Object

▶ Body and Spirituality
▶ Depression Philip Browning Helsel
▶ Gender Roles Pastoral Care and Counseling, Boston College
▶ Prejudice School of Theology and Ministry, Chestnut Hill,
MA, USA

Bibliography The term, first coined by analyst D. W.

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic
Winnicott, refers to the object that a child might
and statistical manual of mental disorders-IV-TR. confer with special significance, such as a piece
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. of string, a teddy bear, or a blanket. A popular
Bockting, W. O., & Cesaretti, C. (2001). Spirituality, representation of the transitional object is the
transgender identity, and coming out. Journal of Sex
“security” blanket that the character Linus
Education and Therapy, 26(4), 291–300.
Halkitis, P. N., Mattis, J. S., Sahadath, J. K., Massie, D., always carried in the Peanuts cartoon. In the
Ladyzhenskaya, L., Pitrelli, K., Bonacci, M., & Cowie, treatment of this object, the child enacts the love
S. E. (2009). The meanings of manifestations of reli- and rage that results from the bond with and
gion and spirituality among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender adults. Journal of Adult Development, 16,
inevitable separation from the mother. Thus, the
250–262. object can be the treatment of abuse, affection, or
Kidd, J. D., & Witten, T. M. (2008). Understanding idealization and role play, with the function of
spirituality and religiosity in the transgender commu- allowing the child to create, in a liminal space,
nity: Implications for aging. Journal of Religion,
a relationship that is reciprocal with and at the
Spirituality and Aging, 20(1), 29–62.
Laframboise, S., & Anhorn, M. (2008). The way of the two same time a working-through of the original
spirited people: Native American concepts of gender mother-child environment. The liminal space in
and sexual orientation. Retrieved from http://www. which the object is created by the child is neither
dancingtoeaglespiritsociety.org/twospirit.php. Accessed
the mother-child environment nor the child sepa-
28 May 2012.
Lawrence, A. A. (2002). Factors associated with satisfac- rate from the mother but is the intersection of
tion or regret following male-to-female sex both settings in the space of play (Winnicott
reassignment surgery. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 2005, p. 3). The fact that the child chooses the
32(4), 299–315.
Lev, A. I. (2004). Transgender emergence: Therapeutic
object, uses it, and abuses it, but the object con-
guidelines for working with gender variant people and tinues to exist, represents the child’s creativity
their families. Binghamton: The Haworth. and the endurance of the earliest bond in spite of
National Center for Transgender Equality. (2009). inevitable frustration and separation.
Understanding transgender: Frequently asked
Winnicott argued that the space in which the
questions about transgender people. Retrieved from
www.nctequality.org. Accessed 28 May 2012. transitional object is chosen, and thereby “cre-
Newfield, E., Hart, S., Dibble, S., & Kohler, L. (2006). ated” by the child, is the same space in which
Female-to-male transgender quality of life. Quality of culture is developed in adult life. It is not coinci-
Life Research, 15, 1447–1457. Retrieved from
dental that Linus, in the Peanuts cartoon, is the
PsychINFO. Accessed 17 October 2009.
World Professional Association for Transgender Health, character who is the most capable of philosophi-
Inc. (2001). Standards of care for gender identity cal reflection. The realms of art, religion, and
Transpersonal Psychology 1823 T
literature reflect the play of imagination and the Turner, D. (1995). The darkness of God: Negativity in
“holding” space which is necessary for this play Christian mysticism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
(Winnicott 2005, p. 4). Winnicott, D. W. (2005). Playing and reality. London:
Religion is grasped in a manner similar to that Routledge Press.
which a child grasps and manipulates the earliest
object. Frequent metaphors of “wrestling” or
“struggling” with religion are reflective of the
child’s testing of the object in the liminal space, Transpersonal Psychology
in which the object’s permanence ensures that it
will outlast even the rage of the infant. This per- Nicholas Grant Boeving
manence is reflected in forms of religion which Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
tolerate doubt and even hatred of the deity,
reflecting the fact that even after such a powerful
struggle with the object, the object will remain. Often referenced as the fourth force of
While the believer may grasp religion as the psychology (the previous three being behavior-
child holds onto the transitional object, she may ism, psychodynamism, and humanism), transper-
simultaneously have the sense of being grasped in sonal theory refers to the intellectual movement
relationship to her religion. This reflects the man- and its attendant therapeutic praxes that attempt
ner in which the psychic object echoes the earliest to redress the perspectival imbalance of its pre-
relations. Forms of Christian Platonism reflected decessors by integrating the insights of the
how God seemed familiar to the soul and seemed world’s wisdom traditions with the psychological
to be “recalled” by it even in its encounter with concepts, theories, and methods of the West.
