WHAT YOU

SHOULD KNOW
ABOUT SCR
POWER
CONTROLLERS
"What You Should Know About SCR Power Controllers" was written as a practical guide to the selection and successful
application of SCR controllers. As such, it is not meant as a comprehensive discussion of power controllers and their
functions. If you require more in-depth information on this subject, please contact us at:

Control Concepts, Inc.

7870 Park Drive
Chanhassen, MN 55317

Phone: 952-474-6200
Fax: 952-474-6070
WATS: 800-765-2799

© Copyright, Control Concepts, Inc., 1988, 1992, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2002
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SCR POWER CONTROL
Since the development of SCR power controllers in the
late 1950’s, the power handling capabilities of SCR’s
(silicon controlled rectifiers) have advanced from a few
hundred watts to many megawatts. So, too, the use of
SCR power controllers in industrial applications has
increased dramatically and they are now used in almost
every major industry.

2.0 MAJOR ADVANTAGES

SCR power controllers provide a relatively economical
means of power control. SCR power controllers cost
less and are more efficient than saturable core reactors
and variable transformers. Compared to contactors,
SCR power controllers offer a much finer degree of
control and do not suffer from the maintenance problems
of mechanical devices. Features and benefits of SCR
power controllers over other forms of control include:
160 AMP SINGLE PHASE SCR CONTROLLER
High reliability
Because the SCR power controller is a solid-state
device, there are no inherent wear-out modes. Thus,
they provide virtually limitless and trouble free operation.

Infinite resolution
Power, current or voltage can be controlled from zero to
100% with infinite resolution. This capability allows
extremely accurate, stepless control of the process.

Extremely fast response

The SCR controller can switch load power on and off
extremely fast providing the means to respond rapidly to
command changes, load changes and power supply
changes. This feature allows the control of fast responding
loads and eliminates the negative effects of variations in
load or supply voltages that can occur with other types
of control.
425 AMP THREE-PHASE SCR CONTROLLER
Selectable control parameters
The SCR power controller can control the average load
3.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
voltage, the RMS value of the load voltage, the RMS or
Basically, an SCR power controller consists of the
the average load current or load power. It can also
following:
provide useful features such as current and voltage
limiting. The ability to control the desired parameter as
• semiconductor power devices (SCR’s and Diodes)
a function of a command signal and to incorporate
limiting features is not normally available with other
• a control circuit normally referred to as the firing
types of control.
circuit
Minimum maintenance
• a means to dissipate the heat generated from the
Because they are solid state there are no moving parts
semiconductor devices
to wear out or replace. Therefore, the routine replacement
required in some forms of control is eliminated.
• and protective circuits (fuses and transient
suppressors).
THE SCR SCR Modules
The heart of the SCR power controller is the SCR (silicon SCR modules are assemblies in which the SCR’s are
controlled rectifier, also sometimes referred to as a contained in a plastic enclosure with an electrically
thyristor). isolated mounting plate. SCR modules are becoming
The SCR has two states, ON and OFF, and allows increasingly popular and modules containing a variety of
current to flow in only one direction. SCR’s can remain SCR configurations are available. They are easy and
in the off state even though the applied potential may be inexpensive to mount to a heatsink, they typically have
several thousand volts; in the on state, they can pass large surge current ratings and they provide electrical
several thousand amperes. When a small signal is isolation, allowing multiple modules to be mounted on a
applied between the gate and cathode terminals (Figure common heat sink.
2.1), the SCR will turn on in 10-100 microseconds. Once
turned on it will remain on until the current through it is ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
reduced below a very low value called the holding The electronic circuit controls the operation of the
current. SCR’s such that the desired energy applied to the load
is proportional to the command signal.
Important tasks of the circuit include:
CURRENT FLOW Timing: It is imperative, particularly in applications
involving inductive loads such as transformers, that no
DC be applied to the load. For the reasons described
ANODE CATHODE
under Trans-Guard (p.8), DC components can also
cause supply transformers to over heat. This requires
GATE that the ON time of the back-to-back SCR’s be exactly
equal. Modern circuits use sophisticated digital phase
Figure 2.1. SCR symbol lock loop techniques which are immune to the electrical
noise and varying voltages that are often found in
Because the SCR allows current to flow in only one industrial environments.
direction, two SCR’s are connected in a “back to back” Electrical Isolation: The command signal must be
configuration to control AC current (Figure 2.2). isolated from the supply and load voltage. Plus, excellent
isolation is required between the circuits controlling the
signals to the gates of the SCR’s to prevent false turn-
on of the SCR’s.

