Laboratory Manual

JEPPIAAR NAGAR, OLD MAMALLAPURAM ROAD CHENNAI-119
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
REGULATION 2017
PROGRAM : B.E. -AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE CODE: AE8511
COURSE NAME: AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LABORATORY
LAB-MANUAL
III YEAR
VI SEMESTER
BATCH : 2017-2021
STUDENT NAME : ____________________________
REGISTER NO : ____________________________
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INSTRUCTIONS
All the students must follow the instructions strictly as appended below:
 All the students should enter the lab class with proper uniform.
 Bring the lab manual and record during all the lab class.
 Once the experiment is completed get the observation/ inference of the

experiment valuated by Faculty In-charge.
 Before entering the next lab classes ensure that the experiment is neatly written
in the respective record note book and the same should be checked / corrected by
the faculty in charge.
 Failing this, the entry to the lab class will be denied.
 Get completed signature in the index page of the record note book from the
faculty in charge when all the experiments are completed.
 Before appearing the university practical examination, the students must get the
bonafied signature in the record note book.
 Don’t operate the equipment/machineries/mockups until you are asked to do so.
 Observe safety precautions strictly as instructed by the faculty in charge.
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JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Vision of Institution
To build Jeppiaar Engineering College as an institution of academic excellence in technological
and management education to become a world class University.
Mission of Institution
 To excel in teaching and learning, research and innovation by promoting the principles of
scientific analysis and creative thinking.
 To participate in the production, development and dissemination of knowledge and interact with
national and international communities.
 To equip students with values, ethics and life skills needed to enrich their lives and enable them
to meaningfully contribute to the progress of society.
 To prepare students for higher studies and lifelong learning, enrich them with the practical and
entrepreneurial skills necessary to excel as future professionals and contribute to Nation’s
economy.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,

and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
PO 3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the
public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations
PO 4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
PO 5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an
understanding of the limitations.
PO 6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
PO 7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
PO 8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.
PO 9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO 10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and
design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO 11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO 12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
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VISION OF DEPARTMENT
The Department focuses to impart the art of scientific knowledge, intend to innovation,
leadership qualities, moral values and entrepreneurial skills to make every student capable of
challenging the complex task in the field of modern Aerospace and Aeronautical Engineering.
MISSION OF DEPARTMENT
M 1: To prepare the students to have a very good fundamental knowledge to meet the present
and future needs of industries.
M 2: To improve the technical knowledge of the students in tune with the current
requirements through collaboration with industries and research organization.
M 3: Make the students to gain enough knowledge in various aspects of system integration and
take up jobs in aerospace industries worldwide towards satisfying the requirements of the
society.
M 4: To Take up inter and multidisciplinary research, sponsored and consultancy projects
with industries and research establishments.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)

PEO 01: Constructing an effective professionals in the stream of Aeronautical Engineering and
cater the need of society.
PEO 02: Encourage an attitude of independent learning and communication skills to be able cope
up with latest technologies.
PEO 03: Prepare students to achieve high degree of professional ethics and standards to approach
diverse environment.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

PSO 1: Professional Skills: An Aeronautical Engineers capable to exploit the knowledge of
Aeronautical Engineering in innovative fashion and challenging environment of design and
development of new products.
PSO 2: Problem-solving skills: Theoretical knowledge imparted through simulation language
skills and utilization of CAE packages to design and analyses the practical problems of
components to compete the challenge of airworthiness for flight vehicles.
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SYLLABUS
AE8511 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LABORATORY LTPC
004 2
OBJECTIVES:
 To enable the students understand the behavior of aircraft structural components
under different loading conditions.
 To provide the Principle involved in photo elasticity and its applications in stress
analysis for composite laminates.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Deflection of Beams
2. Verification of superposition theorem
3. Verification of Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem
4. Buckling load estimation of slender eccentric columns
5. Determination of flexural rigidity of composite beams
6. Unsymmetrical Bending of a Cantilever Beam
7. Combined bending and Torsion of a Hollow Circular Tube
8. Material Fringe Constant of a Photo elastic Models
9. Shear Centre of a Channel Section
10. Free Vibration of a Cantilever Beam
11. Forced Vibration of a cantilever Beam
12. Fabrication of a Composite Laminate.
13. Determination of Elastic constants for a Composite Tensile Specimen.
14. Determination of Elastic constants for a Composite Flexural Specimen.
15. Tension field beam
Any 10 experiments can be chosen TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course
 Students can understand the behavior of materials subjected to various types of
loadings
 Students will be in a position to fabricate composite laminates.
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LIST OF EXPERIMENT
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LABORATORY CODE AE8511

LABORATORY
YEAR /SEM : THIRD / SIXTH REGULATION R2017

BATCH : 2017-2021
EXPT. SIGN OF LAB
PAGE
MARKS I/C WITH
No. EXPERIMENT No.
DATE
INTRODUCTION 01 - 02
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END

1 03 - 10
CONDITIONS
2 VERIFICATION SUPER POSITION THEOREM. 11 - 14
VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL

3 15-18
THEOREM
4 BUCKLING LOAD ESTIMATION OF COLUMN 19-24
5 UNSYMMETRRICAL BENDNG OF A CANTILEVER BEAM 25-28
6 SHEAR CENTRE OF A CHANNEL SECTION 29 -32
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION OF A HOLLOW

7 33 - 36
CIRCULAR TUBE
8 MATERIAL FRINGE CONSTANT OF A PHOTO ELASTIC 37-40

MODELS
9 TENSION FIELD BEAM 41-44
10 FREE VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM 45-48
11 FORCED VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM 49-50
12 FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE LAMINATE 51-52
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A

13 53-55
COMPOSITE TENSILE SPECIMEN
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A

14 56-60
COMPOSITE FLEXURAL SPECIMEN
15 VIVA QUESTIONS 63-69
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AE8511 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LABORATORY LAB MANUAL
INTRODUCTION
The airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft is generally considered to consist of five principal units, the
fuselage, wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces and landing gear. Helicopter airframes consist of the
fuselage, main rotor and related gearbox, tail rotor and landing gear. The airframe components are
constructed from a wide variety of materials and are joined by rivets, bolts, screws, and welding or
adhesives. The aircraft components are composed of various parts like stringers, longerons, ribs,
bulkheads, etc called as structural members. Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to
resist stress. A single member of the structure may be subjected to a combination of stress. In most cases
the structural members are designed to carry end loads rather than side loads; i.e., to be subjected to
tension or compression rather than bending.
FUSELAGE: The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for cargo,
controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment. In single engine aircraft, it also houses the power
plant and in multi engine aircraft the engines are suspended from the wing structure. There are two
general types of fuselage construction, the truss type, and the monocoque type.
Truss Type
The truss type fuselage is a rigid framework made up of members such as beams, struts, and bars
to resist deformation by applied loads. The truss-framed fuselage is generally covered with fabric.
Monocoque
The monocoque fuselage relies largely on the strength of the skin or covering to carry the primary
stresses. The design may divided in to the following classes:
(a) Monocoque- uses formers, frame assemblies, and bulkheads to give shape to the fuselage,
but the skin carries the primary stresses.
(b) Semi monocoque (or) Reinforced shell- In addition to formers, frame assemblies, and
bulkheads, the semi monocoque construction has the skin reinforced by longitudinal members.
WING STRUCTURE: The wings of an aircraft are surfaces which are designed to produce lift when
moved through air. The wings of some aircraft are of cantilever design. Other aircraft wings use external
bracings (struts, wires etc.) to assist in supporting the wing and carrying the aerodynamic and landing
JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

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loads. The internal structure is made up of spars and stringers running span wise, and ribs and formers
running chord wise.
SPARS-Form the main span wise beam and Transmit bending and torsional members
SKIN- To form impermeable aerodynamic surface and transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs and stringers.
Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs) and React axial bending loads (with stringers)
STRINGERS
 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections
 React axial bending loads
Longerons (with larger cross sectional area)
Resist bending and axial loads, divide the skin into small panels and act with skin to resist axial loads
caused by pressurization
RIBS- Maintain the aerodynamic shape and act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic
pressure loads
EMPENNAGE
The empennage is also called the tail section and most aircraft designs consist of a tail cone, fixed
surfaces and movable surfaces. The tail cone serves to close and streamline the aft end of most fuselages.
In designing an aircraft, every square inch of wing and fuselage, every rib, spar, and even each
metal fitting must be considered in relation to the physical characteristics of the metal of which it is made.
Every part of the aircraft must be planned to carry the load to be imposed upon it. The determination of
such loads is called stress analysis. There are five major stresses to which all aircraft are subjected such
as: Tension, Compression, Torsion, Shear, and Bending.
Stress in an internal force of a substance which opposes or resists deformation. Strain is the
deformation of a material or substance. Stress, the internal force, can cause strain.
Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull apart. The engine pulls the aircraft forward, but
air resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension which tries to stretch the aircraft.
Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force. Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or
squeeze aircraft parts.
Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the aircraft forward, the engine also tends to
twist it to one side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus, torsion is created. The torsional
strength of a material is its resistance to twisting or torque.
Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent
layer. Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Aircraft parts, especially
screws, bolts, and rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.
Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension. When a rod is bent, the inside of the bend is
under compression and the outside of the bend is under tension.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01(a) SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
TABULAR COLUMN
DEFLECTION AT
A B C
LOAD AT LOAD
EXP THEO EXP THEO EXP THEO