God (Turner 1995, p. 70). While religion might Whereas traditional theoretical orientations
be “used” by the adult in a similar manner to tend toward the reductive end of the interpretive
which a child uses a transitional object, it also continuum, transpersonal psychology seeks to
has the quality of an encounter, especially in its include within its purview those regions of the
mystical forms. In religion, when one may feel human experience overlooked and unexplored
enveloped by or chosen by an object which has (or utterly reduced/collapsed) by other models.
connotations of fascination, desire, or the These “higher” states – for curiously, the
uncanny, this sense of resonance with something lower ones are only rarely engaged – are the
“beyond” may be reflective of the prehistory of primary domains with which it is concerned.
the person, in which mother and child existed in Transpersonal psychologists are explicit in their
a relationship which predates the historical mission to unite under one rubric both psychol-
awareness of the person or personality (Bollas ogy and religion, or, more accurately, psychol-
1987, pp. 24–25). ogy and spirituality, however, nebulously defined
and protean in character the latter may be.
Fueled by the American (read Californian) T
See Also counterculture of the 1960s, the transpersonal
turn was part of a wider cultural process of turn-
▶ Winnicott, Donald Woods ing away from the perceived-to-be crumbling
▶ Winnicott, Donald Woods, and Religion occidental edifices of church and state. Still, the
project was essentially an extension of enlighten-
ment ideals, its earliest incarnations attempting to
wed the methodologies of science to the experi-
Bibliography ential epistemologies described in various mysti-
Bollas, C. (1987). The shadow of the object: Psychoanal-
cal (read Eastern) literatures. The consequence of
ysis of the unthought known. London: Free Association this spiritually positivistic stance (e.g., there is
Books. one unitive ground of all being that can be
T 1824 Transpersonal Psychology

accessed/realized by practitioners following Grof’s model, in counterpoint to Wilber’s, is

the various prescriptive technologies described a more laterally oriented approach and arose from
in the various non-dual systems) was the efful- his research experiences as one of the first
gence of all-encompassing meta-theories replete experimenters with LSD. Regression to pre-
with competing ontological claims. These egoic states is understood in his model to
theories subsumed, into one ultimate or another, facilitate psychical integration of the individual.
the insights of orthodoxy, eastern spirituality, At first, these states were encountered with the
indigenous traditions, contemplative prayer, aid of entheogens, but later with Holotropic
holistic medicine, non-ordinary states of con- Breathwork, a trademarked technique of postur-
sciousness, ecstatic dance, shamanic trance, ing and breathing designed to activate the same
yogic breathwork, and spiritual emergencies – non-ordinary states as its chemical counterparts.
to name but a few – as they have arisen in the Other theorists of note include Ralph Metzner,
historical pageant of the world’s religious Michael Washburn, Roger Walsh, Frances
systems. Vaughan, Robert Assagioli, and Jorge Ferrer.
Transpersonal psychology draws heavily Ralph Metzner’s pluralistic model eschews all
from the hermeneutics of the humanities, such linearity, while Washburn’s calls for a helical
as existentialism, phenomenology, humanism, process of graduated integration culling insights
ethnopsychology, and anthropology, and is from both Jungian and psychoanalytic thinking.
characterized by its kaleidoscopic inclusion Jorge Ferrer has reevaluated the entire transper-
of differing scholastic orientations. Such sonal project and is believed by many to have
a promiscuous intermingling of ideas and liberated it from the tyranny of any one
epistemologies from both psychology and reli- metasystem, calling for a plurality of intersubjec-
gion has led many to erroneously conflate it tive epistemological grounds instead of the
with the New Age, although admittedly, there various intrapersonal models to which previous
is much overlap. theorists had wholeheartedly subscribed.
Much of transpersonal theory is indebted to Criticisms from outside the movement have
the pioneering work of William James and Carl typically taken several different forms, chiefly
Jung, though as a discipline, it did not emerge among them (1) that transpersonal theorists are
until the late 1960s as a unique efflux within the guilty of sloppy scholarship; (2) that in selec-
humanistic school of Carl Rogers and Abraham tively privileging certain religious systems over
Maslow, the latter whom, in conjunction with others, they unfairly skew the data to support
Stanislav Grof, founded, in 1969, the first aca- their individual models; and that (3) its continued
demic journal devoted exclusively to the explo- lack of engagement with the problem of evil
ration of the aforementioned themes, The Journal impoverishes any attempt to comprehend the
of Transpersonal Psychology. psyche as an integrated whole.
The two towering pillars of the tradition, Perhaps most damaging of all, however, is the
however, are undoubtedly Ken Wilber and unfortunate fact of its being mostly ignored by
Stanislav Grof, although Wilber has since both the academy and the general populace,
distanced himself from the movement in favor although evidence is beginning to emerge that
of his own epithetical integral psychology. this may, indeed, be changing.
Wilberian theory views the cosmos, and by
extension the development of consciousness, as
a series of unfolding stages, with higher levels Commentary
superior to lower levels arranged in a progressive
paradigm of transcendence and inclusion. His Although couched as an academic discipline,
most significant contribution to the field has transpersonal psychology really signifies
been his non-dually based spectrum of the dawning of a new species of religiosity –
consciousness. psychology as religion.