HEATSINK REQUIREMENTS
SCR’s emit about 1.5 watts of energy in the form of heat
per ampere conducted. Failure to dissipate this energy
is perhaps one of the main sources of SCR failure. The
reliability of SCR’s decreases about 50% for every 10
degrees centigrade increase of it's semiconductor
temperature. Other critical parameters such as the dv/
dt (See glossary) rating and the blocking voltage rating
Figure 2.2. AC "Back to Back" Switch also decrease rapidly with temperature.
The heat generated by the SCR must be dissipated,
thus, all controllers have some means to cool the
Three types of construction styles are available: the SCR’s. Typically an aluminum heatsink with fins to
disc or hockey puck, the module, and the stud mount. increase the surface area is used to dissipate this
Modern SCR controllers generally use either the hockey energy to air. Controllers with relatively small current
puck or the module construction. capacities rely on natural convection; larger current
capacity controllers use a fan to force air past the fins
Hockey puck SCR's to increase the rate heat is dissipated. Occasionally,
The hockey puck style is an assembly that has SCR controllers with very large current ratings use water
essentially the same physical shape as a hockey puck. cooled heatsinks.
The construction provides excellent cooling of the
semiconductor material and is generally used in higher
current applications.
4.0 BASIC CONTROL MODES Zero-cross: The term zero-cross or synchronous
The power delivered to a load may be regulated or operation of SCR’s is derived from the fact that the
proportioned by SCR power controllers using either the SCR’s are turned on only when the instantaneous value
phase-angle or the integral cycle (zero-cross voltage of the sinusoidal waveform is zero. In zero-cross
switching) control mode. Each control mode has its own operation, power is applied for a number of continuous
specific advantages and disadvantages and each half-cycles and then removed for a number of half-cycles
application should be reviewed to determine the most to achieve the desired load power in the same manner
compatible mode of control. as power would be controlled with a mechanical switching
device. The difference is that the SCR controllers always
Phase-angle: In phase-angle control each SCR of the switch power when the instantaneous value of the
back-to-back pair is turned on for a variable portion of the applied voltage is zero. Also, the frequency of the on-off
half-cycle that it conducts (Figure 3.1). Power is regulated cycles can be extremely fast because there is no limit
by advancing or delaying the point at which the SCR is to the number of switching operations the SCR can
turned ON within each half cycle. Light dimmers are an perform.
example of phase-angle control. Zero-cross controllers can provide two rather distinctively
different types of control. Time proportioning control is
sometimes used when switching large amounts of
current can cause voltage variations which affect ambient
lighting or other equipment. The disadvantage is that
power is applied in longer bursts which can in turn cause
control problems and shorten heater life. Distributive
control is typically somewhat less expensive, provides
a much faster cycle rate giving better controllability and
longer heater life. It can also be used with much faster
responding loads than can time proportioning.

Zero-cross time proportioning: Zero-cross time

proportion control is accomplished with a fixed or
constant time base, therefore the total of power “ON”
AC SUPPLY LOAD VOLTAGE time and power “OFF” time is always equal to a fixed
SCR "ON" time, shown Power is regulated by value. For example, if the time base is ten seconds and
by shaded area, is advancing or delaying the desired power is 50%, then power is applied for 5
varied to apply the the point at which the seconds and removed for 5 seconds. If the desired
desired load voltage. SCR's are turned on.
power were 25% then power is applied for 2.5 seconds
and removed for the remaining period of 7.5 seconds.
Figure 3.1. Phase-Angle Waveforms The disadvantage of time proportioning particularly as
the time base is increased is that the load temperature
varies considerably between the on-off cycles. This can
Phase-angle control provides a very fine resolution of shorten the life of heater elements and decrease the
power and is used to control fast responding loads such ability to obtain precise process control.
as tungsten-filament lamps or loads in which the
resistance changes as a function of temperature. Phase- Distributive zero-cross: Distributive zero-cross does
angle control is required if the load is transformer- not use a fixed or constant time base as is used in time
coupled or inductive. proportioning. The technique used by Control Concepts
Phase-angle controllers are typically more expensive applies load power for 3 electrical cycles and removes
than zero-cross controllers because the phase-angle load power for 3 electrical cycles at 50% power. At lower
circuit requires more sophistication than does a zero- power requirements the controller will apply power for 3
cross circuit. Phase-angle control of three-phase power electrical cycles and is then off for the appropriate
requires SCR’s in all three legs and is appreciably more number of electrical cycles. For example, at 25% power
expensive than zero-cross control which only requires the controller is on for 3 electrical cycles and off for 9
SCR’s in two of the three legs. electrical cycles, or on for 3 electrical cycles out of 12.
At higher power levels the controller is off for three
electrical cycles and on for the appropriate number of
electrical cycles. For example at 75% power the
controller is on for 9 electrical cycles and off for 3
electrical cycles.
The Control Concepts distributive control technique 5.0 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS: POWER FACTOR
combines power pulses of short duration to obtain the AND HARMONICS
exact power level proportional to the command or set The operation of zero-cross or phase-angle SCR
point signal. For example, 60% power is achieved by controllers can lower the power factor, resulting in a
combining two power pulses. The first power pulse higher electrical cost. Harmonics can be generated
consists of 4 on cycles and 3 off cycles; the second which may cause radio frequency interference (RFI) or
power pulse consists of 5 on cycles and 3 off cycles, possibly affect the operation of other equipment.
providing a total of 9 on cycles during 15 cycles. Of
course, such rapid, short bursts of power would be Power Factor
impossible with mechanical contactors. Zero-cross The power factor of a single-phase circuit is the ratio of
control is typically less expensive than phase-angle true power in watts, as measured with a wattmeter, to
control and generates fewer harmonics. However, zero- the apparent power in volt-amperes, obtained as the
cross can only be used to control power to resistive product of voltage and current.
loads that do not change appreciably with temperature
or time and which are directly-coupled (no transformer P.F. = KW
between the SCR controller and the load). Zero-cross KVA
control of large power levels can cause supply voltage
fluctuations resulting in ambient lighting fluctuations or (The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the
other problems (See Sync-guard, page 8), and can same as that of the single phases. When the phases are
cause overheating of transformers supplying power to not balanced the true power factor is indeterminate.)
the controller and load (See Trans-guard, page 8).

