The Cholas Pandyas PDF
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LECTURE – 11 PR EL IMIN AR Y
EXAMIN ATION
The Cholas and the Pandyas PAPER – I
Unit – 2
History of India and
Indian National
Movement
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Chola Empire has been one of the most powerful and extensive
empires of South India. Alongwith the vassal states, it might be the
longest empire to flourish in South India. Its rise in the ninth century
brought under its control a large part of the peninsula. The Cholas
developed a powerful navy which enabled them to develop India's sea
trade in the Indian Ocean, and to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldive
Islands. Their influence was felt even in the countries of SouthEast
Asia. The Chola dynasty was founded by Vijayalaya around 850 AD
apparently by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the
conflict between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore
and made his capital. Their home land was called Cholamandalam which
included modern Tanjore, Trichinopoly and the Pudukottai state. Kaveri
River was the heartland of the Chola dynasty. Uraiyur, presently known
as Tiruchirapalli was one of its oldest capital. They ruled from later
half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century.
2.0 THE ORIGINS OF THE CHOLA EMPIRE
Historians have had various views regarding its origin. The most
accepted theory is that Cholas is the name of a ruling family or clan of
ancient times. The Tamil literature of the Sangam period has information
regarding the Cholas of the early period. Cholas have had a mention
in the Ashokan pillars too. There are four periods attributed to the
history of the Cholas. They are the early Cholas of the Sangam
literature, the period between the decline of Sangam Cholas and rise
of medieval Cholas, and later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I.
However the most commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name of the
ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity of
people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are
forever generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the
Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave
and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of
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early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times.
Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam' fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile
country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi a legendary hero whose self
sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and
forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. In Tamil lexicon
Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old
country. Sora or Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola in Telugu.
Ó
3.0 POLITICAL HISTORY
However, Krishna III, the Rastrakuta king who controlled the northern parts of Tamil Nadu, killed the Chola prince Rajaditya at
the battle of Thakkolam in 949 CE. The king Parantaka died the next year, and his second son Gandaraditya ascended the
throne. He was more interested in politics than in religion, and as such the empire stagnated. Very soon, he lost the throne to
his younger brother Arinjaya, Arinjaya died shortly thereafter and his son Sundara Chola became the king. Sundara Chola was
instrumental in rejuvenating the empire.
Following the death of Krishna III in 965, the Rastrakuta Empire started to decline. Sundara Chola seized this opportunity and
sent an army under the command of the crown prince Aditya Karikala to fill the void. Aditya was successful in the battle and
extended Chola domains in the north up to Tondaimandalam. He also defeated the Pandyas once again and crushed what was
left of their power.
However, Uttama Chola, son of the previous king Gandaraditya managed to have Aditya Karikala assassinated, so that he
could become the heir apparent. Uttama Chola did become the king, but his reign went largely uneventful. In 985, Rajaraja
Chola, another son of Sundara Chola managed to replace him as the king.
3.1 Rajaraja and Rajendra chola
However, the greatest claim to fame for Rajaraja Chola was his expedition to North India in 1022 CE. He is the only South
Indian king to have led a successful expedition up the River Ganga. Passing through the Kalinga Region, he crossed the Ganga
and annexed those regions to the Chola Empire. He assumed the title "Gangaikonda Chola" or the "conqueror of Ganga",
and built a new capital near the mouth of the Cavuery River and called it Gangaikondacholapuram.
The Coromandal coast and Malabar were the centres for India's trade with the countries of SouthEast Asia. One of his naval
exploits was the conquest of the Maldive Islands.
In the north, Rajaraja annexed the northwestern parts of the Ganga region in northwest Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
Rajendra I carried forward the annexationist policy of Raja raja by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera countries
and including them in his Empire. The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed, with the crown and royal insignia of the king
and the queen of Sri Lanka being captured in a battle. Sri Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola control for another
50 years.
Rajaraja and Rajendra I marked their victories by erecting a number of Shiva and Vishnu temples at various places. The most
famous of these was the Rajarajeshwara temple at Tanjore which was completed in AD 1010. The Chola rulers adopted the
practice of having long inscriptions written on the walls of these temples, giving a historical narrative of their victories. That
is why we know a great deal more about the Cholas than their predecessors.