3
DATE: EXPERIMENT NO. 01(a)
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END CONDITIONS
(SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM)
AIM
(i) To determine the deflection of a given simply supported beam.
(ii) To verify theoretical results with experimental value.
(iii) To draw deflection curves for both theoretical and experimental values
APPARATUS REQUIRED
(a) Steel / Aluminum Beam

(b) Knife edges
(c) Dial Test Indicator with magnetic base (Qty 03)
(d) Weight hanger
(e) Slotted Weights
(f) Steel rule
(g) Vernier caliper
FORMULAE
DEFLECTION AT
LOAD AT
A B C
A 7PL3 / 768 EI 11PL3 / 768 EI 3PL3 / 256 EI
B 11PL3 / 768 EI PL3 / 48 EI 7Pl3 3/ /768

11PL 768EI
EI
C 3PL3 / 256 EI 11PL3 / 768 EI 7PL3 / 768 EI
7Pl3 / 768 EI

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01(a) SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM
CALCULATIONS

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01(a)
PROCEDURE
(i) Place the given beam over the knife edges to form a simply
supported beam.
(ii) Mark the mid position ‘B’ on the simply supported beam.
(iii) Mark two points ‘A’ and ‘C’ of equal distance on either side of the mid
position ‘B’.
(iv) Place the weight hanger at point ‘A’ and three DTIs at points A, B and C.
(v) Pre load the DTI and adjust to zero.

(vi) Apply load at point ‘A’ in steps of 1 kg up to 3 kg and note down the
deflection on all the 3 point for each load.
(vii) Transfer the load to point ‘B’ and ‘C’ and note down the deflections of the
simply supported beam for each load.
(viii) Using the formulae obtain the theoretical values of deflection at each beam
stations.
(ix) Plot the graph with beam stations (A, B & C) on X axis and deflections on Y
axis for both theoretical and experimental values.
(x) Finally compare the experimental values with theoretical values.
RESULT
(i) Deflection of simply supported beam at various points has been found.
(ii) The theoretical results are compared with the experimental values.
(iii) The deflection curves for both experimental & theoretical values are drawn.
MARKS OBTAINED DATE OF SUBMISSION SIGN OF LAB I/C

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01(b) OVER HANGING BEAM
TABULAR COLUMN
DEFLECTION AT
SL. LOAD LOAD A (mm) E (mm) D (mm)
NO (grams) (Newton)
EXP THEO EXP THEO EXP THEO
01
02
03
04
05

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EXPERIMENT NO. 01(b) DATE:
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END CONDITIONS
(OVER HANGING BEAM)
AIM
1. To determine the deflection of a given over hanging beam.
2. To draw deflection curve (elastic line) for both theoretical and experimental
values.
3. To compare the experimental P/δ value with that of theoretical value.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
(a) Steel / Aluminum Beam

(b) Knife edges
(c) Supports
(d) Dial Test Indicator with magnetic base
(e) Weight Hanger
(f) Slotted weights
(g) Steel Rule
(h) Vernier Caliper
FORMULAE
Deflection at A (δa) and D (δd) = Pl3 / 48 EI
Deflection at E (δe) = Pl3 / 128 EI
Where, ‘l’ is the length of the beam = mm
‘I’ is the moment of inertia = bd3 / 12
‘E’ is the young’s modulus = GPa

8
EXPERIMENT NO. 01(b) OVER HANGING BEAM
CALCULATIONS:

9
PROCEDURE
1. Place the given beam over the knife edges to form an overhanging beam.
2. Mark points A, B, C, D & E on the given beam as shown in the figure such that AD is the
length (l) of the beam, BC (distance between the knife edges as l / 2), AB and CD are
the overhanging distance between the knife edges (as l / 4). E is the midpoint of BC.
3. Now place the weight hangers at both the loading points A & D. Place the DTIs at A, D
and E preload the DTI and it to zero.
4. To load the beam add equal weights simultaneously on both the weight hangers i.e., in
steps of 500 grams up to 2500 grams.
5. Note down the deflection at point A, E and D for each load and tabulate for both
experimental and theoretical values.
6. Finally plot graph with average deflection at A and D on X axis and load Pon Y axis.
Also plot a graph with deflection at E on X axis and load P on Y axis.
7. Find the slope for both theoretical and analytical values and compare.
RESULT
(i) Deflection of overhanging beam at various points has been found.

(ii) Deflection curve i.e., elastic line for both theoretical and experimental values are drawn.
(iii) P/δ values for both experimental and theoretical values are determined and
compared.
SLOPE CORRESPONDING TO EXPERIMNTAL VALUE THEORETICAL VALUE
DEFLCTION AT (N/mm) (N/mm)
A or D
E

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EXPERIMENT NO. 02
VERIFICATION OF PRINCIPLE OF SUPER POSITION
LOAD AT ‘A’ AND DEFLECTION AT ‘B’
LOAD
DTI
(P)
A B C
LOAD AT ‘C’ AND DEFLECTION AT ‘B’
LOAD
DTI
(P)
A B C
LOAD AT ‘A & C’ AND DEFLECTION AT ‘B’
LOAD
LOAD
DTI
(P)
(P)
A B C

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EXPERIMENT NO. 02 DATE:
AIM
To verify principle of super position using simply supported beam.
THEORY
The principle of super position assets that the resultant stress or strain in a systems
subjected to several forces is the algebraic sum and their effect when applied separately.
The principle of super position is only valid while the beam material remains elastic
and for small beam deflection. Large deflection would produce unacceptable deviation of
the lines of action of the loads relative to mean beam axis.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Simply supported beam setup
2. Weighing hanger and slotted weight
3. Dial gauge with magnetic base.
PROCEDURE
1. Place the given beam over knife edge to form a simply supported beam.
2. Mark 3 stations A,B,C on the given beam such that the beam length is equally dived
as L/4 such that AB = BC = L/4
3. Now place the weight hanger at beam station ‘A’ and dial gauge at beam station ‘B’.
4. Pre load the dial gauge and set it zero.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 02

TABULAR COLUMN
SL. NO LOAD AT BEAM LOAD DEFLECTION AT ‘B’

STATIONS
500 gms
1 A 1000 gms
1500 gms
500 gms
2 C 1000 gms
1500 gms
1000 gms
3 A&C 2000 gms
3000 gms
CALCULATIONS:

13
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
5. Now load the beam at station ‘A’ to 500 gms and note down the deflection at ‘B’.
6. Increase the load in steps of 500 gmsupto 1500 gms and tabulated the deflections at
‘B’ for each load case.
7. Now load the beam at station ‘C’ in steps of 500 gms and tabulate the deflections at
‘B’.
8. Now sum the deflection at B due to load at A and C separately land tabulate.
9. Load the beam at stations ‘A’ and ‘C’ simultaneously jin steps of 1 Kg (500 gms on
each station) upto 3 kg (1500 gms on each station) and tabulate the deflections at ‘B’
for each load case.
10.Compare the deflection of beam at station ‘B’ due to simultaneous load at ‘A’ and
‘C’ with that of individual load at ‘A’ and ‘C’
RESULT
The deflection at beam station ‘B’ due to simultaneous load at ‘A’ and ‘C’ is
compared with the deflection at ‘B’ when the beam is loaded at ‘A’ and ‘C’ separately and
found to be approximately same.
500 gms OF LOAD AT 500 gms OF LOAD AT 500 gms OF LOAD
DEFLECTION
‘A’ ‘C’ EACH AT ‘A’ & ‘C’
AT BEAM STATION ‘B’
Hence, the principle of super position is verified.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 03

15

VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM
AIM
To verify Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem and principle of super position for the
given beam.
APPARATURS REQUIRED
1. Dial Test Indicator with magnetic base

2. Knife Edges & supports
3. Weight hanger
4. Known loads
5. Steel / Aluminum Beam
THEORY (MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM)
Following are the two versions of Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem:
(i) Deflection at point ‘B’ due to unit load at point ‘A’ is equal to the deflection at point
‘A’ due to unit load at point ‘B’.
(ii) The slope at point ‘B’ due to unit moment at point ‘A’ is equal to the slope at point
‘A’ due to unit moment at point ‘B’.
PROCEDURE (MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM)
(i) The given beam is placed on the knife edge to for a simply supported beam.
(ii) The two points are separated by a distance and are denoted as ‘A’ and ‘B’ on
the beam.
(iii) The dial test indicator is placed at point ‘A’ through a magnetic base.
(iv) The weight hanger is placed at point ‘B’
(v) Pre-load the dial gauge and adjust to zero without any load on the beam.
(vi) Weights are added in steps of 500 grams.