Trauma 1825 T
This alternative expression of the numinous be short lived and acute or chronic and seemingly
seeks to expand our understanding of the individ- unending. Often accompanied by various experi-
ual outside of the egoic insularity of previous ences and comportments of fear, worry, anger,
psychological systems. In doing so, it dually and crises of meaning, traumatic experiences are
uses psychology to read religion and religion to encounters with the overwhelming and the
read psychology, neither reductively nor overpowering.
dogmatically collapsing one into the other. Traumatic experiences are often considered
experiences that “shatters assumptions”
(Janoff-Bulman 2002; Kauffman 2002) or belie
See Also expectations of how life events should occur.
We naturally personalize traumatic events in our
▶ Jung, Carl Gustav lives as we operate from a web of meaning that
▶ Rogers, Carl presumes life is ordered, fair, and benevolent.
▶ Wilber, Ken We live out our existence viewing chaos, chance,
random destruction, and absurdity as flaws in life
rather than as experiences inherent to the very
Bibliography composition of life. The etymology of the word
“traumatic,” in Greek, means “to incur or inflict
Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory a wound or injury.” Traumas, or traumata, can be
and practice in transpersonal psychotherapy. Albany:
physical, psychological, environmental, and/or
State University of New York.
Ferrer, J. (2002). Revisioning transpersonal theory: spiritual and can be immediate, acute, chronic,
A participatory vision of human spirituality. Albany: or delayed in their impact. The Diagnostic and
State University of New York. Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR
Grof, S. (2000). Psychology of the future: Lessons from
describes a traumatic experience as evoking feel-
modern consciousness research. Albany: State
University of New York. ings of being overwhelmed and helpless (2000).
Scotton, B. W., Chinen, A. B., & Battista, J. R. (Eds.). It is important to note, though, that a trauma is
(1996). Textbook of transpersonal psychiatry and not only the event itself that occurs but is shaped
psychology. New York: Basic.
as well by how the event is understood by those
Walsh, R., & Vaughan, F. (Eds.). (1993). Paths beyond
ego: The transpersonal vision. New York: Putnam. undergoing it and how one is cared for before,
Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology: Consciousness, during, and after such events. Any imposing of
spirit, psychology, and therapy. Boston: Shambhala. generic templates on others of what is considered
traumatic should be critically analyzed (Bracken
2002). What is traumatic for one person may not
be so for another. Developmental levels of vul-
Trauma nerability, exposure to life-world situations,
meaning-making skills, and cultural sensitivities
Todd DuBose are all aspects to consider in assessing the nature T
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, and intensity of traumatization. Due to its impos-
Chicago, IL, USA ing and intimidating nature, traumata evoke our
needs to organize, categorize, and make sense of
them, even though traumata are by definition
Trauma is the description given to an overwhelm- experiences that resist these processes. This
ing, uncanny, or absurd experience, usually point testifies to our nature as meaning-
involving some kind of violence, abuse, or loss making creatures. For instance, habitual ways of
that threatens death of injury to oneself or another defining traumata as horror laden, such as war
and that resists one’s capacities to process, make trauma, rape, physical violence, accidental dis-
meaning of, or schematize the occurrence in typ- memberment, and so forth, often enframe our
ical or familiar ways. Traumatic experiences can definitions of trauma such that we inattend to
T 1826 Trauma

“positive traumas,” such as winning the lottery, otherness in that one often finds attempts as
being proposed to, finding out your pregnant with description ineffable. When undergoing
triplets, and other experiences. a traumatic experience, one’s very ground of
Psychological perspectives on trauma have meaning is deconstructed, as evidenced by alien-
included Sigmund Freud’s (1856–1939) explica- ation, guilt, irrevocable loss, and the loss of iden-
tions of hysterical neurosis and repetition com- tity. During the meaning-making crises created
pulsion (Freud, 1895/2000, 1920/1990) and Otto by trauma, it is hard to determine the level of
Rank’s (1884–1939) views on birth trauma (Rank existential loss of faith operative. Yet, Stanislov
1929/1994). Much of the field of trauma studies and Christina Grof (1989) have provided exten-
has focused on the neurophysiology of traumatic sive scholarship on differentiating spiritual emer-
and post-traumatic reactions as well as on multi- gencies from spiritual emergence and how care
cultural issues within traumatic experiences and for each respective phenomenon is different.
situations, particularly in regards to displacement Ritual abuse explicitly links traumatic
and torture among refugees. Standard of care for experiences with religious symbolism and ritual
psychological treatment of trauma includes post- in such ways that the religious artifacts and activ-
traumatic stabilization, integration, and post- ities are themselves traumatic. In classifying
integration or reinvestment in relationships and post-traumatic experiences, spiritual abuse is
projects in life. often overlooked, dismissed, or renamed and
It is the liminal characteristic of traumatic can range from sexually and physically violent
experience, though, that lends itself to compari- ritual abuse to proselytizing and theological
sons with religious experience. Mircea Eliade battery, resulting in devaluation of one’s worth
(1907–1986) noted how experiences of and well-being at one’s core and banishment
hierophanies, or the “inbreaking” of the holy, from the rejecting community. Although the
often leave one disoriented, feeling threatened, most overlooked traumatic experience, spiritual
and “thrown” into an encounter with limitless- abuse may indeed be the most devastating, neces-
ness (Eliade 1959). Rudolf Otto’s (1869–1937) sitating a most unique and compassionate
descriptions of encounters with the numinous as response.
wholly other include a mixture of awe-filled
fascination and terror (Otto 1917/1958).
