194 BIOLOGY

C HAPTER 12
MINERAL N UTRITION
12.1 Methods to The basic needs of all living organisms are essentially the same. They
Study the require macromolecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats, and
Mineral water and minerals for their growth and development.
Requirements of This chapter focusses mainly on inorganic plant nutrition, wherein
Plants
you will study the methods to identify elements essential to growth and
12.2 Essential development of plants and the criteria for establishing the essentiality.
Mineral You will also study the role of the essential elements, their major deficiency
Elements symptoms and the mechanism of absorption of these essential elements.
12.3 Mechanism of The chapter also introduces you briefly to the significance and the
Absorption of mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation.
Elements
12.4 Translocation of
12.1 METHODS TO STUDY THE MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS
Solutes
12.5 Soil as Reservoir In 1860, Julius von Sachs, a prominent German botanist, demonstrated,
of Essential for the first time, that plants could be grown to maturity in a defined
Elements nutrient solution in complete absence of soil. This technique of growing
12.6 Metabolism of plants in a nutrient solution is known as hydroponics. Since then, a
Nitrogen number of improvised methods have been employed to try and determine
the mineral nutrients essential for plants. The essence of all these methods
involves the culture of plants in a soil-free, defined mineral solution. These
methods require purified water and mineral nutrient salts. Can you
explain why is this so essential?
After a series of experiments in which the roots of the plants were
immersed in nutrient solutions and wherein an element was added /
substituted / removed or given in varied concentration, a mineral solution

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suitable for the plant growth was obtained. By this

method, essential elements were identified and
their deficiency symptoms discovered. Hydroponics
has been successfully employed as a technique for
the commercial production of vegetables such as
tomato, seedless cucumber and lettuce. It must be
emphasised that the nutrient solutions must be
adequately aerated to obtain the optimum growth.
What would happen if solutions were poorly
aerated? Diagrammatic views of the hydroponic
technique is given in Figures 12.1 and 12.2.

12.2 ESSENTIAL MINERAL ELEMENTS

Figure 12.1 Diagram of a typical set-up for
Most of the minerals present in soil can enter plants nutrient solution culture
through roots. In fact, more than sixty elements of
the 105 discovered so far are found in different
plants. Some plant species accumulate selenium,
some others gold, while some plants growing near
nuclear test sites take up radioactive strontium.
There are techniques that are able to detect the
minerals even at a very low concentration (10-8 g/
mL). The question is, whether all the diverse mineral
elements present in a plant, for example, gold and
selenium as mentioned above, are really necessary
for plants? How do we decide what is essential for
plants and what is not?

12.2.1 Criteria for Essentiality

The criteria for essentiality of an element are given Nutrient
below: solution Pump
(a) The element must be absolutely necessary for Figure 12.2 Hydroponic plant production.
supporting normal growth and reproduction. Plants are grown in a tube or
trough placed on a slight
In the absence of the element the plants do not incline. A pump circulates a
complete their life cycle or set the seeds. nutrient solution from a
(b) The requirement of the element must be specific reservoir to the elevated end of
the tube. The solution flows
and not replaceable by another element. In down the tube and returns to
other words, deficiency of any one element the reservoir due to gravity.
cannot be met by supplying some other Inset shows a plant whose
element. roots are continuously bathed
in aerated nutrient solution.
(c) The element must be directly involved in the The arrows indicates the
metabolism of the plant. direction of the flow.