COMPARISON OF PHASE-ANGLE AND ZERO-CROSS

PARAMETER PHASE-ANGLE ZERO-CROSS

Cost: 1-phase Slightly more Slightly less

Cost: 3-phase Appreciably higher 2-leg control is appreciably less due to lower
circuit cost and because only 2 of the 3
supply lines require SCR’s. 3-leg control is
slightly less because of circuit cost.

Type of loads: Transformer coupled loads, fast Resistive loads only. Power can not be applied
responding loads, loads with large to a transformer. Moderately fast loads can
resistance changes, loads requiring be controlled with distributive control.
current limiting, or soft start.

Power factor: Theoretical value equals (% of Resistive loads only. Power can not be applied
(Ref Section 5) applied power/100)0.5. Power factor to a transformer. Moderately fast loads can
observed on typical utility meter is be controlled with distributive control.
very close to theoretical power. Theoretical value equals (% of applied power/
100)0.5 Power factor observed on typical utility
meter approaches unity.

RFI and Harmonics: Higher harmonics are generated and Harmonics and RFI are very low.
(Ref Section 5) the potential for RFI is higher.

Reliability: Lower than zero-cross Higher than phase-angle because fewer

components are required and because the
SCR turns on when the voltage and current
are zero.

Serviceability: More complex Easier because of fewer components.

In figure 6.1, consider the supply voltage E s to be 480 Harmonics and RFI
volts RMS and the load voltage EL controlled by the SCR Harmonic wave forms are generated when electrical
controller to be 240 volts RMS. The load current IL is, of power is switched and are therefore generated when
course, equal to the supply current I S and is equal to E L/ power is controlled by mechanical contacts, saturable
RL or 100 amps. The KW of the system is 24. (240 volts core reactors, SCR controllers and all other power
X 100 amps) and the KVA is of the system is 48 (480 switching devices.
volts X 100 amps). Harmonics are sinusoidal waveforms with frequencies
that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
P.F. = 24 = E L X I L = E L = 0.5 For example, a waveform that has twice the frequency
48 ES X IL ES of the fundamental frequency is called the second
harmonic. All repetitive waveforms are formed by the
= (% applied power/100)0.5 addition of harmonics. In general, abrupt changes in the
waveform or complex waveforms cause the magnitudes
The power factor with resistive loads controlled by either of the harmonics to increase, increasing the possibility
phase-angle or zero-cross control is the ratio of the load of interference problems. In SCR control the magnitude
voltage to the supply voltage and is therefore proportional of the harmonics are the greatest when the load power
to (% applied power/100) 0.5. is controlled at 50%. Tables 5.1 & 5.2 show the relative
Tests have shown that most power factor meters supplied magnitude and frequency for zero-cross and phase-
by utility companies respond correctly to phase-angle angle control.
control, but provide near unity power factor for zero- Although harmonics and RFI are a common concern,
cross control. Newer meters using solid state technology very few if any problems have occurred in actual
and which sample for a longer time period provide power application. This is because harmonics are attenuated
factor measurements very close to the theoretical values by inductance, and because the effects of harmonics
for both phase-angle and zero-cross control. are attenuated by proper shielding and grounding of
electrical equipment.