One of the most remarkable exploits in the reign of Rajendra I was the march across Kalinga to Bengal in which the Chola
armies crossed the Ganga, and defeated two local kings. This expedition, which was led by a Chola general, took place in 1022
and followed the same route which the great conqueror Samudragupta had followed. To commemorate this occasion, Rajendra I
assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (or 'the Chola conqueror of Ganga'). He built the new capital near the mouth of the
Kaveri and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (or 'the city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga').
An even more remarkable exploit in the time of Rajendra I was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya Empire. The
Sri Vijaya Empire, which had been revived in the 10th century, extended over the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java and the
neighbouring islands and controlled the overseas trade route to China. The rulers of the Sailendra dynasty were Buddhists and
had cordial relations with the Cholas. The Sailendra ruler had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapatam and, at his instance,
Rajendra I had endowed a village for its upkeep. The cause of the breach between the two apparently was the Chola
eagerness to remove obstacles to Indian traders, and to expand Chola trade with China. The expedition led to the conquest
of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in
the area for some time and the Bay of Bengal was converted into a 'Chola lake'.
Vikramaditya also tried to prevent Rajendra Chalukya, an Eastern Chalukyan prince of Chola descent from ascending the Vengi
throne. However when Virarajendra died in 1070 C.E., Rajendra Chalukya struck back and engineered some internal confusion
in the Chola kingdom, in which the new Chola king Athirajendra Chola was assassinated. Rajendra Chalukya crowned himself
Kulothunga Chola I (1070 C.E.), thereby superseding the Chola dynasty with the Chalukya dynasty.
The Chola rulers also sent a number of embassies to China. A Chola embassy of 70 merchants reached China in 1077 and,
according to a Chinese account, received "81,800 strings of coppercash," that is, more than four lakhs of rupees in return for
the articles of tribute comprising "glassware, camphor, brocades, rhinoceros horns, ivory, etc." Tribute was the word used by
the Chinese for all articles brought for trade.
The Chola rulers sacked and plundered Chalukyan cities including Kalyani, and massacred the people, including brahmanas and
children. They adopted a similar policy in the Pandya country settling military colonies to overawe the population. They
destroyed Anuradhapur, the ancient capital of the rulers of Sri Lanka, and treated their king and queen harshly. These are
blots in the history of the Chola Empire. However, once they had conquered a country, the Cholas tried to set up a sound
system of administration in it. One of the remarkable features of the Chola administration was their encouragement to local
selfgovernment in the villages all over their Empire.
The Chola Empire continued in a flourishing condition during the twelfth century. But it declined during the early part of
thirteenth century. The later Chalukyan Empire in the Maharashtra area had also come to an end during the twelfth century.
The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south, and of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas
and the Kakatiyas. These states extended patronage to arts and architecture.
Unfortunately, they weakened themselves by continually fighting against each other, sacking the towns and not even sparing
the temples. Ultimately, they were destroyed by the Sultans of Delhi in, the beginning of the fourteenth century.
3.2 Chola Army and Navy
The Cholas maintained a large army consisting of
elephants, cavalry and infantry which were called
the three limbs of the army. The infantry was
generally armed with spears. Most of the kings had
bodyguards who were sworn to defend the kings
even at the cost of their lives. The Venetian traveller,
Marco Polo, who visited Kerala in the thirteenth
century, says that all the soldiers in the bodyguard
burnt themselves in the funeral pyre of the monarch
when he died a statement which may well be an
exaggeration. The Cholas also had a strong navy,
as we have seen, which dominated the Malabar and
Coromandal coast and for some time, the entire Bay
of Bengal.
The Chola Navy comprised the naval forces of the
Chola Empire along with several other navalarms of
the country. The Chola navy played a vital role in
the expansion of the Chola Empire, including the
conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on
Sri Vijaya (presentday Indonesia). The navy grew
both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas
reign.
The king was the most important person in the Chola administration. All authority
rested in his hands, but he had a council of ministers to advise him.