Gerardus van der Leeuw’s (1896–1950) descrip- Commentary
tion of the divine as “power,” in the sense of
profound, impressive, and exceptional confronta- How one becomes traumatized, what is consid-
tion with incomparable otherness, concurs with ered traumatizing, and how one cares for trauma-
these other phenomenologists of religious tized individuals remain central to any discussion
experience (van der Leeuw 1933/1986). about trauma. Several issues embedded in these
These descriptions of numinous experiences concerns are often overlooked or at least tacked
are nearly verbatim of what others have said on as supplementary to standard of care protocol
about traumatic experiences. The traumatic regarding traumatic experience. Survivors of
experience is also numinous in its ultimate, traumatic experience often refer to how their
encompassing, and boundary oriented in nature, spirituality helped them cope. Although
to use Karl Jaspers’ language, or “peak experi- researchers such as Kenneth Pargament (2001)
ence,” to use Abraham Maslow’s phrase (Maslow have so aptly shown the benefits of religious
1970). For Jaspers (1883–1969), boundary rituals and beliefs as coping mechanisms, equat-
situations, namely, guilt, chance, suffering, ing spirituality with coping mechanisms can
conflict, and death, are experiences in which often miss the phenomenology of religious
everything is unstable and in flux (Jaspers 1919/ experience on which such coping mechanisms
1997; Schlipp 1981). Traumatic experiences are predicated. Numinosity is inherent in the
are also apophatic encounters with radical experiential structure of traumatic phenomenon
Trauma 1827 T
and not merely a consolation tool that can be Downing 1998). Yet, the model of the wounded
chosen or not on an as-needed basis. healer has guided us through these dark valleys
Another unanalyzed aspect of traumatic long before the field of trauma was formally
experience is a tendency to explain such experi- conceived. It is often that in caring for
ences solely in terms of neurophysiology and those who have survived the undeserved and
cognitive schemas, rather than disclose the phe- unexpected visitation of unmitigated destruction
nomenology of the experiences themselves that an antidote is offered to soothe the horror.
through descriptive analysis of its significance The antidote does not deny that suffering is
as lived by those undergoing or having undergone a part of life, and at the same time, it, too, is
such experiences. The field has tended to gener- undeserved, unexpected, and uncoerced. The
ically template, categorize, and collate what is antidote may very well be simply the grace of
counted as a traumatic experience and how having one’s resilient capacities borne witness to
someone should react to it. For instance, and celebrated in order to not only cope but also
a traumatizing experience is not just “caused” to thrive.
by a prior happening in one’s immediate or dis-
tant past. For an experience to be traumatic,
multiple factors have to occur and situations See Also
have to provide an arena for traumatic experi-
ences to come into existence, including much ▶ Abyss
that is chance, random, unsolicited, and ▶ Chaos
undeserved. The genericizing of traumatic events ▶ Dissociation
and reactions runs the risk of missing the unique ▶ Evil
and incomparable meaning making that resists ▶ Existential Psychotherapy
classification. Moreover, addressing trauma ▶ Existentialism
requires more than challenging globalizing cog- ▶ Frankl, Viktor
nitive distortions. An encounter with the trau- ▶ Hermeneutics
matic, much like an encounter with the ▶ Holocaust
numinous, is “irrational” in Otto’s language ▶ Homo Religiosus
(1917) and “absurd” in Camus’ (1955) language, ▶ John of the Cross
and neither experience is a distortion of reality. ▶ Liminality
Life, at times, does not make sense and ▶ Lived Theology
sideswipes us in undeserved ways. Thinking ▶ Meaning of Human Existence
otherwise is actually the distortion needing ▶ Phenomenological Psychology
correction. ▶ Spiritual Emergence
A final point often minimized or not thought ▶ Theodicy
about in therapeutically working through trau- ▶ Vicarious Traumatization
matic experiences for persons is how prevalent T
the problem of evil is for traumatized persons,
including the often disenfranchised group of Bibliography
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and statistical manual of mental disorders. Text
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and benevolence of existence, particularly for the Bracken, P. (2002). Trauma: Culture, meaning, and
one undergoing the trauma, and therapeutic care philosophy. London: Whurr Publishers.
must face this often unspoken issue upfront. Camus, A. (1955). The myth of Sisyphus and other essays.
New York: Random House.
To do so requires much of the therapist, and
DuBose, T. (1997). The phenomenology of bereavement,
given so, one must attend to the perils of vicarious grief, and mourning. Journal of Religion and Health,
traumatization (Nouwen 1979; Steed and 36(4), 367–374.