Table 5.1 ZERO-CROSS Table 5.2 PHASE-ANGLE

Harmonic Frequency Magnitude % Harmonic Frequency Magnitude %

1 10 10.90 1 60 59.70
2 20 0.00 2 120 0.00
3 30 14.10 3 180 31.80
4 40 0.00 4 240 0.00
5 50 34.71 5 300 10.60
6 60 50.00 6 360 0.00
7 70 29.80 7 420 10.60
8 80 0.00 8 480 0.00
9 90 8.49 9 540 6.40
10 100 0.00 10 600 0.00
11 110 4.50 11 660 6.40
12 120 0.00 12 720 0.00
13 130 2.88 13 780 4.60
14 140 0.00 14 840 0.00
15 150 2.03 15 900 4.60
16 160 0.00 16 960 0.00
17 170 1.50 17 1020 3.50
18 180 0.00 18 1080 0.00
19 190 1.18 19 1140 3.50
20 200 0.00 20 1200 0.00
21 210 0.09 21 1260 2.90
22 220 0.00 22 1320 0.00
Note: The 1st or fundamental harmonic of zero-cross
is 10 Hertz because power is applied for 3 cycles and
removed for 3 cycles at 50% power.
6.0 LOAD CONFIGURATIONS AND CONSIDERATIONS THREE-PHASE LOAD CONNECTIONS
Load configurations and considerations for single-phase Phase-angle
control should be obvious from the previous discussion. Phase-angle control of three-phase requires a total of 6
However, there are several unique load configurations power switching devices. These devices can be
and some important considerations which need to be configured as hybrid (3 SCR’s & 3 diodes), 6 SCR in-line
examined in three-phase applications. or 6 SCR inside delta.

SINGLE-PHASE LOAD CONNECTIONS Hybrid Control

The connections for single-phase are the same for Three-phase hybrid controllers use three SCR’s and
phase-angle (Figure 6.1) and zero-cross (Figure 6.2), three diodes (Figure 6.3) to control load power. These
the difference between the two being the manner in controllers are intended primarily for three-wire ‘wye’ or
which the SCR’s are controlled. ‘delta’ type resistive loads connected directly to the
controller (i.e., a transformer is not connected between
the load and the controller). The three-phase hybrid
controller should not be used in a four wire circuit. The
fourth wire common return would allow uncontrolled
conduction through the power diodes resulting in
approximately 50% power output even though the SCR’s
IS IL were off.
The advantage of hybrid controllers is that the cost is
somewhat less than six SCR control because the circuit
is less complex and diodes are less costly. However,
ES EL hybrid controllers should not be used if the load is
unbalanced. An unbalanced load controlled with a hybrid
controller will result in a DC current flow which, for the
same reasons discussed in the section entitled Trans-
Guard, can result in supply transformer saturation.

Figure 6.1. Phase angle control at 50% power

SCR

Diode

SCR
IL

Diode

ES EL SCR

Diode

Figure 6.2. Zero-cross at 50% power Figure 6.3 Hybrid control

Six SCR in-line controllers ZERO-CROSS CONTROL
The Six SCR controller, as the name implies, uses six
SCR’s (Figure 7.1) to control the load power. This Two leg control:
configuration is an ideal configuration for inductive load This approach uses a pair of back-to-back SCR’s in two
applications, unbalanced resistive loads and transformer of the supply leads to the load (Figure 7.3). If all of the
coupled loads. Caution: If the controller is operating a SCR’s are off no power can be applied to the load. The
transformer, either the primary or the secondary winding two leg control can be used on either "wye" or "delta"
must be a delta configuration. loads, however, it can not be used to control four wire
loads. As previously mentioned, the primary advantages
of the zero-cross control technique are lower cost and
extremely low RFI.

Figure 7.1. Six SCR in-line control

Figure 7.3. 2-leg zero-cross
Six SCR inside delta control
Three phase inside delta control is essentially three 3-leg control
single-phase controllers operating from the same Some installations require that all three legs of the load
command or set point. Typically a six SCR controller be controlled and therefore back-to-back SCR’s are
can be configured to operate inside delta. It is also placed in all three supply leads. The cost advantage of
possible, of course, to configure three single phase zero-cross control is reduced with 3-leg control because
controllers controlled by the same command signal. of the added SCR’s and heat sink costs, however, the
Because the current in each phase is 57.74% of the line circuit cost is less than an equivalent phase-angle
current, smaller and less expensive controllers can be controller and the advantage of low RFI is retained.
used for inside delta control.
Caution: If inside delta control is used in the primary of
a three-phase transformer, a six SCR controller must be
used and the secondary must be a delta. (Three single
phase controllers can not be used inside the delta to
operate a three-phase transformer)