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams or provinces and these, in turn,
were divided into valanadu and nadu. Sometimes, princes of the royal family were
appointed governors of provinces. Officials were generally paid by giving them
assignments of revenuebearing lands.
The Chola rulers built a network of royal roads which were useful for trade as well
as for the movement of the army. Trade and commerce flourished in the Chola
Empire, and there were some gigantic trade guilds which traded with Java and
Sumatra.
The Cholas also paid attention to irrigation. The main water resource for this
kingdom was the Kaveri river. Many tanks for irrigation were built. Some of the
Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix the government's
share of the land revenue. We do not know what precisely the government's
share was.
In addition to land tax, the Chola rulers drew their income from tolls on trade,
taxes on professions, and also from the plunder of the neighbouring territories.
The Chola rulers were wealthy and could afford to build a number of towns and
magnificent monuments.
By a study of various inscriptions some details about village government during the time of Cholas emerge. We hear of two
assemblies, called the ur and the sabha or mahasabha. The ur was a general assembly of the village. However, we know more
about the working of the mahasabha. This was a gathering of the adult men in the brahmana villages which were called
agraharas. These were villages settled by the brahmanas in which most of the land was rentfree. These villages enjoyed a
large measure of autonomy.
The affairs of the village were managed by an executive committee to which educated persons owning property were elected
either by drawing lots or by rotation. These members had to retire every three years. There were other committees for helping
in the assessment and collection or land revenue for maintenance of law and order, justice, etc. One of the important
committees was the tank committee which looked after the distribution of water to the fields. The mahasabha could settle new
lands, and exercise ownership rights over them. It could also raise loans for the village and levy taxes.
4.0 CULTURAL LIFE
T he e xt en t a nd r es ou r ce s of t he Ch ol a Em pi r e en ab le d t he r ul er s t o bu il d g re atc ap it a ls , su ch as Tan jo re ,
Gangaikondacholapuram, Kanchi, etc. The rulers maintained huge households and large palaces with banquet halls, spacious
gardens and terraces. Thus, we learn of seven or fivestoreyed houses for their chiefs. Unfortunately none of the palaces of
the period have survived. The Chola capital Gangaikondacholapuram is now just a small village near Tanjore. However,
descriptions of the magnificent palaces of the rulers and their ministers, and of equally magnificent houses in which the
wealthy merchants lived, are to be found in the literature of the period.
4.1 Chola Architecture
Temple architecture in the south attained its climax under the Cholas. The style or architecture which came into vogue during
this period is called Dravida, because it was confined largely to sooth India. The main feature of this style was the building of
storey upon storey above the chief deityroom (garbhagriha). The number of storeys varied from five to seven and they had
a typical style which came to be called the vimana. A pillared hall called mandap, with elaborately carved pillars and a flat roof,
was generally placed in front of the sanctum. It acted as an audience hall and was a place for various other activities such as
ceremonial dances which were performed by the devadasisthe women dedicate to the service of the gods. Sometimes, a
passage used to be added around the sanctum so that the devotees could go round it. Images of many other gods could be put
in this passage.
After the fall of the Cholas, temple building activity continued under the Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Hoysalas. The district
of Dharwara had the Hoysala capital Halebid which had a large number of temples. The most magnificent of these is the
Hoysalesvara temple. It is the best example of what is called the Chalukyan style. Apart from the images of gods and their
attendants, both men and women (yaksha and yakshini), the temples contain finely sculptured panels which show a busy
panorama of life, including dance, music and scenes of war and love. Thus, life was closely integrated with religion. For the
common man, the temple was not merely a place for worship but the hub of social and cultural life as well.
The art of sculpture attained a high standard in south India during this period. One example of this was the giant statue of
Gomateswar at Sravana Belgola. Another aspect was image making which reached its climax in the dancing figure of the Shiva
called nataraja. The nataraja figures of this period, particularly those in bronze, are considered masterpieces. Many fine
examples of this are to be found in museums in India and outside.