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TABULAR COLUMN MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL THEOREM
Load at point ‘A’ and deflection at point ‘B’
SL LOAD DEFLECTION (div) DEFLECTION

NO (mm)
(gms) LOADING UNLOADING AVERAGE
01
02
03
04
05
06
TABULAR COLUMN II
Load at point ‘B’ and deflection at point ‘A’
SL LOAD DEFLECTION (div) DEFLECTION

NO (mm)
(gms) LOADING UNLOADING AVERAGE
01
02
03
04
05
06

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EXPERIMENT NO. 03
(vii) The deflection at point ‘A’ is noted for every 500 grams while loading and unloading.
(viii) The load and dial gauge are interchanged, i.e., loads are added at point ‘A’ and dial
gauge is kept at point ‘B’.
(ix) Again the readings are noted for every 500 grams while loading and unloading.
(x) A graph is drawn between deflection on ‘X’ axis and load on ‘Y’ axis for both the
cases.
(xi) The slopes of two graphs are obtained and found to be approximately equal which
means that the Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem is verified.
RESULT
The slopes of two graphs are found to be approximately equal thus the Maxwell’s
reciprocal theorem is verified.

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EXPERIMENT: 04 COLUMN TESTING
COLUMN TESTING APPARATUS

19
BUCKLING LOAD ESTIMATION OF SLENDER COLUMN
AIM
To determine the critical buckling load of the given Steel / Aluminum column.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
a. Steel / Aluminum column

b. Column tester
c. Slotted weights
d. Dial Test Indicator with magnetic base
e. Vernier Caliper
FORMULA
Pcr = π2EI / L2
Where
Pcr= Critical buckling load
E = Young’s modulus
I = Moment of inertia
L = Length of the column

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EXPERIMENT NO. 04
TABULAR COLUMN
SL. LOAD DEFLECTION

NO Deflection/Load
Kg N Div mm
01
02
03
04
05
CALCULATIONS:

21
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
THEORY
A structural member bar, which carries a compressive load, is called the strut. If the
strut is vertical i.e., inclined at 90° to the horizontal is known as column. The failure of
such member will occur
(i) By pure compression
(ii) By pure buckling
(iii) By pure compression and buckling combination.
SLENDERNESS RATIO
It is the ratio of the length of the column to the minimum radius of gyration of the
cross section of the column.
BUCKLING FACTOR
It is the ratio between the equivalent length of the column to the minimum radius of
gyration.
BUCKLING LOAD
The maximum limiting load at which the column bends to have lateral displacement
or tends to buckle is called buckling or crippling load. The buckling takes place about the
axis having minimum radius of gyration of least moment of inertia.

22
EXPERIMENT NO. 04 COLUMN TESTING
CALCULATIONS

23
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
PROCEDURE
1. Initially confirm that the weight hanger is in a balanced manner, and fix the knife edges
to top and bottom end of the column tester.
2. Fix the given steel/ aluminum column in between the knife edges whose critical
buckling load is to be determined.
3. Now fix the DTI with magnetic base to the given stand such that the notch of the column
coincides with the plunger of DTI.
4. Start adding equal weights on both sides of the weight hanger simultaneously and note
down the deflection of DTI.
5. Draw a graph with deflection/load on X axis versus deflection on Y axis and find the
critical buckling load by the slope
6. Draw the south wells plot (in graph) with deflection on X axis vs deflection/load on Y-
axis and the critical buckling load is determined by (Pcr= 1/ Slope) the inverse of slope.
RESULT
The critical buckling load of the given column is determined as
(a) PcrExperimentally = ______________N
(b) PcrTheoretically = ______________ N
MARKS OBTAINED DATE OF SUBMISSION SIGN OF FACULTY I/C

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EXPERIMENT. No. 05
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING OF A CANTILEVER BEAM

(DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPAL AXIS OF A BEAM)
x Dial gauges
Extension piece Shear centre

h
WH
WV b WV
DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPAL AXES
CALCULATIONS

25
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING OF A CANTILEVER BEAM

(DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPAL AXIS OF A BEAM)
AIM
To determine the principal axis of the given “Z” section (unsymmetrical section).
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. A thin uniform ‘Z’ section cantilever beam

2. Dial Gauges (Qty 02)
3. Suitable weights
4. Weighing hanger with loading hook
5. Vernier caliper
6. Steel rule
FORMULA
EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
θ = tan-1 (WV / WH) tan 2 θ = 2 Ixy ÷ (Iy - Ix)

Where WV = Vertical load
WH = Horizontal load
THEORY
𝐌. 𝒚
The well-known flexure formula 𝛔 = based on elementary theory of bending of
𝐈
beams assumes that the load is always applied through one of the principal axis of the
section. Actually, even if the applied load passes through the centroid and / or the shear
centre of the section the plane bending, the plane of loading need not necessarily be the
same. Therefore, a knowledge of location of the principal axes is required for the
determination of the stress distribution in beams (of any arbitrary cross section) using
flexure formula. The experimental determination of the principal axes is described here.
If Ix, Iy, Ixy are the moments and product of inertia of any section about any arbitrary
orthogonal centriodal axes OX and OY, then the inclination θ of one of the principal axis
through OA is given by tan 2 θ = 2 Ixy ÷ (Iy - Ix) .

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EXPERIMENT NO. 05
TABULAR COLUMN
SL. WH Ux Vy Vy / Ux WH / WV
NO. (gms) (x 0.01 mm) (x 0.01 mm)
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
CALCULATIONS

27
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
The experimental determination of principal axis of the given section is based on the fact
when the load passes through the shear centre and is in the direction of the one of principal
axes of the section, the entire section under the load deflects in the direction of load only.
PROCEDURE
1. Hang two weight hanger A and B on the hook provided on the either side of the web of
the given ‘Z’ section through the extension piece to facilitate vertical loading (WV)
and the other weight hanger to ‘C’ to the hook provided through pulley and string to
apply horizontal load (WH).
2. Place the dial gauge on the flange and other on the web at the chosen point on the tip of
the ‘Z’ section to measure horizontal and vertical deflection and pre-load the dial gauge
and set it to zero.
3. Apply a vertical load (WV) of 1 kg each on the weight hanger ‘A’ & ‘B’.
4. Note down the horizontal and vertical deflection of DTI.
5. By keeping the vertical load (WV) constant throughout the experiment, apply
horizontal load (WH) of 300 gms and note down the deflection of DTIs as Ux and Vy
6. Increase the horizontal load up to 3 kg in steps of 300 gms and note down the DTI
deflections (Ux and Vy) for each load case.
7. Plot a graph with Vy /Ux on X axis verses WH/ WV along Y axis and find the
intersection of this curve with straight line through origin at 45°.
8. From the intersection point draw line parallel to X axis to meet at Y axis which gives
the value of WH/ WV.
9. Substitute the value of WV / WH in the formula to get the experimental value which is
compared with theoretical value.
RESULT
The principal axis of the given ‘Z’ section is determined both experimentally and
theoretically and on comparison are found to be approximately same.
(a) Experimental Value _______________
(b) Theoretical Value _______________

28
EXPERIMENT NO. 06 SHEAR CENTRE OF A CHANNEL SECTION
Dimensions of the Beam and the Section
Height of the Web (h) =

Width of the Flange (b) =
Distance between the two hook stations (AB) =
Theoretical location of the shear centre (e) =
e = 3b / [6+ (h/b)] =
Vertical load WR = (Wa+Wb) =
Dial gauges
x
y
A B
h
Resultant
Wa Wb
b
Determination of shear centre for a Channel Section

29
SHEAR CENTRE OF A CHANNEL SECTION
(OPEN SECTION)
AIM
To determine the shear centre of the given channel section (open section).
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Beam of channel section

2. Dial gauge with magnetic base (Qty 02)
3. Weighing hanger with loading hook
4. Suitable loads
5. Vernier caliper
6. Steel Rule
FORMULA
Experimental
e = AB (WA - WB) ÷ 2 WR
Where AB is the distance between loading hooks = mm
WA and WB are the load on the weight hanger ‘A’ and ‘B’
WR is the total vertical load
Theoretical
e = 3b ÷ [6+ (h/b)]
Where ‘b’ is the breadth of given section = mm
‘h’ is the height of the channel section = mm

30
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
TABLULAR COLUMN
SL. LOAD ON LOAD ON DTI READING D1 – D2 e=
NO HANGAR HANGAR (in division) (in AB (WA - WB) ÷ 2
‘A’ ( WA) ‘B’ ( WB) division) WR
in gms in gms
D1 D2
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
MODEL CALCULATION

31
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
THEORY
Shear centre is unique point on beam cross section where application of shear force
doesn’t produce beam to twist. The channel section has an horizontal axis of symmetry
and shear centre lies on it. The basis of the experiment is to determine the location of this
shear centre, which is important in the design of beam of open section when they should
bend without twisting, as they are weak in resisting torsion (or) to located the shear centre
on axis, since any twisting moment causes a twist. It is simply a matter of placing the
shear force at point on the cress section where the shear force and shear flow combine to
produce a zero torsional moment about all points on a plane of beam cross section.
PROCEDURE
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a know distance on the given channel section.
2. Weighing Hangers ‘A’ and ‘B’ are hanged to the extension on the given channel section.
3. Pre-load the dial gauge and set it to zero.
4. Place a total of 1.5 kg load on weight hanger ‘A’ and note down the dial gauge
reading as D1 and D2.
5. Now remove one load piece (gms) from hanger ‘A’ and place it on hanger ‘B’. This
means the total vertical load on this section remains 1.5 kg. Record the dial gauge
readings.
6. Transfer all the load pieces on by one in steps of 200 gms and note down the DTI
readings.
7. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between dial gauge readings as a
measure of angle of twist θ, suffered by the section.
8. Plot a graph with ‘e’ value on X axis and (D1 - D2) value on Y axis. The meeting
point of straight line with X axis determines the shear centre.
RESULT
The shear centre for the given open section (Channel Section) lies at the distance of
________________ from _______________ of the web.
(a) Experimentally : ______________ mm
(b) Theoretically : ______________ mm

32
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION OF A HOLLOW CIRCULAR TUBE
Young’s Modulus of the tube = 70 GPa

Outside diameter of the tube = 50 mm
Thickness of the tube = 03 mm
Length of the tube = 55 cm
Strain gauge resistance = 350 ohm
Gauge factor =2
Distance of the strain gauges near root (A) from tip =
Distance of the strain gauges at the middle from tip =
Distance from the center of the tube to the center
of the hook =
Weight of the hook = 0.25 Kg
TABULAR COLUMN - I
S.no W (kg) εA εB εC
Note: For half bridge the strain readings are multiplied by two and for quarter by
four to get the actual strains.