Figure 7.4. 3-leg zero-cross

Zero-cross inside delta

Zero-cross using the inside delta technique as described
previously can be used to reduce the current rating of
Figure 7.2. Six SCR inside-delta control the SCR’s and in some instances system cost can be
reduced.
7.0 FEATURES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE Sync-Guard
Soft Start & Missing Cycle Detection This feature, available on some zero-cross controllers
These features are required in phase-angle control to produced by Control Concepts, reduces the possibility
assure that the load power is gradually increased from of synchronous operation of two or more controllers. It
zero to the value set by the command signal if load reduces the variations in power demand resulting in a
power is interrupted. This gradual increase of power more stable supply voltage and improved power factor.
prevents surge currents and avoids the possibility of The Sync-Guard feature does not alter the power applied
saturating inductive loads like transformers. to the load, but adjusts the time when power is applied
in such a manner as to reduce the possibility of the
Current Limiting controllers being ON and OFF at the same time.
This feature, available only on phase-angle controllers,
provides a means to prevent the load current from Trans-Guard
exceeding a preset value. Current limiting is used to The use of zero-cross controllers on the secondary of a
protect, the load, the SCR controller, fuses, and the transformer can cause saturation of the transformer
system supply from large surge currents that could resulting in excess transformer temperatures and early
occur at start up due to loads that have a low resistance failure.
when cold. Transformers can be caused to saturate if a DC voltage
is applied to the primary. DC voltage can be induced on
Feedback/Feedforward the primary by DC components in the secondary. The
Either feedback or feedforward provides the means to simple half wave rectifier circuit shown in figure 8.1 will
achieve a linear relation between the desired output and induce a DC voltage on the primary due to the fact that
the control or command signal. Feedback implies that the voltage drop across the source resistance during the
the desired parameter is measured and “fed back” to the cycle the diode conducts will lower the primary voltage
input of the control such that the output can be increased when the diode conducts. The effect is the same as if a
or decreased if corrective action is required. Feedforward zero-cross controller were not providing an equal number
involves a less expensive technique in which the output of positive and negative half cycles to the load. Although
is simulated in the circuitry and corrective action is not shown in figure 8.1, the source inductance can also
taken based upon the simulated circuit response. Both cause a DC voltage to occur on the transformer primary.
techniques provide a linear output with respect to the The Trans-Guard feature eliminates the problem by
control or command signals and eliminate the effects of always supplying an odd number of ON half-cycles and
load and supply variations. an even number of OFF half-cycles. This technique
guarantees that no DC will occur independent of the
Over Current Trip source impedance or the load configuration.
The over current trip feature prevents the SCR’s from R S = Source Resistance
being turned on if the SCR current has exceeded a Diode
preset value during the last half cycle. Essentially, this
feature is an electronic fuse which eliminates the need
ES EL
for expensive and troublesome semiconductor fuses.
The controller can be reset by either removing and
reapplying power or by momentarily closing a remote
switch. This feature has proven to be a more reliable
protection technique than fast acting fuses. Transformer voltage E S Load voltage E L
low
Shorted SCR Detection
If an SCR does fail, it typically becomes shorted allowing high
load current to flow continuously. In the event an SCR
shorts, this feature energizes a relay which can be used Figure 8.1. Transformer saturation due to secondary DC current
to activate an alarm or remove system power.
The saturation problem is not likely to occur when the
load is a small percentage of the transformer capacity,
or when the source resistance and inductance are
small. However, the potential problem always exists
unless the controller is designed with the feature
described above.
8.0 SELECTING THE CORRECT CONTROLLER
1.0 Determine the current and load configuration
Determine the current and voltage requirements and determine whether the application is to be three-phase
or single-phase. (Single-phase controllers will typically be less expensive than three-phase controllers.)
Figure 9.1 shows the calculations to determine power and current.

DELTA-CONNECTED LOAD WYE CONNECTED LOAD

THREE-PHASE LOAD
CALCULATIONS I IP
VP L
VL = line-to-line voltage I L IP
VL VL
VP
VP = phase voltage IL IL

IP VP
IL = line current IP
VL VL VL
VL
IP = phase current IP
I VP VP
L IL

Vline = Vphase Iline = I phase

To determine the line current For a balanced wye-connected
For a balanced delta-connected
(in Amps) for balanced 3- resistive loads only
resistive loads only:
phase resistive loads (wye
or delta-connected) where P Iline = 1.732 X Iphase Vline = Vphase
= total 3-phase power in KW.
P = 1.732 X Vline X Iline P = 1.732 X Vline X Iline
for VL = 480 IL 1.2 X P (inKW) P = 3 X Vline X I phase P = 3 X Vphase X Iline
for VL = 240 IL 2.4 X P (in KW)

for VL = 208 IL 2.8 X P (in KW)

Figure 9.1. Calculations to determine power and current.

2.0 Determine the control mode SPRING LOADED CONNECTIONS

Determine the type of control mode (zero-cross or The use of spring washers on all electrical junctions
phase- angle) and features to enhance performance: always insures a good connection. Heat is generated
Transformer coupled loads, fast responding loads, in electrical connections because of the resistance
loads that change resistance with age or temperature of one conductor or bus bar to another. This heat
typically require phase-angle control. Figure 10.1 is causes expansion and deformation of the connection
a guide to aid in determining the type of control mode and in turn can cause the resistance to increase,
to be used. generating even more heat. The spring applies a
Zero-cross control is typically less expensive than constant force to the junction, allowing for the
phase-angle control. expansion. In addition, all connections should have
an electrical compound applied to improve both
3.0 Choose a reliable and serviceable controller. thermal and electrical conductivity.
Expect more than just the obvious. The following,
often overlooked features and requirements are critical
to the reliability and serviceability of SCR power
controllers.
 LOAD TYPE CONTROL DESIRED FEATURES
TYPE

