CONCEPTS

COURSE CODE: A1MET214 Course: STEAM AND GAS TURBINES

Unit Concept No.

No.
CONCEPTS
1. Schematic diagram and description of Rankine cycle
2. Thermodynamic analysis of each component and efficiency of
the Rankine cycle
3. Effect of operating conditions on Rankine cycle efficiency
4. Concept of mean temperature and heat addition
I 5. Methods to improve Rankine cycle efficiency
6. Problems on Rankine cycle
7. Problems on Reheating cycle
8. Problems on regenerative cycle
9. Advantages and disadvantages of reheating and regenerative
cycles over simple Rankine cycle

1. Classification of boilers
2. Working principle of boilers
3. High pressure boilers
4. Boiler mountings and accessories
5. Performance of Boilers
II 6. Heat balance of boilers
7. Classification of draught
8. height of chimney for given draught and discharge
9. condition for maximum discharge,
10. efficiency of chimney

1. Function of a nozzle – applications - types

2. Thermodynamic analysis for calculation of Velocity of steam
at nozzle exit
3. Ideal and actual expansion in Nozzle
4. Discharge through the nozzle
III 5. condition for maximum discharge
6. Critical pressure ratio
7. Super saturated flow and its effects
8. Degree of super saturation and degree of under cooling - Wilson
line.

1. Classification of steam turbines

2. Description of Simple impulse and reaction turbines with
neat sketches
IV
3. Velocity and pressure variation in impulse and reaction
turbine
4. Velocity diagram for impulse turbine and analysis
 5. Condition for maximum efficiency of impulse turbine
6. Methods of compounding
7. combined velocity diagram for a velocity compounded impulse
turbine
8. Velocity diagram for reaction turbine
9. Degree of reaction
10. Parsons reaction turbine
11. Conditions for maximum efficiency of a reaction turbine
12. Calculation of blade height

1. Requirements of steam condensing plant

2. Classification of steam condensers
3. working principle of different types
V 4. vacuum efficiency and condenser efficiency
5. air leakage, sources and its affects
6. air pump
7. cooling water requirement
8. Problems on condensers

VI 1. Simple gas turbine plant – ideal cycle

2. essential components of gas turbine cycle
3. Applications of gas turbines
4. parameters of performance
5. Actual gas turbine cycle
6. regeneration, inter cooling and reheating
7. closed and semi-closed cycles
8. Merits and demerits of closed and semi-closed cycles
9. combustion chambers
Steam Power Cycle

Prepared by:
S Joshua Kumar
ME (Heat Transfer)

Assistant Professor
2 3

1 4
Limitation
Trained as a civil engineer, William
Rankine (1820-1872)was appointed to
the chairman of civil engineering and
mechanics at Glasgow in 1855. He
worked on heat, and attempted to derive
Sadi Carnot's law from his own
hypothesis. He was elected a Fellow of
the Royal Society in 1853. Among his
most important works are Manual of
Applied Mechanics (1858), Manual of the
Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers
(1859) .
T-S diagram of Rankine cycle
The efficiency of Rankine cycle
qabsorb= h2 - h1

qexhaust= h3 – h4

qabsorb  qexhaust

qabsorb
h2  h1  (h3  h4 )

h2  h1
h2  h1  h3  h4 )

h2  h1
Usually, The properties: p1, t1 and p2 are available
for a power plant,then:
h1: From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1

h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”

h2’ , h2”

s2  s1  xs2 "(1  x) s2 '

So, x can be known
h2  xh2 "(1  x)h2 '
h4: From p1 , s1= s4 get h4
h3: From p2 , get h2’ , s2’ .
h3= h3’ s3= s3’
 Problems

Thermal efficiency is 26 %
 Problem
• A steam turbine develops 5 kW, operating on
an ideal Rankine cycle. It receives steam at 30
bar, and 300°C and exhaust it to a condenser
at a vacuum of 685 mm of Hg. The barometer
reads 760 mm of Hg. The condensate then
returned to the boiler by a feed pump.
Calculate Rankine cycle efficiency, Quality of
steam at exit, back work ratio and mass flow
rate of steam.
HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE
CYCLE?
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

Side effect: Lowering

the condenser pressure
increases the moisture
content of the steam at
the final stages of the
turbine.

