Voting and Apportionment (CH 14) : Denson
Voting and Apportionment (CH 14) : Denson
Voting and Apportionment (CH 14) : Denson
Denson
Preference ballot – a type of ballot structure used in several electoral systems in which
voters rank a list or group of candidates in order of preference
Written numbers
The voter writes a '1' beside their first choice, a '2' beside their second choice, and
so on. This is the most common ballot design. Hand-written numeric rankings are
compact and easy to hand count.
Column marks
The voter places marks in columns to indicate his order of preferences. These
ballots can be easily counted by optical scanners. However considerations of
space may limit the number of preferences a voter can express. For example in the
image above the voter is limited to three preferences.
Written names
The numbers are written on the ballot paper and the voter must write the names of
candidates beside them.
Touch screen
When voting is done by computer a touch screen can be used. In the example
above voters are asked for their first, second and subsequent preferences. The
selections so far are displayed as well as remaining unranked candidates, allowing
selections to be removed if the voter makes a mistake or changes his mind during
voting.
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Preference Table – summarizes the results of the election by counting the frequency of
each outcome.
Example:
There are three candidates running for the Student Government Association: Alice (A),
Brian (B), and Cathy (C). The preference ballots for the four candidates are shown. Fill in
the number of votes in the first row of the given preference table.
Number of
Votes
First Choice A C B C
Second Choice B A A B
Third Choice C B C A
Total Number of votes: Add the column totals for each preference ballot.
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I. Plurality Method – Candidate with the most first place votes is the winner.
Example: Who will win the presidency using the Plurality method?
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C B C
Second Choice B A A B
Third Choice C B C A
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2. Each last-place vote receives 1 point, each next to last place vote receives 2
points, and so on.
Example: Who will win the presidency using the Borda count method?
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C B C
Second Choice B A A B
Third Choice C B C A
Solution:
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C B C
1b. If no candidate receives a majority, eliminate the candidate with the fewest
first-place votes. If there is a tie for the fewest votes, eliminate all tied candidates.
2. Either hold another election or adjust the preference table by moving the
candidates in each column below the eliminated candidate up one place.
Example: Who will win the presidency using the Plurality-with-Elimination method?
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C B C
Second Choice B A A B
Third Choice C B C A
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C A C
Second Choice C A C A
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Example: Who will win the presidency using the Pairwise comparison method?
Number of
Votes
13 11 9 5
First Choice A C B C
Second Choice B A A B
Third Choice C B C A
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Comments:
You MUST choose a voting method BEFORE the election, since each method
can produce different winners.
You SHOULD decide on a method to deal with ties BEFORE the election.
Borda count and Pairwise comparison method requires that voters rank all the
candidates.
Plurality method does not require voters to rank all candidates; they can choose
one favorite candidate.
Number of 15 19 23 10 18 15
Votes
First B C P P S B
Choice
Second S P S B C S
Choice
Third P S B C P C
Choice
Fourth C B C S B P
Choice
1. Majority criterion
2. Head-to-head criterion
3. Monotonicity criterion
4. Irrelevant alternatives criterion
Majority criterion :
Definition: If a candidate receives a majority of first-place votes in an election,
then that candidate should win the election.
Example: Voters in a small town are considering four proposals, A, B, C, and D, for
repaving of roads. The winning plan is to be determined by the Borda count method. The
preference table for the election is shown.
Number of 100 115 79 70 136
Votes
First A B D C B
Choice
Second D C C D D
Choice
Third C A A A A
Choice
Fourth B D B B C
Choice
Second D C C D D
Choice
Third C A A A A
Choice
Fourth B D B B C
Choice
b) Using the Borda Count method, which design will be used for the repaving plan?
Head-to-head criterion:
Definition: If a candidate is favored when compared separately (head-to-head)
with every other candidate, then that candidate should win the election.
Example: Seven people are asked to listen to and rate three different pairs of stereo
speakers, A, B, and C. The results are summarized.
Number of 3 2 2
Votes
First A B C
Choice
Second B A B
Choice
Third C C A
Choice
b) Which brand wins the listening test using the plurality method?
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Monotonicity criterion
Definition: If a candidate wins an election and, in a reelection, the only changes
are changes that favor the candidate, then that candidate should win the reelection.
Plurality, Borda count, and Pairwise comparison methods never violate this
criterion.
Example: The preference table gives the results of a straw vote among three candidates,
A, B, and C.
Number of 125 110 95 78 66 45 31
Votes
First A A B D C C D
Choice
Second B C A B A B A
Choice
Third C B D C D D C
Choice
Fourth D D C A B A B
Choice
b) In the actual election, the four voters in the last column who voted D, A, C, B in
that order changed their votes to A, B, C, D. Using the plurality with elimination
method, which candidate wins the actual election?
Example: Four candidates A, B, C, and D, are running for mayor. The election results are
below.
Number of 150 90 90 30
Votes
First A C D D
Choice
Second B B A A
Choice
Third C D C B
Choice
Fourth D A B C
Choice
Number of 150 90 90 30
Votes
First A D D D
Choice
Second D A A A
Choice
Plurality method
Advantage:
o Always satisfies the majority criterion and the monotonicity criterion.