33
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION OF A HOLLOW

CIRCULAR TUBE
(Determination Of Principal Stresses And Plane Of A Hollow Circular Shaft
Subjected By Combined Loading)
AIM
To determine the principal stresses and principal planes of a hollow circular shaft
due to combined loading.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Hollow circular shaft as a cantilever
2. Weight hanger with slotted weights
3. Strain gauges
4. Strain indicator
5. Vernier caliper
FORMULA
EXPERIMENTAL THEORETICAL
σ= Md0/ 2I ;
τ= Td0 / 2J
θ=Principal angle
THEORY
The most common combined load system encountered in structural design is
probably that are due to bending and torsion. In an aircraft wing the lift acting at the center
of pressure produces a torque about the elastic axis and varying bending moment along the
wing span. To understand their combined effect a simpler specimen, namely a hollow
cylinder is subjected to a bending and torsion.

34
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
TABULAR COLUMN – II
Bending stress Princi
Strain at various (σ) Shear stress (τ) Principal pal
Load
beam stations at ‘B’ stress angle
At “A”
Sl.
Exp
The
No
(2 X 10 )
(4 X 10 )
(2 X 10 )
-6
-6
-6
(EεA)
(EεB)
Theo
Theo
[(Mdo) / 2I]
M M M M
[(Tdo) / 2J]
Exp
Exp
Kg
εA
εC
εB
N
Exp
The
a i a i
x x
n n
CALCULATIONS

35
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
For an elastic structure, σ = My / I The shear stress due to torsion τ = Tr / J

Where, σ = Bending stress (N/m )
2
Where, τ = Shear stress (N/m2)
M = Bending moment (N-m) T = Torque applied (N-m)
y = Distance of the layer r = radius of the shaft (m)
from the neutral axis (m) J = Polar moment of inertia
4
I = Moment of inertia (m ) (m4)
= π(d°4 – d14) / 64 = π(d°4 – d14) / 32
PROCEDURE:
1. The Circular shaft cantilever beam is fitted with 5 strain gauges.
2. Four strain gauges are fixed at beam station “A” & “C” one at the top andl another at
bottom to measure the bending stress and are connected to channel 1 & 2 in half bridge to the
strain indicator –I.
3. To measure the shear stress, another strain gauge is fixed at 45º at beam station “B” and is
connected in quarter bridge to the strain indicator –II
4. Set both the strain indicator to zero and load the beam in steps of 1 kg up to 5 kg (the load
of 0.25 kg of the weight hanger to be added).
5. For each load case note down the strain on beam stations A, B, & C respectively by
selecting the appropriate channel on the respective strain indicator and tabulate.
6. Finally switch off the strain indicators. Using Vernier caliper and steel rule measure the
outside diameter and the length from tip to beam station A & C and to the loading point
respectively.
7. Calculate the principal stress and principal angle at beam stations A & C.
Note: For half bridge the strain reading are multiplied by 2 and for Quarter Bridge the
strain readings are multiplied by 4 to get actual strains.
RESULT:
Thus the principal stress and principal angle are determined both experimental and
theoretically and found to be approximately same.
Experimental Theoretical
Principle stress
Principle angle

36
EXPERIMENT NO: 8
MATERIAL FRINGE CONSTANT OF A PHOTO ELASTIC MODELS
TABULAR COLUMN
SL.NO LOAD(kg) FRACTIONAL MATERIAL FRINGE

FRINGE OREDER CONSTANT
‘N’ fσ = [8(dP/ dN)] / πD

37
EXPERIMENT NO: 8 DATE:
MATERIAL FRINGE CONSTANT OF A PHOTO ELASTIC MODELS

AIM:
To calibrate photo elastic material of circular model under diametric compression.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Circular Disc of Photo Elastic Material

2. Vernier Caliper.
FORMULA:
fσ = [8(dP/ dN)] / πD
Where,
dP/ dN = Slope value
D= Diameter of the circular model in Cm.
THEORY:
The branch of physics which deals with the analysis of stress distribution in
structural and mechanical components with help of the Polarized Light is known as
PHOTO ELASTICITY.
When a ray of light is refracted by a glass slab, it gives only one refracted ray
whereas, when a ray of light falls on a Nicol Prism it is found to give two refracted rays.
This phenomenon of producing two refracted rays by a crystal is called “Double
Refraction” or “Birefringence”. There are two types of double refraction such as
1. Natural Double Refraction
2. Induced Double Refraction or Induced Birefringence
INDUCED DOUBLE REFRACTION OR INDUCED BIREFRINGENCE
Certain transparent materials such as Plastic or Glass exhibit the double refraction
phenomenon when they are subjected to external forces. The double refraction disappears
as soon as the external force is removed. This phenomenon is called Induced Double
Refraction or Induced Birefringence and also known as temporary or artificial double
refraction.

38
EXPERIMENT NO: 8
POLARISCOPE: It is an instrument containing Polaroid that utilizes the properties of

polarized light in its operation which is used for photo elastic investigations.
PHOTO ELASTIC EFFECT:
When a transparent medium such as plastic or glass is mechanically stressed, it
becomes a double refracting one. The magnitude of the optical effect has a definite relation
to that of the stress. This optical phenomenon is known as Photo Elastic Effect.
PHOTO ELASTIC MATERIAL:
The material which exhibits the temporary double refraction when they are subjected
to external forces called Photo Elastic Material. Eg. Glass, Plastic, Epoxy etc.
CIRCULAR POLARISCOPE:
In a circular polariscope set up the two quarter wave plates are added to the
experiment set up of the plane polariscope. The first quarter wave plate is placed in
between the polarizer and specimen and the second quarter wave plate is placed in between
specimen and the analyzer. The effect of adding quarter wave plate is that we get circularly
polarized light. The basic advantage of a circular polariscope over a plane polariscope is
that in a circular polariscope set up we get the isochromatic and not the Isoclinic. This
eliminates the problem of differentiating between Isoclinic and Isochromatic.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The transmission polariscope consists of
a. Source of light
b. Polarizer
c. Loading frame
d. Analyzer
At first an unpolarized light is made to pass through a polarizer so that it comes out of the
polarizer as plane polarized light. The plane polarized light is then passes through Quarter
Wave Plate (QWP 1M) and comes out of it, as circularly polarized light.
The circularly polarized light is then transmitted through the model to be examined.
Due to the stress applied to the transparent model, birefringence property is exhibited
which changes the circularly polarized light in to elliptically polarized light.
The emergent ray which is elliptically polarized light is then made to pass through a
QWP 2 and gets converted into two plane polarized light with phase difference. The light
is examined by the analyzer. The different fringe systems are obtained and these are used
to study the stress distribution on the model.

39
USES OF PHOTO ELASTISC BENCH
 Photo Elastic stress analysis can be carried out

 Used for testing and measurement of strain and stress
PROCEDURE
1. Keep the Polarizer at Zero, Analyzer at 90°, Quarter Wave Plate I at 315° and Quarter
Wave Plate II at 45°.
2. Ensure that the digital load indicator is zero and then t5he toggle switch in the source of
light panel is in the compression mode.
3. Now put ON the white light to observe fringe pattern on the model.
4. Keep the circular disc underneath the load cell and using the hydraulic hand pump load
the model and identify the fringe order as 1, 2, 3, 4 ,… on both top and bottom of the
circular disc.
5. Now switch off the white light and put ON the monochromatic source of light.
6. On increasing the load the first fringe order will meet at the centre and gets diverged
and note down the load as indicated by the digital load indicator.
7. Further increase the load so that the No. 2 fringe order meets at the3 centre and gets
diverged and note down the load as indicated by the digital load indicator.
8. Repeat the same procedure for No. 3 and 4 fringe order and tabulate the values.
9. Plot a graph with Factional fringe order ‘N’ on X axis and load ‘P’ on Y axis and then
find the slope.
10.Substitute the obtained values in the given formula to get the material fringe value (fσ).
RESULT
The given photo elastic material model is calibrated and its fringe value fσ = ____ kg/m.