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Based upon the above criteria only a few elements have been found to
be absolutely essential for plant growth and metabolism. These elements
are further divided into two broad categories based on their quantitative
requirements.
(i) Macronutrients, and
(ii) Micronutrients
Macronutrients are generally present in plant tissues in large amounts
(in excess of 10 mmole Kg –1 of dry matter). The macronutrients include
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulphur, potassium,
calcium and magnesium. Of these, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are
mainly obtained from CO2 and H2O, while the others are absorbed from
the soil as mineral nutrition.
Micronutrients or trace elements, are needed in very small amounts
(less than 10 mmole Kg –1 of dry matter). These include iron, manganese,
copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine and nickel.
In addition to the 17 essential elements named above, there are some
beneficial elements such as sodium, silicon, cobalt and selenium. They
are required by higher plants.
Essential elements can also be grouped into four broad categories on
the basis of their diverse functions. These categories are:
(i) Essential elements as components of biomolecules and hence
structural elements of cells (e.g., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen).
(ii) Essential elements that are components of energy-related chemical
compounds in plants (e.g., magnesium in chlorophyll and
phosphorous in ATP).
(iii) Essential elements that activate or inhibit enzymes, for example
Mg2+ is an activator for both ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-
oxygenase and phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase, both of which
are critical enzymes in photosynthetic carbon fixation; Zn2+ is an
activator of alcohol dehydrogenase and Mo of nitrogenase during
nitrogen metabolism. Can you name a few more elements that
fall in this category? For this, you will need to recollect some of
the biochemical pathways you have studied earlier.
(iv) Some essential elements can alter the osmotic potential of a cell.
Potassium plays an important role in the opening and closing of
stomata. You may recall the role of minerals as solutes in
determining the water potential of a cell.

12.2.2 Role of Macro- and Micro-nutrients

Essential elements perform several functions. They participate in various
metabolic processes in the plant cells such as permeability of cell

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membrane, maintenance of osmotic concentration of cell sap, electron-

transport systems, buffering action, enzymatic activity and act as major
constituents of macromolecules and co-enzymes.
Various forms and functions of essential nutrient elements are given
below.
Nitrogen: This is the essential nutrient element required by plants in the
greatest amount. It is absorbed mainly as NO3– though some are also taken
up as NO2– or NH4+. Nitrogen is required by all parts of a plant, particularly
the meristematic tissues and the metabolically active cells. Nitrogen is one of
the major constituents of proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins and hormones.
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is absorbed by the plants from soil in the form
of phosphate ions (either as H2 PO−4 or HPO2− 4
). Phosphorus is a
constituent of cell membranes, certain proteins, all nucleic acids and
nucleotides, and is required for all phosphorylation reactions.

Potassium: It is absorbed as potassium ion (K+). In plants, this is required

in more abundant quantities in the meristematic tissues, buds, leaves
and root tips. Potassium helps to maintain an anion-cation balance in
cells and is involved in protein synthesis, opening and closing of stomata,
activation of enzymes and in the maintenance of the turgidity of cells.
Calcium: Plant absorbs calcium from the soil in the form of calcium ions
(Ca2+). Calcium is required by meristematic and differentiating tissues.
During cell division it is used in the synthesis of cell wall, particularly as
calcium pectate in the middle lamella. It is also needed during the
formation of mitotic spindle. It accumulates in older leaves. It is involved
in the normal functioning of the cell membranes. It activates certain
enzymes and plays an important role in regulating metabolic activities.

Magnesium: It is absorbed by plants in the form of divalent Mg2+. It

activates the enzymes of respiration, photosynthesis and are involved in
the synthesis of DNA and RNA. Magnesium is a constituent of the ring
structure of chlorophyll and helps to maintain the ribosome structure.
Sulphur: Plants obtain sulphur in the form of sulphate (SO2−4 )
. Sulphur is
present in two amino acids – cysteine and methionine and is the main
constituent of several coenzymes, vitamins (thiamine, biotin, Coenzyme A)
and ferredoxin.

Iron: Plants obtain iron in the form of ferric ions (Fe3+). It is required in
larger amounts in comparison to other micronutrients. It is an important
constituent of proteins involved in the transfer of electrons like ferredoxin
and cytochromes. It is reversibly oxidised from Fe2+ to Fe3+ during electron
transfer. It activates catalase enzyme, and is essential for the formation of
chlorophyll.