The rulers of the various dynasties of the Cholas patronized arts and literature. While Sanskrit was regarded as the language
of high culture and a number of kings as well as scholars and court poets wrote in it, a remarkable feature of the period was
the growth of literature in the language of the areas. A number of popular saints called nayanars and alvars who were
devotees of Shiva and Vishnu flourished in the Tamil area between the sixth and the ninth centuries. They composed their
works in Tamil and other languages of the area. The writings of these saints, which were collected into eleven volumes under
the name Tirumurais in the early part of the twelfth century, are considered sacred and are looked upon as the fifth Veda. The
age of Kamban who is placed in the second half of the eleventh and the early part of the twelfth century is regarded as a
golden age in Tamil literature. Kamban's Ramayana is considered a classic in Tamil literature. Kamban is believed to have lived
at the court of a Chola king. Many others took their themes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata, thus bringing these classics
nearer to the people.
Though younger than Tamil, Kannada also became a literary language during this period. The Rashtrakuta, the Chalukya and
the Hoysala rulers patronized Kannada as well as Telugu. The Rashtrakuta king, Amoghavarsha, wrote a book on poetics in
Kannada. Many Jain scholars also contributed to the growth of Kannada. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna are regarded as the three
gems of Kannada poetry. Although they were under the influence of Jainism, they also wrote on themes taken from the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata Nanniah, who lived at the court of a Chalukyan king began the Telugu version of the
Mahabharata.
21.( C) 22.( A) 23.( B) 24.( A) 25.( A)
11.( B) 12.( C) 13.( A) 14.( D) 15.( C) 16.( B) 17.(C) 18.( C) 19.( D) 20.( D)
9.(C) 10.( B) 8.(B) 7.( C) 6.(D) 5.(C) 4.(B) 3.(A) 2.(B) 1.(B)
Answer key (DPQ) – The Cholas and the Pandyas
5.0 THE PANDYAS
The Early Pandyas of the Sangam period were
one of the three main kingdoms of the ancient
Tamil country, the other two being the Cholas
and the Cheras. As with many other kingdoms
around this period (earlier than 200 BCE), most
of the information about the Early Pandyas come
to us mainly through literary sources and some
epigr aphic, a rchaeolo gical an d numism atic
evidenc e.The capital of the Early Pandyan
kingdom was initially Korkai, around 600 BCE, and
was later moved to Koodal (now Madurai) during
the reign of Nedunj Cheliyan I.
The kings of the Pandyan Dynasty are frequently
mentioned in Sangam literature of the third
century BCE and onwards, in works such as the
Mathuraikkanci and other early Tamil literary
works such as Cilapatikaram, which have been
used by historians to identify their names and,
to some extent, their genealogy.
Nedunj Cheliyan III is referred to as the most
popular warrior among the Early Pandyas,
winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a
coalition of forces from Cholas and Cheras and
five other kingdoms. The early Pandyan kingdom
extended between Travancore in the west,
Vellaru river in the north and all the way to the
ocean in the east and the south.
The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with the west, a fact testified by western classical writers such as
Pliny the Elder (1st century CE), Strabo, Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus. The Panydan country was well known for pearl
fishery, with Korkai being the principal center of the trade. Some of the exports were pearls, spices, ivory and shells, while the
imports included horses, gold, glass and wine.
5.1 Origin and Sources
The origin of the word "Pandya" has been a subject of much speculation.
Some scholars believe that it descended from the "Pandavas" of Mahabharata. However some sources claim that the name
could be derived from the word "Pandi" the original name of the Tamil country. However the Country of Pandya was already
mentioned in Ramayana which is early to the Mahabharat. When Sugriva sends his monkey warriors to search Sita, he mentions
Chera, Chola and Pandya of south. Hence "Pandyas" were not from "Pandavas".
All attempts by historians to identify the origins of the Early Pandyan dynasty using several sources have failed to authoritatively
establish the exact genealogy of these kings.
Another theory is that the word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word "Pandi" meaning bull. Ancient Tamils considered the bull
as a sign of masculinity and valor. Pandya became the epithet of the first Pandyan king of then Madurai, Kulasekharan Pandya
as he was built like a bull. It was used as an epitome of masculinity. His son, the second king of Madurai, the legendary
Malayadwaja Pandya who sided with the Pandavas and took part in the Kurukshetra is described in Karna Parva (verse 20.25).