TRANSFORMER COUPLED LOADS SOFT-START AND MISSING CYCLE

PHASE-ANGLE HIGH SURGE CURRENT
DIGITAL PHASE-LOCK LOOP TIMING

FAST RESPONDING LOADS OVERCURRENT TRIP

PHASE-ANGLE SOFT START AND MISSING CYCLE
INFRARED LAMPS HIGH SURGE CURRENT
LOW MASS HEATERS
FAST RESPONDING PROCESS

LOADS IN WHICH THE RESISTANCE

CHANGES WITH TEMPERATURE SOFT-START
PHASE-ANGLE CURRENT LIMITING
MOLYBDENUM HIGH SURGE CURRENT
GRAPHITE
QUARTZ DISCILLCIDE
STAINLESS 304

LOADS IN WHICH THE RESISTANCE

CHANGES WITH TIME CURRENT LIMITING
PHASE-ANGLE POWER FEEDBACK
SILICON CARBIDE

LOADS IN WHICH THE RESISTANCE MULTIPLE CONTROLLERS

CHANGES LESS THAN 10% SYNC-GUARD
ZERO-CROSS LARGE CURRENTS
NICKEL CHROMIUM TRANS-GUARD
IRON CHROMIUM

Figure 10.1 SCR Controller Selection Guide

LONG LIFE FANS SINGLE PLUG-IN CIRCUIT BOARD
Fans are often required to cool the semiconductors in The use of a single circuit plug-in circuit board greatly
SCR power controllers. Fans with ball bearings or improves serviceability. For example, circuit cards can
extended life sleeve bearings provide superior be switched from one controller to another when
performance and long life over less expensive fans with diagnosing problems. Also, use of a plug-in board
conventional sleeve bearings. eliminates the possibility of mis-wiring during service.
In addition, if the circuit can be used on all controllers
POWER CONNECTORS independent of current rating then only one card is
Connectors used to connect the supply leads and the required for spare parts.
load leads should be designed to remain secure when
field wiring is installed. (The typical installer of the CIRCUIT SYNCHRONIZATION AND TIMING
controller will over- torque the connectors; if the To synchronize with line frequency, many controllers
connectors become loose under these conditions use the zero-cross (the start of the AC voltage cycle) as
problems with the controller will develop.) The connectors a reference to determine the conduction or “ON” time of
should also be located such that it is convenient to use the SCR. However, this may be difficult because of
a wrench and apply the right torque during installation. electrical noise in the industrial environment. Use of a
Additionally, a design which allows the air from the filter in the zero-cross detection circuit helps to reject
semiconductor cooling fans to pass over the large electrical noise and is acceptable for some applications.
current connectors cools the connection and improves Controllers intended for transformer coupled loads require
reliability. a very precise and noise immune technique. Here,
request a phase-locked digital circuit to determine the
FORCE INDICATING CLAMPS zero-cross by a voltage integration technique.
SCR’S and diodes of the hockey puck design must be Transformer load applications require that all SCR’s be
“squeezed” between the heat sinks by spring loaded turned “ON” for precisely the same amount of time to
clamps to assure electrical and thermal conductivity. avoid applying DC. The phase-locked self adjusting
To facilitate field replacement (serviceability) of the digital clock technique provides the means to achieve
semiconductor, the spring clamps should have a force extremely accurate timing and can be used “as is” on 50
indicator to determine the proper force. or 60 Hertz applications.