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Manganese: It is absorbed in the form of manganous ions (Mn2+). It

activates many enzymes involved in photosynthesis, respiration and
nitrogen metabolism. The best defined function of manganese is in the
splitting of water to liberate oxygen during photosynthesis.
Zinc: Plants obtain zinc as Zn2+ ions. It activates various enzymes,
especially carboxylases. It is also needed in the synthesis of auxin.
Copper: It is absorbed as cupric ions (Cu2+). It is essential for the overall
metabolism in plants. Like iron, it is associated with certain enzymes
involved in redox reactions and is reversibly oxidised from Cu+ to Cu2+.
Boron : It is absorbed as BO3− 3
or B 4O2−
7
. Boron is required for uptake
2+
and utilisation of Ca , membrane functioning, pollen germination, cell
elongation, cell differentiation and carbohydrate translocation.
Molybdenum: Plants obtain it in the form of molybdate ions ( MoO2+
2 )
. It
is a component of several enzymes, including nitrogenase and nitrate
reductase both of which participate in nitrogen metabolism.
Chlorine: It is absorbed in the form of chloride anion (Cl–). Along with
Na+ and K+, it helps in determining the solute concentration and the anion-
cation balance in cells. It is essential for the water-splitting reaction in
photosynthesis, a reaction that leads to oxygen evolution.

12.2.3 Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements

Whenever the supply of an essential element becomes limited, plant growth
is retarded. The concentration of the essential element below which plant
growth is retarded is termed as critical concentration. The element is
said to be deficient when present below the critical concentration.
Since each element has one or more specific structural or functional
role in plants, in the absence of any particular element, plants show certain
morphological changes. These morphological changes are indicative of
certain element deficiencies and are called deficiency symptoms. The
deficiency symptoms vary from element to element and they disappear
when the deficient mineral nutrient is provided to the plant. However, if
deprivation continues, it may eventually lead to the death of the plant. The
parts of the plants that show the deficiency symptoms also depend on the
mobility of the element in the plant. For elements that are actively mobilised
within the plants and exported to young developing tissues, the deficiency
symptoms tend to appear first in the older tissues. For example, the
deficiency symptoms of nitrogen, potassium and magnesium are visible
first in the senescent leaves. In the older leaves, biomolecules containing
these elements are broken down, making these elements available for
mobilising to younger leaves.
The deficiency symptoms tend to appear first in the young tissues
whenever the elements are relatively immobile and are not transported
out of the mature organs, for example, element like sulphur and

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calcium are a part of the structural component of the cell and hence are
not easily released. This aspect of mineral nutrition of plants is of a great
significance and importance to agriculture and horticulture.
The kind of deficiency symptoms shown in plants include chlorosis,
necrosis, stunted plant growth, premature fall of leaves and buds, and
inhibition of cell division. Chlorosis is the loss of chlorophyll leading to
yellowing in leaves. This symptom is caused by the deficiency of elements
N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn and Mo. Likewise, necrosis, or death of tissue,
particularly leaf tissue, is due to the deficiency of Ca, Mg, Cu, K. Lack or
low level of N, K, S, Mo causes an inhibition of cell division. Some elements
like N, S, Mo delay flowering if their concentration in plants is low.
You can see from the above that the deficiency of any element can
cause multiple symptoms and that the same symptoms may be caused
by the deficiency of one of several different elements. Hence, to identify
the deficient element, one has to study all the symptoms developed in all
the various parts of the plant and compare them with the available
standard tables. We must also be aware that different plants also respond
differently to the deficiency of the same element.

12.2.4 Toxicity of Micronutrients

The requirement of micronutrients is always in low amounts while their
moderate decrease causes the deficiency symptoms and a moderate increase
causes toxicity. In other words, there is a narrow range of concentration at
which the elements are optimum. Any mineral ion concentration in tissues
that reduces the dry weight of tissues by about 10 per cent is considered
toxic. Such critical concentrations vary widely among different
micronutrients. The toxicity symptoms are difficult to identify. Toxicity levels
for any element also vary for different plants. Many a times, excess of an
element may inhibit the uptake of another element. For example, the
prominent symptom of manganese toxicity is the appearance of brown
spots surrounded by chlorotic veins. It is important to know that
manganese competes with iron and magnesium for uptake and with
magnesium for binding with enzymes. Manganese also inhibit calcium
translocation in shoot apex. Therefore, excess of manganese may, in fact,
induce deficiencies of iron, magnesium and calcium. Thus, what appears
as symptoms of manganese toxicity may actually be the deficiency
symptoms of iron, magnesium and calcium. Can this knowledge be of some
importance to a farmer? a gardener? or even for you in your kitchen-garden?