Disadvantages:
o All of the information in the preference table not related to first place is
ignored.
o May violate the head to head criterion and the irrelevant alternatives
criterion.
Disadvantages:
o May violate the head to head criterion, majority criterion, and irrelevant
alternatives criterion.
o a candidate who has a majority of first-place votes can lose an election
(majority criterion).
Plurality-with-elimination method
Advantage:
o Always satisfies the majority criterion.
Disadvantages:
o May violate the head to head, monotonicity, and irrelevant alternatives
criterion.
Disadvantages:
o May violate the irrelevant alternatives criterion.
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Apportionment
1. The act of distributing by allotting or apportioning; distribution according
to a plan; "the apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives is
based on the relative population of each state"
- wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn.
Definitions:
total _ population
1. Standard Divisor =
number _ of _ allocated _ items
Example: According to a small country’s constitution, the congress will have 100 seats,
divided among the given states according to their respective populations. Using the table
below:
State A B C D E TOTAL
Population 144 236 260 362 398 1400
(in
thousands)
total _ population
Standard Divisor =
number _ of _ allocated _ items
Apportionment Problem: We need a method for rounding standard quotas into whole
numbers so that the sum of the numbers is the total number of allocated items.
Quota Rule – A criterion for fairness stating that a group’s apportionment should be
either its upper quota or its lower quota. An apportionment method that guarantees that
this will always occur satisfies the quota rule.
Apportionment Methods:
1. Hamilton’s Method
2. Jefferson’s Method
3. Adams’s Method
4. Webster’s Method
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Hamilton’s Method
1. Calculate each group’s
population _ of _ a _ particular _ group
Standard Quota = .
s tan dard _ divisor
Example
A university is composed of four schools. The enrollment in each school is given in the
following table.
School Humanities Business Education Science
and Math
Enrollment 1250 985 1420 1595
There are 350 new computers to be apportioned among the four schools according to
their respective enrollments. Use Hamilton’s method to find each school’s apportionment
of computers.
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Jefferson’s Method
1. Find a modified divisor, d, such that when each group’s modified quota is
rounded down to the nearest whole number , the sum of the whole
numbers for all groups is the number of items to be apportioned.
2. Calculate each group’s
population _ of _ a _ particular _ group
Modified lower quota =
mod ified _ divisor
Example
A PPO has 80 doctors to be apportioned among five clinics. The PPO decides to
apportion the doctors based on the average weekly patient load for each clinic, given the
following table.
Clinic A B C D E
Average weekly 548 345 285 445
patient load 392
Adams’s Method
1. Find a modified divisor, d, such that when each group’s modified quota is
rounded up to the nearest whole number , the sum of the whole numbers for all
groups is the number of items to be apportioned.
Example
Six people pool their money to buy 75 shares of stock. The amount that each person
contributes is shown in the following table.
Person A B C D E F
Contribution $1545 $2250 $1675 $550 $635 $3500
Webster’s Method
1. Find a modified divisor, d, such that when each group’s modified quota is
rounded to the nearest whole number , the sum of the whole numbers for all
groups is the number of items to be apportioned.
Example
Use Webster’s method with d = 45 to determine how many sections of each course
should be offered.
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Example
A school district has 250 new laptop computers to be divided among four schools,
according to their respective enrollments. The table shows the number of students
enrolled in a program in each school.
School A B C D Total
Enrollment 4040 6545 3850 565 15000
II. Population Paradox – Group A loses items to Group B, even though the population
of group A grew at a faster rate than that of group B.
Example
One small country has 34 seats in the congress, divided among the three states according
to their respective populations. The table shows each state’s population, in thousands,
before and after the country’s population increase.
State A B C Total
Original Population 202 385 458 1045
(in thousands)
New Population 251 408 594 1253
(in thousands)
a) Use Hamilton’s method to apportion the 34 congressional seats using the original
population.
b) Find the percent increase, to the nearest tenth of a percent, in the population of
each state.
c) Use Hamilton’s method to apportion the 34 congressional seats using the new
population. Does the population paradox occur? Explain your answer.
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III. New-States Paradox – The addition of a new group changes the apportionments of
other methods.
Example
A business has four branches, A, B, C, and D. Each year the company awards 45
promotions within its branches. The table shows the number of employees in each
branch.
Branch A B C D Total
b) Suppose that a fifth branch, E, with the number of employees shown in the table,
is added to the business. The company adds 12 new yearly promotions for branch
E. Use Hamilton’s method to determine if the new-states paradox occurs when the
promotions are reapportioned.
Branch A B C D E Total
Advantages:
1. Only method that satisfies the quota rule. Each group’s apportion will be either
its upper quota or its lower quota.
Advantage:
1. Produces no paradoxes.
Advantage:
1. Produces no paradoxes.
Advantages:
1. Experts consider it the best overall apportionment method available.
2. Produces no paradoxes.