T 1828 Trickster

Eliade, M. (1959). The sacred and the profane: The nature of

religion (trans: Trask, W.). New York: Harper & Row. Trickster
Freud, S., & Breuer, J. (1990). Beyond the pleasure
principle (trans: Strachey, J.). New York: W. W. Nor-
ton. (Original work published 1920). David A. Leeming
Freud, S., & Breuer, J. (2000). Studies on hysteria (trans: University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
Strachey, J.). New York: Basic. (Original work
published 1895).
Girard, R. (1979). Violence and the sacred. (trans: Gregory, The trickster is a common character in mythology
P.). Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
and in certain religious traditions, especially,
Grof, S., & Grof, C. (1989). A spiritual emergency: When
personal transformation becomes a crisis. New York: but not exclusively the animistic – spirit-
Tarcher. based – religions of Africa and Native North
Janoff-Bulman, R. (2002). Shattered assumptions: Toward America. Typically male, the trickster usually
a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
has extreme appetites for food and sex. He is
Jaspers, K. (1919/1997). General psychopathology (trans:
Hoenig, J., & Hamilton, M.). Baltimore: John Hopkins immoral, or, at least, amoral, and he is, more
University Press. often than not, a thief. Yet he often uses his
Kauffman, J. (Ed.). (2002). Loss of the assumptive world: inventiveness to help human beings and is
A theory of traumatic loss. New York: Brunner-
sometimes, in effect, a culture hero. Often his
Routledge.
Kugelmann, R. (1992). The engineering of grief. In Stress: inventiveness interferes with creation, however,
The nature and history of engineered grief. London: and causes such realities as pain and death.
Praeger. The trickster is a shape shifter. He can change
Maslow, A. (1970). Religions, values, and peak-experi-
shapes at will and, in that sense, is perhaps
ences (pp. 19–29). New York: Penguin.
Mogenson, G. (1989). God is a trauma: Vicarious religion a mythological relative of the shaman.
and soul-making. Dallas: Spring. In the ancient Greek religion, Hermes, as
Nouwen, H. (1979). The wounded healer: Ministry in a child, has trickster aspects, as, for instance,
contemporary society. New York: Image.
when he steals Apollo’s cattle. In India, the
Otto, R. (1917/1958). The ideal of the holy: An inquiry
into the non-rational factor in the idea of the divine great man-god Krishna, the most important of
and its relation to the rational (trans: Harvey, J.). New the avatars of the god Vishnu, constantly plays
York: Oxford University Press. tricks – some of a sexual nature, as when he steals
Pargament, K. (2001). The psychology of religion and
the clothes of his bathing female followers. In
coping. New York: Guilford.
Rank, O. (1929/1994). The trauma of birth. New York: these cases, however, the trickster aspect seems
Dover. to reflect essential inventiveness and creativity
Schlipp, P. (1981). The philosophy of Karl Jaspers. and points to later more important achievements.
Chicago: Open Court.
The same is true of stories of tricks played by the
Steed, L., & Downing, R. (1998). A phenomenological
study of vicarious traumatization amongst psycholo- boy Jesus in some of the apocryphal gospels.
gists and professional counselors working in the field More typical tricksters are those such as
of sexual abuse/assault. The Australasian Journal of the Native American Coyote and Raven and the
Disaster and Trauma Studies, 2, 1–10.
African Ananse (the Spider). The fact that
Van den Berg, J. (1972). A different existence: Principles
of phenomenological psychopathology. Pittsburgh: these figures take animal forms coincides with
Duquesne University Press. their unbridled appetites. Coyote is an expert
Van den Berg, J. (1983). The changing nature of man: seducer of women and he constantly steals food
Introduction to a historical psychology. New York:
from others more needy than himself. The West
W. W. Norton.
Van der Kolk, B. (1987). Psychological trauma. African Ananse even steals the high god’s
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. daughter. Like Hermes and Krishna, these trick-
Van der Leeuw, G. (1933/1986). Religion in essence and sters are highly creative, but their creativity almost
manifestation. (trans: Turner, J. E.). Princeton:
always causes trouble for themselves or others.
Princeton University Press.
Wilson, J. (1989). Trauma, transformation and healing: Tricksters such as Erlik in Central Asia are
An integrative approach to theory, research, and often close to the creator and manage, while
post-traumatic therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. pretending to help, to undermine creation,
Tulku 1829 T
allowing evil in. In this sense, Satan, in the able to direct their reincarnation and be able to
Abrahamic tradition, is a trickster. A fallen guide their followers to find their next physical
angel, once close to God, he enters the new embodiment. Reincarnation is a core belief of
creation – Eden – as a serpent and uses his natural both Hinduism and Buddhism and is found in
guile to infect that creation with sin – sin many Western esoteric traditions as well. The
immediately associated with sexuality. general view of Buddhism is that all sentient
The trickster is a clear representative of an id- beings are on a wheel of life, endlessly living
dominated ego un-tempered by superego. He is the lives, dying, and becoming reborn in another
narcissistic child, whose physical appetites are body. There is a broad assumption of an evolu-
uppermost in importance. Jung saw the trickster tionary process where greater spiritual accom-
as “an earlier, rudimentary stage of conscious- plishments result in moving up the scale of
ness” (1969: 141) and an expression of shadow, beings. The Mahayana concept of “bodhi-
the primitive, irrational “dark side” of the uncon- sattva” is relevant here, since they postpone
scious, but also, in his creativity and inventiveness, their complete enlightenment in order to con-
as a hint of a later positive figure who takes form, tinue to work for the enlightenment of all sen-
like the Great Hare of the Native American trick- tient beings. The tulku, as a bodhisattva,
ster tradition, as a culture hero-savior. continues their life stream across particular
incarnations in order to facilitate the enlighten-
ment of all. In Tibetan Buddhism, the god realm
See Also exists, but enlightenment can only come
through a human reincarnation, making it
▶ Animism a precious gift. The specific Tibetan twist on
▶ Creation this general doctrine of reincarnation involves
▶ Culture Heroes this special ability of highly developed spiritual
▶ Devil leaders; they can direct their own reincarnation
▶ Shamans and Shamanism and have prescience as to the circumstances so
as to be able to guide their followers in finding
their next form.