12.3 MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION OF ELEMENTS

Much of the studies on mechanism of absorption of elements by plants
has been carried out in isolated cells, tissues or organs. These studies

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revealed that the process of absorption can be demarcated into two main
phases. In the first phase, an initial rapid uptake of ions into the ‘free
space’ or ‘outer space’ of cells – the apoplast, is passive. In the second
phase of uptake, the ions are taken in slowly into the ‘inner space’ – the
symplast of the cells. The passive movement of ions into the apoplast
usually occurs through ion-channels, the trans-membrane proteins that
function as selective pores. On the other hand, the entry or exit of ions to
and from the symplast requires the expenditure of metabolic energy, which
is an active process. The movement of ions is usually called flux; the
inward movement into the cells is influx and the outward movement, efflux.
You have read the aspects of mineral nutrient uptake and translocation
in plants in Chapter 11.

12.4 TRANSLOCATION OF SOLUTES

Mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with the ascending
stream of water, which is pulled up through the plant by transpirational
pull. Analysis of xylem sap shows the presence of mineral salts in it. Use
of radioisotopes of mineral elements also substantiate the view that they
are transported through the xylem. You have already discussed the
movement of water in xylem in Chapter 11.

12.5 SOIL AS RESERVOIR OF ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Majority of the nutrients that are essential for the growth and
development of plants become available to the roots due to weathering
and breakdown of rocks. These processes enrich the soil with dissolved
ions and inorganic salts. Since they are derived from the rock minerals,
their role in plant nutrition is referred to as mineral nutrition. Soil
consists of a wide variety of substances. Soil not only supplies minerals
but also harbours nitrogen-fixing bacteria, other microbes, holds water,
supplies air to the roots and acts as a matrix that stabilises the plant.
Since deficiency of essential minerals affect the crop-yield, there is often
a need for supplying them through fertilisers. Both macro-nutrients
(N, P, K, S, etc.) and micro-nutrients (Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn, etc.) form
components of fertilisers and are applied as per need.

12.6 METABOLISM OF NITROGEN

12.6.1 Nitrogen Cycle
Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is the most
prevalent element in living organisms. Nitrogen is a constituent of
amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many of the
vitamins. Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen that

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is available in soil. Thus, nitrogen is

a limiting nutrient for both natural
and agricultural eco-systems.
Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms
joined by a very strong triple covalent
bond (N ≡ N). The process of
c o n v e r s i o n o f n i t r o g e n ( N2) t o
ammonia is termed as nitrogen-
fixation. In nature, lightning and
ultraviolet radiation provide enough
energy to convert nitrogen to nitrogen
oxides (NO, NO 2, N 2O). Industrial
combustions, forest fires, automobile
e x h a u s t s a n d p o w e r -generating
stations are also sources of
atmospheric nitrogen oxides.
Decomposition of organic nitrogen of
dead plants and animals into
ammonia is called ammonification.
Some of this ammonia volatilises and
re-enters the atmosphere but most of Figure 12.3 The nitrogen cycle showing
it is converted into nitrate by soil relationship between the three
main nitrogen pools – atmospheric
bacteria in the following steps:
soil, and biomass

2NH3 + 3O2 → 2 NO2− + 2H + + 2H2 O .... (i)

2NO 2− + O2 → 2NO3− ...... (ii)

Ammonia is first oxidised to nitrite by the bacteria Nitrosomonas and/or

Nitrococcus. The nitrite is further oxidised to nitrate with the help of the
bacterium Nitrobacter. These steps are called nitrification (Figure 12.3).
These nitrifying bacteria are chemoautotrophs.
The nitrate thus formed is absorbed by plants and is transported to
the leaves. In leaves, it is reduced to form ammonia that finally forms the
amine group of amino acids. Nitrate present in the soil is also reduced to
nitrogen by the process of denitrification. Denitrification is carried by
bacteria Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus.

12.6.2 Biological Nitrogen Fixation

Very few living organisms can utilise the nitrogen in the form N2, available
abundantly in the air. Only certain prokaryotic species are capable of
fixing nitrogen. Reduction of nitrogen to ammonia by living organisms is

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called biological nitrogen fixation. The enzyme, nitrogenase which is

capable of nitrogen reduction is present exclusively in prokaryotes. Such
microbes are called N2- fixers.