40
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
TENSION FIELD BEAM
Wagner Beam
t= b= d= α=
Af = t x b As = t x d E=
TABULAR COLUMN
SL NO W (Kg) εt εf εs σt= 4E εt σf= 4E εf σs= 4E εs

41
TENSION FIELD BEAM (WAGNER BEAM)
AIM:
To investigate and study the behavior of a semi-tension field beam.
Apparatus required:
A stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam held in a suitable frame, Strain gauges,

Strain indicator, Hydraulic jack, Load cell and Load indicator.
FORMULA
According to the theory developed by Wagner, the diagonal tensile stress σ t in the
thin web is given by the expression.
σt = 2W/dt sin2α
Where W = Shear load
d = Distance between the c.g. of the flanges
t = Thickness of the web
α = Angle at which wrinkling occurs.
tan4α = [1+td/2AF] / [1+tb/AS]
Stress in the flange: σf= [w / 2AF tanα] + [wz / 2AF d]
Stress in the stiffener: σs = wb tanα / 2As d
Where,
b= Distance between the stiffeners
AF= Area of flange
AS = Area of stiffener
Z = Distance of the strain gauge on the flange from the tip
THEORY:
The development of a structure in which buckling of the web is permitted with the
shear loads being carried by diagonal tension stresses in the web is a striking example of
the departure of the design of Aerospace structures from the standard structural design
methods in other fields of structures, such as beam design for bridges and buildings the
first study and research on this new type of structural design involving diagonal semi-
tension field in beam webs was done by Wagner and hence Wagner beam.

42
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
CALCULATIONS

43
EXPERIMENT NO: 9
As thin sheets are weak in compression, the webs of the Wagner beam will buckle at
a low value of the applied vertical load. The phenomena of buckling may be observed by
noting the wrinkles that appear on the thin sheets. As the applied load is further increased,
the stress in the compression direction does not increase, however the stress increases in
the tension direction. This method of carrying the shear load permits the design of
relatively thin webs because of high allowable stresses in tension.
PROCEDURE:
1. Strain gauges are fixed over the Flange, Stiffener and to the Web (at 45°)
2. The strain gauge of Web, Flange and Stiffener are connected to the strain indicator to
Channel 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
3. Ensure that the resistance and bridge of the strain indicator are at 120Ω and ‘Q’
respectively.
4. Now ensure that all the channels of the given strain indicator and the digital load meter
are set to Zero
5. The beam is loaded using a hydraulic/ mechanical jack and the load is electrically
transmitted to digital load meter through the load cell.
6. Now load the given wagner beam using hydraulic jack up to 150 kg in steps of 50 Kg
and note down the strain of flange ( εf ) Stiffener ( εs) and on the Web ( εft).
7. Using the given formula calculate the stress acting onf Web, Flange, Stiffener and
compare it with the3oreticfal values.
8. Unload the beam and switch off the power supply
9. The εf , εs , εt are calculated both experimentally and theoretically and are compared
and are found to be approximately same.
RESULT: The given Wagner beam was studied and the strains are estimated.
LOAD εt εf εs ,
EXPT THEO EXPT THEO EXPT THEO
50 KG
SIGN OF FACULTY
MARKS OBTAINED DATE OF SUBMISSION
I/C

44
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
DIAGRAM
Fig: 10.1 FREE VIBRATION SET UP
Fig: 10.2
SPECIFICATION DESCRIPTION OF CANTILEVER BEAM

45

FREE VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM
AIM:
To study the response of a cantilever beam under excitation for different end conditions.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Universal vibration beam set up
2. Nodal hammer
3. Mass hanger
4. Weights
5. Sensor
THEORY:
When given an excitation and left to vibrate on its own, the frequency at which a cantilever
beam will oscillate is its natural frequency. This condition is called Free vibration. The
value of natural frequency depends only on system parameters of mass and stiffness.
Consider a spring of negligible mass is fixed at one end of the beam and carries a mass on
the other end, then theoretical time period,
1 K
fn(theo) = ( ) √ Hz
2π M
Where,
g = specific gravity = 9.81 m/s2

F
Stiffness of Spring, K = [ ]
δB
B = amplitude in m.
M = mass attached on the beam in Kg

46
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
OBSERVATIONS
Deflection of Experimental Stiffness, fntheo

S. No Load (W) Length Length L Spring Frequency
K (Hz)
in Kg L1 (m) (m) (Amplitude) fnexp Hz
in m
1
2
3
4
5
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of the beam =
Breadth of the beam =
Height of the beam =
Mass of the disc =
Mass of eccentricity weight =
Material used =mild steel
Young’s modulus =200×103 N/mm2
Density of the material =7850 kg/m3
READINGS AND CALCULATIONS
S.N Deflection Experiment fntheo

Load of Spring al
o in Hz
(W) (Amplitude) Frequency
in Kg in m fnexpHz

47
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
PROCEDURE
1. Switch on the console.
2. Meanwhile , switch -ON the Computer & keep it ready with the Observation
menu.
3. For the fatigue testing in computer follow the route, Start > Programs > fatigue
testing > Application or directly select the short cut from the desktop.
4. Place the sensor at the end of the beam.
5. strike the beam by using nodal hammer
6. Note down the maximum value of frequency and amplitude directly in the digital
indicator.
7. Log the data and enter the value of amplitude and frequency indicator in the tab
8. The procedure is repeated for different boundary condition.
RESULT:
Thus the response of the cantilever beam has been studied under the influence of free
vibration
SIGN OF FACULTY
I/C

48
EXPERIMENT NO: 11
FORCED VIBRATION OF A CANTILEVER BEAM
The differential equation for the lateral vibration of beams,

d 4y
―— ― β4 y =0 where β4 = ρ ω2
dx4 EI
𝑬𝑰
The natural frequencies of vibrations are ωn = (βnl)2 √ ------------------------------
(1)
𝒎𝒍𝟐
where (β1)2 = 3.52 for the fundamental natural frequency of a cantilever beam.
Length of the beam l = ___ cm
Width of the beam w = ___ cm
Thickness of the beam t = ___ mm
Elastic Modulus E= 200 Gpa
m= Mass per unit length of the beam,Kg/cm
I= Moment of inertia of the beam
Substituting in equation (1)
ωl = _________ rad/s
f = ωl/2π = __________cycles/s

49
FORCED VIBRATION OF A CANTILEVER BEAM

AIM:
To determine the natural frequency of a cantilever beam under forced vibration.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Stabilizer, Oscillator, Amplifier, Exciter, Electromagnetic pickup, Cathode ray
oscilloscope and Cantilever beam.
PROCEDURE:
1. Before switching ‘ON’ the power supply to the equipment ensure that the voltage
output adjusting knob in the power oscillator are screwed out (to minimum position).
2. Put “ON” the power supply and press the dual selection button in the oscilloscope and
ensure two lines are seen in the screen.
3. Using ‘Y’ position 1 & 2 button in the oscilloscope set the lines for two zones.
4. Ensure that both the voltage knob in the oscilloscope is at 0.5.
5. Ensure the knob of the vibrator meter is in the ‘V’ (velocity) mode.
6. Ensue the frequency range (Hz) knob is at 100.
7. Place the pickup on the tip of the cantilever beam and the vibration generator pointer
underneath the beam to generate vibration.
8. Now increase the frequency (Hz) and voltage output using the frequency adjusting knob
and voltage output knob in the power oscillator.
9. Ensure that the voltage output does not cross 1.2 volt.
10.When the frequency and voltage are tuned appx ____ Hz and 1.2v respectively the
vibration of the beam can be viewed clearly in the screen of the oscilloscope.
11.With the same value of frequency and voltage the x-y switch in the oscilloscope is
pressed and a fine tuned ellipse can be viewed in the screen of oscilloscope.
12.The frequency at which the ellipses major and minor axis coincides with the X and Y
axis, resonance occurs the corresponding frequency in nautral frequency of the given
cantilever beam.
RESULT:
It is found from experiment the natural frequency of the cantilever beam is
_______Hz which almost coincides with the theoretical result.
SIGN OF FACULTY
I/C

50
EXPERIMENT NO. 12
FABRICATION OF A COMPOSITE LAMINATE.
1. GLASS FIBRE
2. STEEL ROLLER
3. CERAMIC BOWL
4. HARDNER
5. EPOXY RESIN

51
FABRICATION OF A COMPOSITE LAMINATE.
AIM
To have detailed knowledge in preparing glass epoxy composite laminates.
APPARATUS / MATERIALS REQUIRED
Glass fiber of required dimension, Epoxy resin, Electronic weighing machine, Scissor, Steel
Rule, Measuring Tape
PROCEDURE:
PREPARATION OF GLASS FIBER:
1. Glass fibers of dimension 300x300mm are cut from the big roll.
2. 10 /15/20 such glass fibers are required for preparing a GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced
Polymer) laminate.
3. The weight of all the 10 glass fibers is measured using an electronic weighing machine.
PREPARATION OF EPOXY RESIN:
1. Epoxy resin equal in weight to that of fiber is weighed and taken separately.
2. The hardener is added to the resin in the ratio of 1:10.
3. The epoxy resin mixture is then mixed thoroughly.
PREPARATION OF MOULD:
1. Both the upper and lower mould surface should be cleaned using acetone initially to remove
the dirt present if any.
2. Then apply wax (Coconut oil) on both the surfaces.
PREPARATION OF GFRP CROSSPLY LAMINATE:
1. Place a clean flat surface (aluminum plate) spreaded with a polyethelythene sheet on the table.
2. Apply a thin layer of coconut oil on the surface of the flat surface.
3. Next place the first layer of glass fibre over the flat surface (aluminium plate ) and apply
resin over the first layer of glass fibre and then place the second glass layer and use the rollers to
squeeze the excess resin.
4. Repeat the procedure with alternating layers of glass fiber and resin mixture until all the
10/15/20 layers of glass fibers are finished.
NOTE: DON’T APPLY RESIN OVER THE LAST PIECE OF GLASS FIBRE
5. Place the upper mould over the lower mould and the mould is closed.
6. The mould is placed in the compression molding machine and cured at a pressure of 100 bar
for 24 hours.
RESULT
Thus the composite laminates and specimens are prepared using Glass fiber and Epoxy resin.