Bibliography The most widely known of such lineages of
lamas is the Dalai Lama, currently held by the
Jung, C. G. (1969a). Archetypes of the collective unconscious 14th lineage holder, formerly known as Tenzin
(Vol. 9, pt. 1). Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Gyatso. The oldest such lineage line, however, is
Jung, C. G. (1969b). Four archetypes: Mother/rebirth/
spirit/trickster. Princeton: Princeton University Press. the Karmapa (head of the Kagyu lineage) which
Leeming, D. A. (1990). The world of myth (pp. 163–174). is one of the four major lineages within the
New York: Oxford University Press. monastic community (in order of origination,
Radin, P. (1969). The trickster: A study in American
Indian mythology. New York: Greenwood.
they are Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug).
Each of those lineages, as well as many early T
teachers within each lineage, has now recognized
lineages of tulkus who are the thread of continu-
Tulku ity in spiritual leadership.
Until recently only Tibetan children were
Paul Larson recognized as instances of a lineage line, but
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, there are several young Western children who
Chicago, IL, USA have now been recognized and whose parents
have allowed them to enter monasteries to
receive training in Tibetan Buddhism and the
In Tibetan Buddhism, a tulku is an individual specific traditions of their lineage. Individuals
who is sufficiently advanced spiritually to be who are recognized as reincarnated lamas are
T 1830 Twelve Steps

generally referred to with the honorific title

“rinpoche,” or “precious teacher.” But this title Twelve Steps
is also granted to other significant teachers who
are not recognized as part of a reincarnated Jennifer Amlen
lineage. The Second Wind, New York, NY, USA
These tulkus are themselves manifestations
of other transcendental beings. The Dalai
Lama, for example, is viewed as an embodiment The 12-step program was founded in Akron,
of Chenrezig, the Tibetan equivalent of the San- Ohio, in 1935 by Dr. Bob Smith (known as
skrit Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Com- Dr. Bob) and Bill Wilson (known as Bill W.). It
passion. All of the great teachers and initiators is based on the 12 steps and 12 traditions of
of lineages are seen as tied to these transcenden- Alcoholics Anonymous. It is an anonymous
tal Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The doctrine (using first names only) self-help program based
which provides the theology for understanding on the goal of attaining sobriety from alcoholism.
this is the “trikaya” (Skt), or three bodies theory. The 12 steps are:
The transcendental Buddha has the capacity to 1. We admitted we were powerless over
be in three types of bodies: the Dharmakaya alcohol, that our lives had become
body is the truly transcendent realm beyond unmanageable.
duality; the Sambhogakaya body, or “enjoyment 2. Came to believe that a Power greater than
body” is the realm of high bliss as one would ourselves could restore us to sanity.
experience in the god realm; and the 3. Made a decision to turn our will and our lives
Nirmanakaya body is the “body of transforma- over to the care of God as we understood
tion,” which is how the Buddha manifests in Him.
earthly human form. The Buddha’s most recent 4. Made a searching and fearless moral inven-
embodiment was the Indian prince Siddhartha tory of ourselves.
Gautama, or Shakyamuni Buddha. Tibetan Bud- 5. Admitted to God, to ourselves, and to another
dhism shares the deep involvement in the reality human being the exact nature of our wrongs.
of a pantheon of transcendental Buddhas and 6. Were entirely ready to have God remove all
Bodhisattvas with the Mahayana tradition these defects of character.
found in East Asia. 7. Humbly asked Him to remove our
shortcomings.
8. Made a list of all persons we had harmed,
See Also and became willing to make amends to
them all.
▶ Bodhisattva 9. Made direct amends to such people wherever
▶ Buddhism possible, except when to do so would injure
▶ Dalai Lama them or others.
▶ Hinduism 10. Continued to take personal inventory and
▶ Rinpoche when we were wrong promptly admitted it.
11. Sought through prayer and meditation to
improve our conscious contact with God as
Bibliography we understood Him, praying only for
knowledge of His will for us and the power
Ehrhard, F. (1991). Tulku. In I. Fischer-Schreiber, to carry that out.