STATUS INDICATORS THE GATE DRIVE

Status indicators consist of small LEDs that provide SCR’s are turned “ON” by the injection of current into the
information regarding the magnitude of the command gate. The input impedance of the gate changes drastically
signal, the magnitude of the load current, the status of during turn on. Therefore, a gate drive circuit, particularly
features such as over-current trip and shorted SCR on large SCR’s, is required to inject the desired current
detection. Controllers so equipped can be easily and independent of the gate impedance.
safely serviced by inexperienced personnel. A technique using optical couplers to initiate a fast
rising constant current source has proven to provide
TRANSIENT PROTECTION reliable operation and excellent electrical isolation. An
Rapid voltage changes (dv/dt) and high voltage transients SCR is turned on approximately 2 million times in eight
are common in industrial applications. Under such hours and can be slowly destroyed if the gate drive is
conditions, the SCR’s can turn on, causing undesired inadequate.
surge currents or outputs if proper protection is not
provided. Unprotected SCR’s can actually be destroyed COOLING
by repeated transients. If an SCR is turned on due to a A 10oC increase in semiconductor temperature will
transient, it is possible for very high current densities to decrease reliability by 50%. It is difficult for the user to
destroy a small portion of the SCR. If this is repeated determine if adequate cooling is provided. However
even higher current densities occur until failure. To characteristics of adequate cooling include: a) The
prevent damage or failure due to high voltage transients, ability to operate continuously in a 55oC ambient
SCR’s should have a high blocking voltage (1400 volts environment with no de-rating. b) Extremely smooth
for 480 Vac) and must be protected with fast acting surfaces on which the SCR’s are mounted. c) The use
MOV’s (metal oxide varistors). Further, a series resistor of a thermal compound on all electrical connections to
and capacitor circuit should be connected across the aid thermal conduction and to prevent oxide formation.
SCR’s to provide a shunt for high frequency transients d) Proper containment of the cooling air such that all of
(dv/dt). the air provided by the fan passes over the heat sink.
SURGE CURRENT CONVECTION
Certain loads, such as transformers or loads with a low The internal temperature of a NEMA 1 enclosure
cold resistance like infrared lamps, can have a large increases above the external ambient temperature about
surge current. Therefore, the surge current rating of the 4oF per watt dissipated per square foot of exposed
controller must be adequate to protect the SCR’s from surface area. The temperature rise in degrees Fahrenheit
damage in the event the SCR’s are turned on by can be approximated by dividing the total watts dissipated
transients. Any surge current that may occur is inside the enclosure by the exposed surface area in
dependent upon the load and the source resistance and square feet and multiplying this number by 4. For
is difficult to determine. However, a surge current rating example if a NEMA 1 enclosure with 100 square feet of
of 12 times rated current has proven to provide very exposed surface area contained equipment dissipating
satisfactory reliability. 900 watts, then the watts dissipated per square foot is
9 and the internal temperature can be estimated at 36oF
PANEL SPACE REQUIREMENTS above the outside ambient temperature.
Electrical enclosures are expensive. Therefore, a
physically smaller controller saves enclosure costs. In FORCED AIR
addition a smaller and relatively light weight controller If the enclosure can not be cooled by convection then it
can be shipped faster and less expensively. may be possible to ventilate the enclosure by forcing air
through it with a fan. The size of the fan can be
EXPERIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE OF determined by the following equation relating air flow in
THE VENDOR cubic feet per minute (CFM) to the power in watts (W)
There are a great many factors which affect the dissipated within the enclosure and the allowable
application of SCR power controllers. An experienced temperature rise (DF) above ambient that can be tolerated
and knowledgeable vendor is best able to provide the within the enclosure.
assistance and recommend the best product for the
application. CFM = 3.16 X W
DF

9.0 ENCLOSURE SELECTION For example, if the power to be dissipated by forced air
As is true of any solid-state device, the reliability of an cooling is 900 watts and the maximum allowable
SCR power controller is greatly increased if operated temperature rise within the enclosure is 15oF then the air
within its temperature range and if kept free of flow required would be:
contaminates. Therefore, the selection of the enclosure
and the means to cool it are very important. CFM = 3.16 X 900 = 189.6
15
HEAT DISSIPATION CONSIDERATIONS
The enclosure should have proper ventilation or cooling COOLING WHEN A SEALED ENCLOSURE IS
to dissipate the heat generated by the equipment within REQUIRED
it. An SCR power controller dissipates about 1.5 watts If the enclosure must be totally sealed because of water
per ampere of current it controls. Therefore, a 100 amp tight requirements, or extremely dusty conditions, etc.,
single-phase controller dissipates about 150 watts, a 2- then other means of cooling such as air to air exchangers,
leg 100 amp zero-cross controller dissipates about 300 water to air exchangers or air conditioning units
watts and a 100 amp 3-phase phase-angle controller specifically designed for cooling electrical enclosures
dissipates about 450 watts. The heat generated within can be used. (A kilowatt-hour equals 3413 BTUs)
the enclosure can be dissipated by one of the following:
10.0 FUSING AND DISCONNECT MEANS CONDUCTANCE - The ability of a material to conduct
The proper selection of fuses and other protection electricity. Conductance is the inverse of resistance.
techniques can greatly affect the reliability of SCR
controllers. Some SCR controllers are provided with CURRENT FEEDBACK - A means to maintain the
fuses to protect the SCR’s, some controllers have applied current to the load. The applied current is
electronic fusing, and low cost controllers are provided maintained as a linear function of the command signal
with no SCR fusing. It is important to note that fuses regardless of line voltage and load changes.
provided with the controller are intended to protect the
SCR’s and may not be the correct fuse for load protection. CT - Current Transformer; a device used for sensing
The type of fuse depends, of course, on the load and the current. It’s output is an electrically isolated signal
local and national codes. In general a fast acting fuse proportional to the measured current.
such as the JJS or JJN fuses provided by Bussmann
have proven to be a good compromise for reliability, cost di/dt - The rate of rise of applied current to an SCR as
and protection. The vendor of the controller should be the unit turns on.
able to recommend the type of fuses required for any
specific application. DIODE - A semiconductor which allows current to pass
SCR’s have a small leakage current in the off state. in one direction only.
Therefore, it is imperative that a mechanical disconnect
be used to completely remove power prior to servicing. DISTRIBUTIVE CONTROL - A means of controlling the
Controllers with over-current trip can be configured to on/off time of the SCR’s to obtain a desired power output
operate shunt trip or under voltage trip circuit breakers to the load.
to remove power in the event a load fault occurs.
dv/dt - Refers to the maximum rate of rise of applied
11.0 MAINTENANCE voltage across an “off” SCR that will NOT cause a false
The SCR controller should be inspected periodically to turn-on. Usually stated as volts/second.
determine that the electrical connections are tight and
that the heat sinks are clean. The ability of the heat sink FORWARD DROP - The voltage drop across a
to dissipate heat is greatly reduced if dirt and grime have semiconductor when that device is conducting current
accumulated on it and it must be cleaned if dirty. in it’s normal forward direction.
Normally the cause of dirty heat sinks is failure to
provide filtered air to air cooled enclosures or failure to GATE - The signal terminal of an SCR. The terminal
clean the filters. used to turn on an SCR.
The electrical connections on new installations should
be periodically inspected and tightened per the HEATSINK - Device used to transfer heat away from
manufacturers instructions. Proper maintenance of the either an SCR or Diode.
equipment will greatly increase the reliability of the
controller. HYBRID - Refers to a particular arrangement of SCR’s
and Diodes in an SCR power controller. Three SCR’s
12.0 GLOSSARY OF TERMS and three Diodes.
ANODE - The positive power terminal of an SCR or
Diode. I2T - Amperes squared times seconds. Refers to the
subcycle current characteristics of either an SCR or a
AVE - The average value of a particular parameter such fast clearing fuse.
as voltage or current.
INLINE - Refers to the manner in which the SCR’s are
CATHODE - The negative power terminal of a SCR or connected in three-phase applications.
Diode.
INSIDE-DELTA - Refers to the manner in which the
CURRENT LIMITING - A means to limit the maximum SCR’s are connected in three-phase applications.
amount of current applied to the load.
INRUSH CURRENT - That current which surges into a
COMMAND SIGNAL - An input variable applied to an low impedance load or that which is drawn by a
SCR power controller to adjust it’s output. transformer during saturation.