52
EXPERIMENT NO. 13
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A COMPOSITE TENSILE

SPECIMEN
TABULAR COLUMN
SL.NO LOAD LOAD MOMENT STRESS(σ) Strain(ε) E

(gms) (N)
01
02
03
04
05

53
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A COMPOSITE TENSILE
SPECIMEN
AIM
To determine elastic constant of the fabricated composited specimens.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
1. Fabricated Composited Specimens

2. C clamp
3. Strain gauge
4. Strain Indicator
5. Weighing hanger
6. Suitable loads
7. Vernier caliper
8. Steel rule
FORMULA
E = Stress (σ) / Strain(ε)
σ = 𝑴 ∗ 𝒚/𝑰
Where, M is the moment (F x l where F is the load applied in Newton and ‘l’ is the
distance from clamped end to the strain gauge)
‘y’ is the half the thickness of the given specimen
‘I’ is the moment of inertia (bd3 /12).

54
EXPERIMENT NO. 13
PROCEDURE
1. Fix the strain gauge to the prepared composite specimen.
2. The specimen is clamped at one end to form a cantilever beam.
3. Connect the strain gauge to the strain indicator.
4. Now set the strain indicator to zero.
5. Apply load to the given specimen in steps of 100 gms up to 500 gms.
6. Note the strain (ε) value for each load case.
7. Calculate stress (σ) value using the given formula and tabulate.
8. Find the young’s modulus (E) value for each load case and the average gives the
approximate E value.
9. Plot a graph with strain (ε) on X axis and stress (σ) on Y axis and slope of the plot
determines the E value of the given composite specimen.
RESULT
The young’s modulus value of the given specimen is thus found out both
experimentally and theoretically which are compared and found to be approximately same
(a) EXPERIMENTAL VALUE = __________________ GPa
(b) THEORETICAL VALUE = __________________ GPa

55
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
DIAGRAM
Fig 14.1. THREE POINT BENDING SET UP
Fig 14.2 THREE POINT BENDING TEST

56
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANT FOR A COMPOSITE FLEXURAL
SPECIMEN
AIM:
To estimate the mechanical properties of a composite specimen using flexural
testing.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1. Universal testing machine

2. Deflections measuring devise.
3. Three Point Bend Fixture
4. Material testing software.
5. Load cell-5KN capacity
THEORY:
The flexural tests are conducted to determine the mechanical properties of resin and
laminated fiber composite materials. Further, these tests are used to determine the inter-
laminar shear strength of a laminate, shear modulus, shear strength, tensile and
compression modulli along with flexural and shear stiffness.
There are two methods to carry out these tests. The beam is a flat rectangular specimen and
is simply supported close to its ends. In the first method the beam is centrally loaded. Thus
gives three point bending. Since there are three important points (two end supports and one
central loading point) along the span of the beam this method is called as three-point
bending test. In the second method the beam is loaded by two loads placed symmetrically
between the supports. In this method there are four important points (two end supports and
two loading points) along the span of the beam. Thus, it gives four-point bending. Hence,
this method is called four-point bending.

57
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
FORMULAE USED:
1. Flexural stress
for a rectangular cross section

2. Calculation of the flexural strain
3. Calculation of flexural modulus (flexural strength)
where,
 = Stress in outer fibers at midpoint, (MPa)

 = Strain in the outer surface, (mm/mm)
 = flexural Modulus of elasticity,(MPa)
 = load at a given point on the load deflection curve, (N)
 = Support span, (mm)
 = Width of test beam, (mm)
 = Depth of tested beam, (mm)
 = maximum deflection of the center of the beam, (mm)
 = The gradient (i.e., slope) of the initial straight-line portion of the load deflection
Fig 14. 3 SAMPLE TEST REPORT

58
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
DESCRIPTION:
The flexural strength is the ability to resist deformation under load for a material. The
material deforms significantly but does not break, the load at yield is typically measured at
5% deformation/strain of the outer surface, is reported as the flexural strength or flexural
yield strength. The test beam specimen is under compressive stress at the concave (inner)
surface and tensile stress (Outer) at the convex surface. ASTM D790 test gives the
procedure to measure a material's flexural modulus (the ratio of stress to strain in flexural
deformation).The flexural test measures the force required to bend a beam under three
point loading conditions. The data is often used to select materials for parts that will
support loads without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an indication of a material’s
stiffness when flexed
EXERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
1. The specimen with the given span is supported between two supports as a simply
supported beam and the load is applied at the centre by the loading nose producing three
point bending at a specified rate.
2. The parameters for this test are the support span, the speed of the loading, and the
maximum deflection for the test.
3. These parameters are based on the test specimen thickness and are defined differently by
ASTM. Under ASTM D790, the test is stopped when the specimen reaches 5% deflection
or the specimen breaks.
4. A varying specimen shapes and sizes can be used for this test, but the most commonly
used specimen size for ASTM D790 is 3.2mm x 12.7mm x 125mm.
5. At least 3 specimens were tested for each thickness of laminate.
6. The crosshead speed is to be maintained at 2mm/min.
7. The tested specimens are finally to be examined through visual inspection for failure of
fibers and matrix.
59
EXPERIMENT NO. 14
RESULT:
Thus the flexural strength of the glass fiber epoxy composite specimen has been estimated
and found to be as,
FLEXURAL
SPECIMENS
STRENGTH (N/mm2)
2 mm glass fiber
specimen
4 mm glass fiber
specimen

60
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is unsymmetrical bending? Give an example
When a beam is subjected to bending moment plane of loading is not parallel to plane of bending and
plane of bending does not line in parallel to the plane containing the principal centroidal axis.
Neutral axis of beam is not perpendicular to the plane of bending and neutral axis does not pass through
centroid of cross section.
Example: Aircraft wing spar bends in an unsymmetrical manner during steady level flight
2. Show the typical stress distribution for a closed/open section undergoing unsymmetrical bending.
3. Explain why an aircraft wing spar bends in an unsymmetrical manner during steady level flight?
During steady level flight the air loads are not necessarily acting the axis of symmetry or centroidal axis, but
are skew loads which generate unsymmetrical bending.
This unsymmetrical bending is however resisted by stiffening members.
4. What is bending moment and shear force?
BENDING MOMENT-Bending moment refers to the internal moment that causes something to bend.
When you bend a ruler, even though you've applied the forces/moments at the ends of the ruler, bending
occurs all along the ruler, which indicates that there is a bending moment acting all along the ruler
SHEAR FORCE-The shear force at a section of a beam is the force that shears off the section and is
obtained as the algebraic sum of all forces including the reactions acting normal to the axis of the beam
either to the left or right of the beam
5. Differentiate between neutral axis and neutral layer?
NEUTRAL AXIS- The neutral axis is an axis in the cross section of a beam (a member resisting bending)
or shaft along which there are no longitudinal stresses or strains.
NEUTRAL LAYER- The intersection of this neutral surface with the axial plane of symmetry will give a
line which is the NEUTRAL AXIS OF THE BEAM.
6. What is Flexural axis?
FLEXURAL AXIS OR BENDING AXIS-Flexural axis of a beam is the longitudinal axis through which
the transverse bending loads must pass in order that the bending of the beam shall not be accompanied by
twisting of the beam.
7. Define bending stress.
The bending moment at a section causes the structure (elements) to bend (deform) and internal stresses
resist it bending, the resistance offered by the internal stresses is called BENDING STRESS.

61
8. Explain how principal axes are convenient to determine the internal shear flow.
Since bending moments about one principal axis produces no bending about the other principal axis, the
principal axes are convenient axes to use when calculating internal shear flow distribution.
9. Why stresses should fall within elastic range in aircraft?

In structural airplane design, the applied loads on the airplane must be taken by the structure without
suffering permanent strain which means the stresses should fall within the elastic range.
The airplane structural design loads which in general equal the applied loads times a factor of safety of 1.5
times must be taken by the structure without collapse or rupture with no restriction on permanent strain.
10. Bending of beam usually involves both ____________________and _______________.