F. Ehrhard, & M. S. Diener (Eds.), The Shambala 12. Having had a spiritual awakening as the
dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambala.
Thurman, R. (1995). Inside Tibetan Buddhism: Rituals
result of these steps, we tried to carry this
and symbols revealed. San Francisco: Collins message to alcoholics and to practice these
Publishers. principles in all our affairs.
Twelve Steps 1831 T
The 12-step program aims at helping individ- wholeness, expressed in medieval language: the
uals achieve sobriety by modifying the dysfunc- union with God. Jung further elaborated that the
tional patterns and defenses of behavior, only cure for alcoholism is a full-fledged
developing and strengthening their adaptive religious experience. Rowland H. joined the
coping mechanisms, building new supportive Oxford Group, led by an old Episcopal clergy-
social networks through telephone calls and man, Dr. Samuel Showemaker, in England.
meetings, and utilizing community resources. The Oxford Group was a nondenominational
It teaches individuals to address the feelings that evangelical movement, accepting the simple
they have avoided through the use of alcohol. It is common denominators of all religions that
a nonprofit organization based on fellowship of would be potent enough to change the lives of
members who share the same goal, a desire to men and women.
stop drinking. The practices of the Oxford Groups were:
Total abstinence, in combination with 1. Admission of personal defeat (you have been
utilizing the tools of the program, is the pro- defeated by sin)
gram’s goal for recovery. The tools require one 2. Taking personal inventory (List your sins)
to make a thorough process of working through 3. Confession of one’s sins to another person
the 12 steps by obtaining a sponsor (one who has 4. Making restitution of those harmed
more experience in the program, has long-term 5. Helping others selflessly
abstinence, and acts as a mentor/primary sup- 6. Praying to God for Guidance and the power to
port). The program stresses the need to help put those precepts into practice
others in order to maintain one’s own sobriety. One of the most important requirements of the
In addition, there is a wide variety of literature Oxford Group was to recruit more members to the
that members are encouraged to read daily. Meet- group. It was only through helping others self-
ings are a strong part of the program, ranging lessly that one was cured. This doctrine was
from topic (i.e., serenity, honesty, forgiveness), adopted by Alcoholics Anonymous. It was Ebby
steps (any one of the 12 steps), and qualification Thacher that carried the message of the Oxford
(usually a 20 min description of one’s story Group to Bill Wilson in 1934, depicting that
focused on sharing experience, strength, and a spiritual awakening in combination with the
hope with fellow members). In the meetings, spiritual principals could cure the alcoholic. Bill
each member is encouraged to share for Wilson teamed up with Dr. Bob Smith and wrote
3–4 min, keeping the focus on the solution rather the book for Alcoholics Anonymous, known as
than dwelling on the problem. the “Big Book.” Originally, there were 6 steps of
According to Carl Jung, alcoholism in Latin is Alcoholics Anonymous, similar to the 6 steps of
“spiritus” and one uses the same word for the Oxford Group’s, which were later developed
the highest religious experience as well as for into 12 steps along with the 12 traditions. The 12-
the most depraving poison. Before Alcoholics step programs stayed true to the tradition of the
Anonymous was established, doctors and Oxford Group, remaining nondenominational, T
psychiatrists did not have any cure for the using terms as “higher power” and “God,” as we
alcoholic. It was suggested that many doctors understand him.
referred to William James statement that Although the 12-step programs are rooted in
religiomania is the only remedy for dipsomania American Protestantism, it is not exclusive to
(Cheever 2004). Christian or theistic belief. Eastern spiritual prac-
In 1931, it is written that Carl Gustav Jung, the tice such as transcendental meditation; Native
Swiss psychiatrist, told his patient Mr. Rowland American spirituality, such as sweat lodges; and
H. that the only solution for his recovery from rituals of singing and medicine circles are widely
addiction would have to be a religious or spiritual practiced, as well. All these spiritual models
experience. Jung refers to craving for alcohol, on share a belief that the path to recovery lies in
a low level, of the spiritual thirst of our being for the first 3 steps, which emphasize a belief and
T 1832 Twelve Steps

a readiness to turn one’s will over to a higher to others, and require taking responsibility for
power. Other groups have been founded through- one’s actions. This step process requires aware-
out the world based on the same principles: Nar- ness (observing ego) with a willingness to be able
cotics Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous, to adapt and modify one’s thinking and behavior.
Debtors Anonymous, Nicotine Anonymous, Al- Step 10 is a constant review requiring the ego to
Anon, Overeaters Anonymous, etc. regulate these drives on a daily basis and to con-
tinue to take responsibility for one’s actions.
Step 11, prayer and meditation, continues to
Commentary remind the ego to practice further self-awareness.