LED - Light Emitting Diode. Often used as status

indicators.
MOV - Metal Oxide Varistor. A device used to protect SCR - Silicon Controlled Rectifier; The device used to
SCR’s and Diodes from voltage transients. switch the power to the load in SCR power controllers.
A three terminal member of the thyristor semiconductor
OVER CURRENT TRIP - A detection and shutdown family.
circuit which interrupts the operation of the SCR’s if the
SCR current has exceed a preset value. SEMICONDUCTOR - Solid-state device for controlling
electrical signals or electrical power.
PEAK - Refers to maximum instantaneous value of a
voltage or current. SOFT START - A gradual application of voltage or power
to the load to prevent current inrush.
PHASE-ANGLE - An SCR firing mode in which the
SCR’s are turned ON for a portion of each half of an AC SPAN ADJUSTMENT - Typically, a potentiometer
cycle. adjustment to match the controllers output to the
command signal. Also sometimes referred to as gain.
PHASE LOCK LOOP - An electronic circuit which Adjusted with the command signal at 100% so the
automatically adjusts itself to maintain synchronization power controllers output is full ON.
with the line frequency for precise SCR timing.
SUPPRESSOR - A device for clamping excessive voltage
PIV - Peak Inverse Voltage; refers to the voltage rating transients. See MOV.
of an SCR or Diode.
THYRISTOR - The name of a semiconductor family,
PT - Potential Transformer; used to isolate and/or including SCR’s, Triacs, and others.
change a voltage from one level to another.
TIME PROPORTIONING - A control mode in which the
RC - Resistance/Capacitance network. Connected ON and the OFF time of an SCR are adjusted to provide
across the SCR’s the RC is used to slow down the rate the desired load power.
of applied voltage (dv/dt) to the SCR’s to prevent the
SCR’s from being falsely turned ON by a voltage VOLTAGE CONTROL - A circuit which provides a linear
transient. This is often referred to as a dv/dt circuit. voltage to the load proportional to the command signal
and compensates for line voltage changes.
RESISTANCE - The characteristics of a material which
inhibit the flow of current, measured in ohms. Resistance ZERO ADJUSTMENT - Typically, a potentiometer
is the inverse of conductance. adjustment to match the command signal to the
controllers output. Adjusted with the command signal at
RESPONSE - The ability to respond to a command 0% so the power controllers output is OFF.
change measured in time or cycles.
ZERO-CROSS FIRING - A method of controlling load
RFI - Radio Frequency Interference; High frequency power in which SCR’s are turned ON only at the
interference generated by phase-angle fired SCR’s and beginning of an AC cycle. Therefore, switching always
other sources. occurs when the applied voltage is zero.

RMS - Root Mean Squared; refers to the heating value

of voltage and current parameters.