Bending of beam usually involves both bending (longitudinal tension and compression stresses) and shear
stresses.
11. What is shear flow?
SHEAR FLOW: The product of shear stress and thickness will produce shear force per unit length which
is known as shear flow.
 Shear flow is defined as Force per unit length.
 It is represented as q q=τ x t
12. Define shear center and elastic axis.
Shear Center: It is defined as the point in cross section of a beam when subjected to vertical load the
beam will undergo only bending and no torsion or twisting.
Elastic Axis: Depending on the beam’s cross-sectional shape its length, the location of shear center may
vary from section to section. A line connecting all the shear centers is called Elastic axis of a beam.
13. To prevent the beam from twisting where must the load act?
To prevent the beam from twisting, the load must be centered along the elastic axis of the beam.
14. Indicate the positions of shear center for thin walled section like channel, angle and zee section?
15. How to idealize a structure?

To idealize a structure you can:
1) Replace the spar web by replacing its area to the major booms
2) Reduce the number of stiffeners or booms by combining the stiffener mass with that of
the skin into one boom
16. Define Bredt-Batho theory.
The torque in a curved web is defined by the shear flow produced in that section.
T=2qA where A is the area bounded by the centerline of the wall cross section.
𝑻
τ= 𝟐𝑨𝒕 where t is the thickness of the skin at the point considered in
the shear stress calculation.
62
17. Can Shear flow can be defined for both thin and thick walled section?
YES
18. Open-section thin web beams are unstable in carrying torsional loads. (TRUE/FALSE)
ANS. TRUE
19. In an idealized wing section, booms carry only __________and webs carry only______.
ANS. In an idealized wing section, booms carry only axial loads and webs carry only shear loads
20. What do you know about center of twist?
Shear center is also called as center of twist
The shear center for any transverse section of the beam is the point of intersection of the bending axis and
the lane of the transverse section. It is defined as the point in cross section when subjected to load the will
undergo only bending and no torsion or twisting.
21. A multi cell structure subject to pure torque is statistically determinate. Why?
No, A multi cell structure subject to pure torque is statistically indeterminate.
For a multi-celled tube, we have θ1= θ2= θ3= θ4=…… θnthen structure is stable.
Therefore, only using equilibrium condition we cannot find the unknowns. In addition to it, some other
conditions are required. Thus multi-cell tube subjected to a torque load is said to be statically
indeterminate.
22. How do you determine the shear flow and angle of twist for a closed cell under torsion?
𝑻
Shear flow is determined from q=𝟐𝑨
𝑇 𝑑𝑠
Angle of Twist: 𝜃 = 4𝐴2 𝐺 ∮ 𝑡
23. Cell twist decreases when a stronger material is used _ is this true or false?
TRUE
24. For a thin walled column, crippling stress is (higher than / lower than/ the same as) the local
buckling stress.
HIGHER THAN
25. How is torque realized on wing?

1. If the shear center is outside.
2. If the shear center coincide with C,G, no torque is experienced
3. If the shear center is not coinciding with the torque is experienced
4. If at shear center of wing skew load is applied. (Un symmetrical)
26. How closed-section box beam resist torsion?
On an aircraft wing, the resultant aerodynamic load is farther forward on the wing at high angles of
attack than at low angles of attack. Thus position of this load also changes when the ailerons or
wing flaps are deflected. Thus a cloased-section box beam, which is capable of resisting torsion, is
used for aircraft wings and similar structures.
27. Give examples for closed thin walled sections.

The wing, fuselage, control surfaces and empennage structure of modern aircraft is essentially a single
or multiple cellular beam with thin webs and walls.

63
28. Mention any two reasons about fail safe design of multiple cell structure in aircraft design.
 Using multiple interior webs, the detrimental effect of shear deformation on the bending stress
distribution is decreased
 The fail-safe characteristic of the wing is increased because the wing is made statically
indeterminate to a higher degree and thus failure of individual units due to fatigue or shell fire can
take place without greatly decreasing the over-all ultimate strength of the wing.
 The ultimate compressive strength of the wing flange units is usually increased because column
action is prevented by multiple webs which attach to flange members.
29. Explain with an illustration ‘constant shear flow web’.
The common aircraft cellular beam is made up of thin sheet walls usually referred to as flange members.
A simplifying common assumption is to assume that the flange members alone develop the resistance to
the bending moment. This assumption therefore means that the shear flow is constant between flange
members.
30. What does the design of closed thin walled structures involve?
The design of closed thin walled structures involves the consideration of the distribution of the internal
resisting shear stresses.
31. Define crippling strength.
Crippling is a phenomenon that occurs in a member that is under compression with sufficiently short
length to prevent instability.
In a plate as the compressive load is increased the plate will buckle and it won’t be efficient is carrying
load. If the plates can no longer carry load it will try to look for a stiffened region. Failure of this structure
will occur when the stiffened region stretches compressive yield strength of the material. This yield
strength can be considered as the crippling strength.
32. What is a sheet stiffener panel?

A thin sheet which is stiffened with stingers or stiffening member by means of rivets when subjected to
compressive load the panel’s compressive stress is larger compared to the panel without stiffening
members. Such panel which can resist compressive loads is called as Sheet Stiffened Panel.
33. What is mean by effective width?
It is the equivalent width of panel in which the total strength of uniform stress distribution is taken as
uniform stress distribution with same total strength.
34. What is crippling stress?
The load at which the column or plate undergoes material failure or structural failure (plastic instability) is
the crippling load, and the corresponding stress is known as Crippling stress.
35. How can the crippling load of a thin walled column be increased?
The crippling load of a thin walled column can be increased by increasing the moment of inertia.
36. For a thin-walled column, crippling stress is (higher than/ lower than/ the same as) the local
buckling stress (Choose the correct answer) HIGHER THAN
37. Explain how a thin beam subjected to shear resists the load.
The curved web will resist a high stress buckling than plate web of similar dimension nd the flat web will
carry ultimate load higher than its buckling load.

64
38. List the different types of web design.
1. Shear resistant webs
2. Tension field webs
3. Brazed webs
39. Mention about the methods used to describe crippling strength of rectangular panel under
compression.
1. Needham’s method
2. Gerard’s method
3. Rankine method
4. Euler method
5. Von-Karman method
40. Define stress ratio and write margin of safety in terms of stress ratio.
Stress ratio(R) is defined as the ratio of applied stress by allowable stress.
𝟏
Margin of Safety can be written in terms of stress ratio as M.S. = – 1
𝐑
41. Define buckling coefficient.
Buckling coefficient is a value which depends upon the boundary or edge conditions and aspect ratio of
the sheet.
42. Write the transition of the below mentioned boundary conditions of a flat sheet.
ANS.
(i) The sides are free - column
(ii) One side is restrained and other side is free -flange
(iii) Both sides are restrained -plate
43. What is the difference between web and flange?

A flange has one unloaded edge free
A web has no free unloaded edge.
44. What is the function of skin in aircraft?

 To form impermeable aerodynamic surface
 Transmit aerodynamic forces to ribs and stringers
 Resist shear torsion loads (with spar webs)
 React axial bending loads (with stringers)
45. What is the function of spars in aircraft?

 Form the main span wise beam
 Transmit bending and torsional members
 Produce a closed cell structure to provide resistance to torsion, shear and tension loads
 Webs-resist shear and torsional loads and help to stabilize the skin
 Flanges-resist the compressive loads caused by wing loading
46. What is the function of stringer in aircraft?

 Increase skin panel buckling strength by dividing into smaller length sections
 React axial bending loads

65
47. What is the function of ribs in aircraft?
 Maintain the aerodynamic shape
 Act along with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads
 Distribute concentrated loads into the structure and e-distribute around any discontinuities (E.g.
undercarriage wells, access panels, fuel tanks, etc)
 Increase the column buckling strength of the stringers through end restraint
 Increase the skin buckling strength
48. What is a Wagner beam?

A structure in which buckling of the webs is permitted with the shear loads being carried by diagonal
tension stresses in the web are called Wagner beam
49. What is shear resistance web beams.
 The web that does not buckle under the action of shear loads is said to be Shear Resistant Web.
50. Draw the structural members in wing and fuselage
51. What is gust load?

• Gust loads are unsteady aerodynamic loads that are produced by atmospheric turbulence.
• When aircraft experiences a gust, the effect is an increase (or decrease) in angle of attack.
52. What is meant by schernk’s curve?
• In order to find the load distribution on wing we use the schrenk’s method the plane from the wing
is drawn with semi span along the X- axis and the chord on the Y-axis
• Then a quadrant of an ellipse whose area is equal to the area of the wing span is drawn.
• The semi major axis of the ellipse is taken as the semi span.
• A curve joining the mid points of the plan from and the elliptic quadrant is drawn.
• This curve is known as schrenk’s curve. This gives the lift distribution.
53. What is a bulk head? What are the functions of bulk head?
The transverse structural members of the wing or fuselage, covering most of the cross section are
called bulkheads
Functions of bulk head:
1) Maintain cross sectional shape
2) Distribute concentrated loads
3) Establish column length to prevent buckling
4) Provide edge restraint for skin.
5) Act with skin to resist circumferential loads
66
54. Thin wings are heavier the thick wings. Why?
In thick wings the thickness of the skin is large compared to thin wing where structural member is most
not employed which is not suitable in resisting shear load.
In thin wing aircrafts structural members are installed so as to transmit and resist aerodynamic, axial and
shear loads acting on the skin of the wing. Due to presence of many structural members’ thin wings are
heavier than thick wings.
55. Describe the semi-cantilever type of aircraft wing?