Malayadwaja Pandya and his queen Kanchanamala had one daughter Thathagai alias Meenakshi who succeeded her father and
reigned the kingdom successfully. The Madurai Meenakshi Amman temple was built after her. The city of Madurai was built
around this temple.
Pillaiyarpatti temple is a rockcut temple located in Thiruppatthur, Sivagangai District. It was built after viewing a hillock by the
early Pandiya kings. The image of Pillaiyarpatti Pillaiyar and that of a Siva Lingam were carved out of a stone by a sculptor
named Ekkattur Koon Peruparanan who put his signature on a stone inscription, in Tamil Language used between the 2nd and
5th century AD, found even today in the sanctum. It can be concluded that the icon of Pillaiyarpatti Pillaiyar must have been
carved around 4th century AD.
5.1.1 Literary sources in Tamil
Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Tamil Sangams lasting several
centuries before the Christian Era and ascribe their patronage to the Pandyas. The Sangam poem Maduraikkanci by Mankudi
Maruthanaar contains a fulllength description of Madurai and the Pandyan country under the rule of Nedunj Cheliyan III. The
Nedunalvadai by Nakkirar contains a description of the king's palace. The Purananuru and Agananuru collections of the third
century BCE contain poems sung in praise of various Pandyan kings and also poems that were composed by the kings
themselves. Kalittokai mentions that many Tamil Naga tribes such as Maravar, Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, Aruvalur and Parathavar
migrated to the Pandyan kingdom and started living there in the Third Tamil Sangam period 2000 years ago.
5.1.2 Literary sources in other languages
The Sinhalese chronicle Mahawamsa claims that the orissa based King Vijaya (c. 543 BCE) married a daughter of the Pandyan
king of Madurai, to whom he was sending rich presents every year. Valmiki (400 BCE), refers Pandyan king in several places in
Ramayan. Kautilya, in his Arthashastra refers to the "easy to travel" trade route to the South and to the products of the
Pandya kingdom. He also mentions the city of Madurai and the city of Tirunelveli and the river Tamirabarani in the Pandya
kingdom. The famous Greek traveler Megasthenes (c. 302 BCE) mentions the "Pandae" kingdom and refers to it as "that
portion of India which lies to the southward and extends to the sea".
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 100 CE) describes the riches of a 'Pandian Kingdom'.
5.1.3 Epigraphical sources
The 2nd and 13th rock edicts of Ashoka (273 232 BCE) refers to the Pandyas, Cholas, Cheras and the Satyaputras. According
to the edicts, these kingdoms lay outside the southern boundary of the Mauryan Empire. The Hathigumpha inscriptions of the
Kalinga King, Kharavela (c. 150 BCE) refers to the arrival of a tribute of jewels and elephants from the Pandyan king. The stone
inscriptions discovered at Mangulam (a.k.a. Meenakshipuram) mentions the name of Nedunj Cheliyan III and his contemporary
and subordinate, Kadalan Vazhuthi. These inscriptions have been used to estimate that Nedunj Cheliyan III ruled in the 2nd
century BCE.
Excavations in Tamil Nadu in the last fifty years or so have yielded remnants of blackandred pottery ware, normally assigned
to the Tamil speaking areas around 300 BCE. Some allblack and Russet coated ware assigned to the same time period have
also been found. Rouletted and Amphorae wares, made in the Roman empire and brought by traders, have been excavated in
several parts of Tamil Nadu, including the Pandyan country. These imported wares are dated to the early centuries of the
Christian Era.
5.1.5 Numismatic sources
The excavations at Algankulam, near Madurai, recovered two copper coins of the early Pandyas along with Northern Black
Polished Ware. These coins have been assigned a broad time period ranging from 200 BCE to 200 CE. Several coins issued by
the Pandyan king Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi have been recovered in the Madurai area and have been dated to around 200 BCE.