Step 12 provides a moral structure for helping
The most common theoretical approach to curing others, resisting the potential for grandiosity and
addiction at the early stages in psychotherapy narcissism, by focusing on one’s strength in order
has been cognitive therapy, behavioral therapy, to benefit newcomers to the program who are in
and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). The need of help.
theory involves adapting new behavior from old
behavior, adjusting one’s irrational and faulty
thinking to a healthier thought process. It is See Also
achieved by setting up a schedule and a contract
with a therapist, developing new activities, and ▶ Body and Spirituality
keeping a journal of feelings and behaviors, crav- ▶ Compulsion
ings, and/or triggers. It also involves using posi- ▶ Depth Psychology and Spirituality
tive reinforcement and addressing negative ▶ Ego
consequences of destructive behavior (Cooper ▶ Faith
and Lesser 2002). In the later stages of recovery, ▶ Freud, Sigmund
ego-supportive and ego-modifying work can be ▶ Freud, Sigmund, and Religion
undertaken. Many people with substance abuse ▶ God Image and Therapy
lack certain ego functioning, such as a state of ▶ Healing
identity, impulse control, good judgement, ▶ Id
frustration tolerance, and object constancy ▶ James, William
(Goldstein 1984). Like the ego psychological ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav
perspective, the 12-step program promotes ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Phenomenology
growth in ego functioning and ego synthesis, ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav, and Religion
even though the language may be different. ▶ Meditation
Sigmund Freud’s structural theory of the id, ▶ Personal God
the superego, and the ego refers to drives by ▶ Prayer
the id’s need for immediate gratification, the ▶ Psychospiritual
superego’s often punitive and moral perspective ▶ Psychotherapy and Religion
of society and the parent, and the ego which acts ▶ Religion and Mental and Physical Health
as the mediator of both the id and the superego. ▶ Religious Experience
Freud’s theories address the treatment of ▶ Substance Abuse and Religion
addiction in his discovery of the early defense ▶ Superego
mechanisms, such as denial, projection, and
rationalization. In the 12-step program, steps 1
through 3 address these early defenses of denial
Bibliography
and require a willingness and belief in a source
(higher power) outside of one’s own self. Steps 4 Cheever, S. (2004). My name is Bill: Bill Wilson-His life
through 9 require the review of one’s impulses (id and the creation of alcoholics anonymous. New York:
drives), address the consequences to oneself and Washington Square Press.
Twice Born 1833 T
Clark, W. H. (1951). The Oxford group. Its history and W. Newman’s The Soul; Its Sorrows and its
significance. University of Michigan: Bookmark Aspirations (1882). The twice-born type is the
Associates.
Cooper, M. G., & Lesser, J. G. (2002). Cognitive theory/ counterpart of the firstborn personality, who rep-
behavioral theory: A structural approach. In Clinical resents an instance of what James describes as
social work practice-An integrative approach “the religion of healthy-mindedness.” These
(pp. 141–172). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. individuals are characterized by a shallow
Finley, S. W. (2000). Influence of Carl Jung and William
James on the origin of alcoholic anonymous. Review of optimism in regard to religious belief and, in
General Psychology, 4(1), 3–12. extreme cases, an almost pathological aversion
Goldstein, E. G. (1984). Ego psychology and social work to the reality of suffering and evil. In contradis-
practice (2nd ed.). New York: Free Press. tinction to this type, the twice born has passed
Lobdell, J. C. (2004). Dr. Carl Jung’s letter to Bill W., Jan
30, 1961. In This strange illness: Alcoholism and Bill. through the experience of what James describes
W. Hawthorne: Aldine de Gruyter. as “the sick soul,” where the individual’s greater
Loose, R. (2002). The subject of addiction. London: awareness of manifest evil forestalls the forma-
Karnac. tion of religious conviction. The twice-born type
Orange, A. (2006) Bill Wilson writes the twelve steps
(Chap. 1). In The religious roots of alcoholics has successfully navigated the challenge of reli-
anonymous and the twelve steps. New York: Alco- gious pessimism, represented by the sick soul,
holics Anonymous, World Services. proceeding to an affirmation of life and devel-
Simmel, E. (1994). Alcoholism and addiction. In The opment of a religious outlook that fully retains
dynamics of treatment of alcoholism (Vol. 20,
pp. 273–290). Woodstock: Jason Aronson. its experience of the darker aspects of existence.
Smith, B., & Wilson, B. (1976). Alcoholics anonymous The twice-born personality, therefore, never
(3rd ed.). New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World represents a relapse into the religion of healthy-
Services. mindedness, which is characteristic of the first-
born type, but indicates a more comprehensive
and integrated religious perspective. In this
Twice Born sense, James’ description of the twice born
bears some resemblance to the successful inte-
John Pahucki gration of the shadow in Jungian analytical
Department of Humanities, SUNY Rockland, psychology.
Suffern, NY, USA

See Also
Categorical term in the psychology of religious
experience developed and described by William ▶ Jung, Carl Gustav
James in his classic work The Varieties of Reli- ▶ Shadow
gious Experience. The description is obviously ▶ Theodicy
rooted in the exchange between Jesus and
Nicodemus in the Gospel of John (3:1–21) T
where Jesus comments that a man must be
Bibliography
“born again” in order to enter the Kingdom of
God, although James seems to have directly James, W. (1982). The varieties of religious experience.
appropriated the term “twice born” from Francis New York: Penguin Classics.