Nitrogenase
N ≡ N → NH3

The nitrogen-fixing microbes could be free-living or symbiotic. Examples

of free-living nitrogen-fixing aerobic microbes are Azotobacter and
Beijerinckia while Rhodospirillum is anaerobic and free-living. In addition,
a number of cyanobacteria such as Anabaena and Nostoc are also free-
living nitrogen-fixers.
Symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation
Several types of symbiotic biological nitrogen fixing associations are known.
The most prominent among them is the legume-bacteria relationship.
Species of rod-shaped Rhizobium has such relationship with the roots of
several legumes such as alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet pea, lentils, garden pea,
broad bean, clover beans, etc. The most common association on roots is
as nodules. These nodules are small outgrowths on the roots. The microbe,
Frankia, also produces nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots of non-
leguminous plants (e.g., Alnus). Both Rhizobium and Frankia are free-
living in soil, but as symbionts, can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Uproot any one plant of a common pulse, just before flowering. You
will see near-spherical outgrowths on the roots. These are nodules. If
you cut through them you will notice that the central portion is red or
pink. What makes the nodules pink? This is due to the presence of
leguminous haemoglobin or leg-haemoglobin.

Nodule Formation
Nodule formation involves a sequence of multiple interactions between
Rhizobium and roots of the host plant. Principal stages in the nodule
formation are summarised as follows:
Rhizobia multiply and colonise the surroundings of roots and get attached
to epidermal and root hair cells. The root-hairs curl and the bacteria invade
the root-hair. An infection thread is produced carrying the bacteria into
the cortex of the root, where they initiate the nodule formation in the cortex
of the root. Then the bacteria are released from the thread into the cells
which leads to the differentiation of specialised nitrogen fixing cells. The
nodule thus formed, establishes a direct vascular connection with the host
for exchange of nutrients. These events are depicted in Figure 12.4.
The nodule contains all the necessary biochemical components, such
as the enzyme nitrogenase and leghaemoglobin. The enzyme nitrogenase
is a Mo-Fe protein and catalyses the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
to ammonia, (Figure 12.5) the first stable product of nitrogen fixation.

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Soil Hook
particles

Root hair
Infection
thread
Bacteria containing
bacteria
Bacteria Inner cortex and Mature nodule
(a)
pericycle cells
under division

Figure 12.4 Development of root nodules in soyabean : (a) Rhizobium bacteria

contact a susceptible root hair, divide near it, (b) Successful infection
of the root hair causes it to curl, (c) Infected thread carries the bacteria
to the inner cortex. The bacteria get modified into rod-shaped
bacteroids and cause inner cortical and pericycle cells to divide.
Division and growth of cortical and pericycle cells lead to nodule
formation, (d) A mature nodule is complete with vascular tissues
continuous with those of the root

The reaction is as follows:

N2 + 8e – + 8H+ + 16ATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16Pi

The enzyme nitrogenase is highly sensitive to the molecular oxygen; it

requires anaerobic conditions. The nodules have adaptations that ensure
that the enzyme is protected from oxygen. To protect these enzymes, the
nodule contains an oxygen scavenger called leg-haemoglobin. It is interesting
to note that these microbes live as aerobes under free-living conditions (where
nitrogenase is not operational), but during nitrogen-fixing events, they become
anaerobic (thus protecting the nitrogenase enzyme). You must have noticed
in the above reaction that the ammonia synthesis by nitrogenease requires a

Substrate Product
H
[nitrogen gas (N2)] [ammonia (NH3)]
N
H
N H H N
N Reduction H
H H
H H
N Reduction H N Reduction H N H N Release
N H N H N H N of products
H H
H
Enzyme Binding +2 H +2 H +2 H
(nitrogenase) of substrate Free nitrogenase
can bind another
molecule of N2