Many gold and silver coins of the Roman empire have been found around Madurai: these coins bear the names of emperors
ranging from Augustus (27 BCE) to Alexander Severus (235 CE).
6.0 POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE EARLY PANDYAS
Scholars have constructed the political history of the ancient Pandya country based on the classical works such as Purananuru,
Pattu paatu and Padirrupattu. Even though these works don't throw much light on the exact timelines of each king and their
reign, they are considered trustworthy accounts that present facts as they occurred.
The successor of Pudappandiyan was Nedunj
C he l i ya n II a ls o kn o w n a s " P as um pu n
Pandyan." Immediately after ascending the
throne, he marched with his troops to the north
of Vaigai and defeated the chieftain Evvi II.
He then headed west and captured the Aayi territory controlled by another chieftain, Atiyan. Both Evvi II and Atiyan were
made commanders of the Pandyan army for his battles against Kongu country that was further west. From here he expanded
the Pandyan kingdom almost to the western coast, which earned him the title Vidambalamba Ninra Pandyan (the Pandyan
whose kingdom was washed by two seas). Since he was responsible for expanding the Pandyan kingdom by annexing several
kingdoms, he was also called Pannadu thantha Pandyan (the Pandyan who annexed many lands). His successor, Mudukudumi
Peruvaludhi, was also a great warrior and carried the devastation into enemy territories. He performed yagnas with the aid of
Brahmin priests, similar to the tradition in northern India at that time.
The next king in the hierarchy was Nedunj Cheliyan III, who is considered the greatest of all the early Pandyan kings. Since the
Pandyan kingdom was considerably larger than a few generations ago, he had to defend it against many neighbors invading
from various fronts. Not only did he succeed in defending his territory, he also seems to have advanced into the enemy
territories the southern province of Cholas and eastern province of the Cheras.
At one point, it is said that a coalition of his neighbors including the Cheras, Cholas and five other kingdoms, met him at a
pitched battle in Talaialanganam, in present day Tanjore district. Nedunj Cheliyan emerged victorious in the battle that ensued
and ended up annexing several new territories to his kingdom. He thus came to be known as Talaialanganathu Seruvendra
Pandyan. The genealogy after this king is not very clear but there are at least four other kings who are thought to have ruled
in the immediate succeeding generations. Notable among them were, Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan for the fact that he conquered
the town of Musiri on the coast of the Arabian Sea and Ukkirap Peruvaludi for the fact that it was in his court that the famous
poet Tiruvalluvar submitted his muchacclaimed work Tirukkural.
7.0 PANDYAN GOVERNMENT
The head of the Government was the king, a hereditary monarch. His power was restricted by the Aimberunguzhu or the Five
Great Assemblies, which consisted of the representatives of the people, priests, physicians, astrologers and the ministers.
There was another assembly of officials that served the king called the Enberaayam or the Eight Groups of Attendants. While
some scholars believe it consisted of attendants on the king's person like the perfumers, dressing valets, etc., others believe
it consisted of more important persons like the people of the capital city, the leaders of the elephant corps and of the cavalry.
The principal officers of State were the high priest, the chief astrologer, the ministers and the commanders of the army.
The king divided his territory into a number of administrative units or principalities, each called a Kootram.
A Kootram was further divided into provinces called Mandalam, which in turn was divided into many subprovinces called
Nadus, with each Nadu consisting of many villages. A locality inside a town or village was called Ur and each neighborhood
inside an Ur was called a Cheri. While the king ruled over his entire territory from the capital, he often placed one or more
principalities (Kootram) under the nearsovereign government of some senior member of the royal family or a feudatary. The
village was the most fundamental unit of administration under the Pandyas.
The military was said to be fourfold : the infantry, the cavalry,
the elephantry and the chariotry. A wide variety of war weapons
filled the military arsenal including shields, swords, spears,
tridents, maces, bows and arrows. The main sources of royal
revenue were taxes, tributes, customs duties and tolls. Land
tax, paid in money or in kind, and income tax, equal to one
sixth of an individual's income, were the major types of taxes
collected. Other sources of revenue include tributes paid by
feudal subordinates, war booty presents by loyal and visiting
subjects, treasure troves besides land revenue, cess and forced
gifts. The items incurring expenditure for the king include the
military, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational
and health services, building infrastructure such as roads and irrigation and the palace household expenses.