Many high-wing airplanes have external brace or wing struts which transmit the flight and landing loads
through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately
halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called SEMI CANTILEVER
56. What is the use of the V –n diagram?
 To control of weight in aircraft design
 For better economic viability of the aircraft
 To ensure general minimum standards of strength and safety, airworthiness regulations lay down
several factors which the primary structure of the aircraft must satisfy.
 The aircraft’s structure must withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and should not
fail until the ultimate load has been achieved
57. When is an aircraft fuselage subject to torsion?
 During take-off and landing
 During maneuvers,
 While experiencing gust loads
 turbulence
58. What are the basic flight loading conditions?
The basic flight loading conditions are:
1. Positive high angle of attack
2. Positive low angle of attack
3. Negative high angle of attack
4. Negative low angle of attack
59. How do gust loads affect an aircraft wing?
1. Aeroelastic phenomenon
2. Structural damage- large load factor
60. What is limit load?
Limit loads are the calculated maximum loads which may be subjected to the flight vehicle in carrying out
the job it is designed to accomplish during its life time of use.
61. What is yield load?
This term is defined as the limit load multiplied by the yield factor of safety.
62. What is ultimate load?
This term is defined as the limit load multiplied by the ultimate factor of safety.
63. What is yield factor of safety?

This term is defined as the ratio of the yield strength of the structure to the limit load.

67
64. What is ultimate factor of safety?
This term is defined as the ratio of the ultimate strength of the structure to the limit load.
65. What is Composite Material?

A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents that are combined
at macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
66. What are the major constituents of composite material?

Composites constitute two materials one of the materials, called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of
fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other materials called the matrix phase. The
reinforcing material and the matrix material can be metal, ceramic, or polymer.
67. Name few reinforcement materials and resins used in composite materials.
Reinforcement materials: Graphite, Glass, Aramid, Kevlar 49, Boron
Resins: Epoxy, aluminium, Polyamide, Nylon, Polyesters, Vinyl esters, Phenolics,
Polymides, Polybenzimidazoles, Polyphenylquinoxaline
68. What are the advantages of composite materials?
Specific stiffness and specific strength, Tailorable design, Fatigue Life, Dimensional Stability,
Corrosion Resistance, Cost Effective Fabrication, Conductivity
69. What are the applications of composite materials in aviation industry?
 Aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, space telescopes, space shuttle, space station, missiles, booster
rockets, helicopters.
 B2 bomber - both fiber glass and graphite fibers are used with epoxy matrix and polyimide matrix.
 The indigenous Light Combat Aircraft (LCA - Tejas) has Kevlar composite in nose cone, Glass
composites in tail fin and carbon composites form almost all part of the fuselage and wings, except
the control surfaces of the wing.
 Further, the indigenous Light Combat Helicopter (LCH – Dhruv) has carbon composites for its
main rotor blades. The other composites are used in tail rotor, vertical fin, stabilizer, cowling,
radome, doors, cockpit, side shells, etc.
70. What characteristic if composite material is considered in helicopter manufacture?
High specific strength and stiffness, fatigue life, dimensional stability
71. Define lamina.
A lamina (also called a ply or layer) is a single flat layer of unidirectional fibers or woven
fibers arranged in a matrix.
72. Define laminate.
A laminate is a stack of plies of composites. Each layer can be laid at various orientations and
can be different material systems.
73. What is resin?
An Organic material with indefinite and usually high molecular weight and no sharp melting point is
called RESIN.
74. What are Prepregs?
Prepregs are a ready-made tape composed of fibers in a polymer matrix
75. What is natural frequency?
When there is no external force applied on the system and it is given a slight displacement the body vibrates.
These vibrations are called free vibrations and frequency of free vibration is called Natural frequency
76. What is Periodic motion?
A motion which repeats itself after certain interval of time is called periodic motion.
68
77. What are the main causes of vibration?
Ans. The main causes of vibration are:
1. Unbalanced centrifugal force in the system due to faulty design and poor manufacturing.
2. Elastic nature of system.
3. External excitation applied on the system
4. Winds may cause vibration of electricity lines, telephone lines etc.
78. What is Time Period?
It is time taken to complete one cycle.
79. What is Frequency?
No's of cycles in one sec, Units = H
80. What is Amplitude?
Maximum displacement of a vibrating body from mean position is called Amplitude.
81. How can you eliminate/reduce unnecessary vibrations?
Ans. Unwanted vibrations can be reduced by:
1. Removing external excitation if possible,
2. Using shock absorbers.
3. Dynamic absorbers.
4. Proper balancing of rotating parts.
5. Removing manufacturing defects and material in homogeneities.
6. Resting the system on proper vibration isolators.
82. What are the advantages of vibration?
Ans. Advantages of vibration
1. Musical Instruments like guitar.
2. In study of earthquake for geological reasons.
3. Vibration is useful for vibration testing equipment.
4. Propagation of sound is due to vibrations.
5. Vibratory conveyors are based on concept of vibration.
6. Pendulum clocks are based on the principle of vibration.
83. What is the importance of vibration study?
Ans. To reduce or eliminate vibration effects over mechanical components by designing them suitably.
Proper design and manufacture of parts will reduce unbalance in engines which causes excessive and
unpleasant stress in the rotating system.
84. What are the disadvantages of effects of vibration?
Ans. Disadvantages or harmful effects vibration:
1. Vibration causes excessive and unpleasant stresses in the rotating system.
2. Vibration causes rapid wear and tear of machine parts such as gears and bearings.
3. Vibration causes loosening of parts from the machine.
4. Due to vibrations locomotive can leave the track causing accident or heavy loss.
5. Earthquakes are the cause of vibration because of which buildings and other structures (like bridges) may
collapse.
6. Proper readings of instruments cannot be taken because of heavy vibrations.
7. Resonance may take place if the frequency of excitation matches with the natural frequency of system
causing large amplitudes of vibration thereby resulting in failure of systems e.g. – Bridges
85. What is resonance?
"The increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electric or mechanical system exposed to a periodic force
whose frequency is equal or very close to the natural undamped frequency of the system."

69

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JEPPIAAR NAGAR, OLD MAMALLAPURAM ROAD CHENNAI-119

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PROGRAM : B.E. -AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

STUDENT NAME : ____________________________

 Once the experiment is completed get the observation/ inference of the

 Failing this, the entry to the lab class will be denied.

 Don’t operate the equipment/machineries/mockups until you are asked to do so.

 Observe safety precautions strictly as instructed by the faculty in charge.

PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO’s)

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO’s)

Any 10 experiments can be chosen TOTAL: 60 PERIODS

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES LABORATORY CODE AE8511

YEAR /SEM : THIRD / SIXTH REGULATION R2017

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END

2 VERIFICATION SUPER POSITION THEOREM. 11 - 14

VERIFICATION OF MAXWELL’S RECIPROCAL

4 BUCKLING LOAD ESTIMATION OF COLUMN 19-24

5 UNSYMMETRRICAL BENDNG OF A CANTILEVER BEAM 25-28

6 SHEAR CENTRE OF A CHANNEL SECTION 29 -32

COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION OF A HOLLOW

8 MATERIAL FRINGE CONSTANT OF A PHOTO ELASTIC 37-40

10 FREE VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM 45-48

11 FORCED VIBRATION OF CANTILEVER BEAM 49-50

12 FABRICATION OF COMPOSITE LAMINATE 51-52

DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A

DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS FOR A

15 VIVA QUESTIONS 63-69

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END CONDITIONS

(SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM)

(i) To determine the deflection of a given simply supported beam.

(ii) To verify theoretical results with experimental value.

(a) Steel / Aluminum Beam

A 7PL3 / 768 EI 11PL3 / 768 EI 3PL3 / 256 EI

B 11PL3 / 768 EI PL3 / 48 EI 7Pl3 3/ /768

C 3PL3 / 256 EI 11PL3 / 768 EI 7PL3 / 768 EI

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

(v) Pre load the DTI and adjust to zero.

MARKS OBTAINED DATE OF SUBMISSION SIGN OF LAB I/C

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS WITH VARIOUS END CONDITIONS

(OVER HANGING BEAM)

1. To determine the deflection of a given over hanging beam.

3. To compare the experimental P/δ value with that of theoretical value.

(a) Steel / Aluminum Beam

Deflection at A (δa) and D (δd) = Pl3 / 48 EI

Deflection at E (δe) = Pl3 / 128 EI

Where, ‘l’ is the length of the beam = mm

‘I’ is the moment of inertia = bd3 / 12

‘E’ is the young’s modulus = GPa

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE DEPT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGG

and E preload the DTI and it to zero.