Figure 12.5 Steps of conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by nitrogenase

enzyme complex found in nitrogen-fixing bacteria

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very high input of energy (8 ATP for each NH3 produced). The energy required,
thus, is obtained from the respiration of the host cells.
Fate of ammonia: At physiological pH, the ammonia is protonated to form
NH+4 (ammonium) ion. While most of the plants can assimilate nitrate as well
as ammonium ions, the latter is quite toxic to plants and hence cannot
accumulate in them. Let us now see how the NH+4 is used to synthesise
amino acids in plants. There are two main ways in which this can take place:
(i) Reductive amination : In these processes, ammonia reacts with
α-ketoglutaric acid and forms glutamic acid as indicated in the
equation given below :
Glutamate
α − ketoglutaric acid + NH4+ + NADPH   → glutamate + H2 O + NADP
Dehydrogenase

(ii) Transamination : It involves the transfer of amino group from one

amino acid to the keto group of a keto acid. Glutamic acid is the main
amino acid from which the transfer of NH2, the amino group takes
place and other amino acids are formed through transamination. The
enzyme transaminase catalyses all such reactions. For example,

The two most important amides – asparagine and glutamine – found in

plants are a structural part of proteins. They are formed from two amino
acids, namely aspartic acid and glutamic acid, respectively, by addition
of another amino group to each. The hydroxyl part of the acid is replaced
by another NH2– radicle. Since amides contain more nitrogen than the
amino acids, they are transported to other parts of the plant via xylem
vessels. In addition, along with the transpiration stream the nodules of
some plants (e.g., soyabean) export the fixed nitrogen as ureides. These
compounds also have a particularly high nitrogen to carbon ratio.

SUMMARY

Plants obtain their inorganic nutrients from air, water and soil. Plants absorb a
wide variety of mineral elements. Not all the mineral elements that they absorb are
required by plants. Out of the more than 105 elements discovered so far, less than
21 are essential and beneficial for normal plant growth and development. The
elements required in large quantities are called macronutrients while those required
in less quantities or in trace are termed as micronutrients. These elements are
either essential constituents of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acid etc.,

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and/or take part in various metabolic processes. Deficiency of each of these

essential elements may lead to symptoms called deficiency symptoms. Chlorosis,
necrosis, stunted growth, impaired cell division, etc., are some prominent deficiency
symptoms. Plants absorb minerals through roots by either passive or active
processes. They are carried to all parts of the organism through xylem along with
water transport.
Nitrogen is very essential for the sustenance of life. Plants cannot use
atmospheric nitrogen directly. But some of the plants in association with N2-fixing
bacteria, especially roots of legumes, can fix this atmospheric nitrogen into
biologically usable forms. Nitrogen fixation requires a strong reducing agent and
energy in the form of ATP. N2-fixation is accomplished with the help of nitrogen-
fixing microbes, mainly Rhizobium. The enzyme nitrogenase which plays an
important role in biological N2 fixation is very sensitive to oxygen. Most of the
processes take place in anaerobic environment. The energy, ATP, required is
provided by the respiration of the host cells. Ammonia produced following N2 fixation
is incorporated into amino acids as the amino group.

EXERCISES

1. ‘All elements that are present in a plant need not be essential to its survival’.
Comment.
2. Why is purification of water and nutrient salts so important in studies involving
mineral nutrition using hydroponics?
3. Explain with examples: macronutrients, micronutrients, beneficial nutrients,
toxic elements and essential elements.
4. Name at least five different deficiency symptoms in plants. Describe them and
correlate them with the concerned mineral deficiency.
5. If a plant shows a symptom which could develop due to deficiency of more than
one nutrient, how would you find out experimentally, the real deficient mineral
element?
6. Why is that in certain plants deficiency symptoms appear first in younger parts
of the plant while in others they do so in mature organs?
7. How are the minerals absorbed by the plants?
8. What are the conditions necessary for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by
Rhizobium. What is their role in N2-fixation?
9. What are the steps involved in formation of a root nodule?
10. Which of the following statements are true? If false, correct them:
(a) Boron deficiency leads to stout axis.
(b) Every mineral element that is present in a cell is needed by the cell.
(c) Nitrogen as a nutrient element, is highly immobile in the plants.
(d) It is very easy to establish the essentiality of micronutrients because they
are required only in trace quantities.

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