8.0 EARLY PANDYAN SOCIETY
The Tamil society during the early Pandyan age had several class distinctions among the people, which were different from the
Aryan classification of Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Women were exposed to education, a fact testified by the presence of many women poetesses in the Sangam works some of
them include Avvaiyar, Mudatamakkanniar, Kaakkaippaadiniyaar, Naachchellayaar, Naagaiyaar, Nanmullaiyaar, Ponmudiyaar,
Ilaveyiniyaar and Nappasaliyaar.
A variety of clothing was used by people during this age, including those made of cotton and silk. People living in hilly and
deserted areas wore dresses made of foliage and flowers. Sheaths of grassy weeds (Korai) were used for making dress by the
hill and forest area people. Skins of animals and barks of trees were also used. Men of the poorer classes wore only one piece
of cloth around the waist. Women covered their upper body with a kind of dress called, kachchu. Among the higher classes,
men wore two pieces: one around the waist and the other, the upper cloth, thrown over the shoulders. Women of sophisticated
society wore half sarees, made of the finest cotton and silk fabrics, with embroidery. Both men and women sported long
tresses of hair. The diet was plain, rice being the staple cereal, with maize, millet, milk, butter and honey being in common use.
Meat eating was common people ate flesh of rams, deer, hare, fowl, porcupines, pigs and boar, fresh and dried fish. The kind
of housing was determined by the type of geography of the land and the economic status of the occupants. The rich built their
houses with tiled roofs and walls made of burnt bricks and mud, while the poor built their huts with mud and thatched it with
grass, coconut leaves or palmyra palm leaves. Both in the huts and houses, the flooring was smeared with cowdung. The
affluent had houses with porticoes, many storeys, open terraces and furnished their houses well. The inner walls of their
houses were decorated with flowers and paintings, with cottages to protect them from the wind. Cots were in common use
the rich had luxurious beds decked with swan's feathers and flowers, while the common people had beds woven with the straw
of maize and the poorest people used beds made of grass or hay.
4 . Which of the following statements about the Ayyavole, a 10. Which Chola emperor, as evident from an inscription,
prominent trade guild of early medieval India, are true? intervened in the dynastic struggle of South East Asia in AD
106869?
(A) It dominated the internal trade of Tamil Nadu
(A) Rajadhiraja (B) Virarajendra
(B) It controlled the internal trade of Deccan
(C) Kulottunga I (D) Kulottunga II
(C) In the field of external trade it concentrated on trade
with west Asia
(D) Its international connections were mainly with South 11. The administration of tankurrams in the Chola period was
East Asia looked after by
Select the answer from the codes given below: (A) urs (B) nagarams
(A) I and II (B) II and III (C) sabhas (D) mahasabhas
(C) III and IV (D) I and IV
12. Which Chola emperor sent a large mission of 72 merchants
to China that removed the wrong impression of the Chinese
5 . When did Rajendra Chola I send his famous naval expedition that the Cholas were tributary princes of the Sri Vijaya
to the Sri Vijaya empire? empire?
(A) 1015 (B) 1020 (A) Rajaraja I (B) Rajendra I
(C) 1025 (D) 1035 (C) Kulottunga I (D) Vikramachola
Please make sure that you m ark the answers in this scores heet with an HB pencil/pen.
The marking of answers must be done in the stipulated time for the test. Do not take extra time over and above the time limit.
S C O R E S H E E T
1 A B C D E 11 A B C D E 21 A B C D E
2 A B C D E 12 A B C D E 22 A B C D E
3 A B C D E 13 A B C D E 23 A B C D E
4 A B C D E 14 A B C D E 24 A B C D E
5 A B C D E 15 A B C D E 25 A B C D E
6 A B C D E 16 A B C D E
7 A B C D E 17 A B C D E
8 A B C D E 18 A B C D E
9 A B C D E 19 A B C D E
10 A B C D E 20 A B C D E