The effect of lowering the condenser

pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle. 15
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)

Both the net work and heat input

increase as a result of superheating the
steam to a higher temperature. The
overall effect is an increase in thermal
efficiency since the average temperature
at which heat is added increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
metallurgical considerations. Presently
the highest steam temperature allowed
at the turbine inlet is about 620°C.

16
 Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

For a fixed turbine

inlet temperature, the
cycle shifts to the left
and the moisture
content of steam at
the turbine exit
increases. This side
effect can be
corrected by
reheating the steam.
17
 Today many modern steam power plants operate at
supercritical pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and have thermal
efficiencies of about 40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34% for
nuclear plants.
Problem
26%, 37%, 43%
Deviation of Actual cycle to Ideal cycle
• Efficiency of turbine is the ratio of Actual work to Isentropic work.
• Efficiency of pump is the ratio of Isentropic work to Actual work.
 Problem
• A steam power plant operates on an ideal
Rankine cycle between a boiler pressure of 40
bar, 300°C and a condenser pressure of 0.035
bar. Calculate cycle efficiency, work ratio and
specific steam consumption if the isentropic
efficiency of turbine is 85% and pump is 80%.
•
 Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

For a fixed turbine

inlet temperature, the
cycle shifts to the left
and the moisture
content of steam at
the turbine exit
increases. This side
effect can be
corrected by
reheating the steam.
26
 Ideal Reheat Cycle
Equipments of Reheat Cycle

Reheater
Steam turbine

boiler

Feed water pump condenser

The single reheat in a modern power plant
improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to 5%
by increasing the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam.
The average temperature during the reheat
process can be increased by increasing the
number of expansion and reheat stages. As
the number of stages is increased, the
expansion and reheat processes approach
an isothermal process at the maximum
temperature. The use of more than two
reheat stages is not practical. The
theoretical improvement in efficiency from
the second reheat is about half of that
which results from a single reheat. The average temperature at which
heat is transferred during
The reheat temperatures are very close or reheating increases as the number
equal to the turbine inlet temperature. of reheat stages is increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about one-
fourth of the maximum cycle pressure.
30
Reheat factor
 Problem
• The steam is supplied to a turbine at a
pressure of 32 bar and a temperature of
410°C. The steam then expands
isentropically to a pressure of 0.08 bar. Find
the dryness fraction of steam at the end of
expansion and thermal efficiency of the cycle.
If the steam is reheated at 5.5 bar to a
temperature of 395°C and then expands
isentropically to 0.08 bar, what will be the
dryness fraction and thermal efficiency of the
cycle?
 Answers
• a) x= 0.83, efficiency= 35%
• b) x= 0.933, efficiency= 36.18%
IAS-5. Consider the following statements:
The purpose of reheating, the steam in a steam turbine power plant is to
1. Increase specific output
2. Increase turbine efficiency
3. Reduce the turbine speed
4. Reduce specific steam consumption
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 2 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4

IES-12. The reheat cycle in steam power plant is mainly adopted to

[IES-1999]
(a) Improve thermal efficiency
(b) Decrease the moisture content in low pressure stages to a safe value
(c) Decrease the capacity of condenser
(d) Recovers the waste heat of boiler
IES-2. In a Rankine cycle, with the maximum steam temperature being fixed
from metallurgical considerations, as the boiler pressure increases
(a) The condenser load will increase [IES-1997]
(b) The quality of turbine exhaust will decrease
(c) The quality of turbine exhaust will increase
(d) The quality of turbine exhaust will remain unchanged

IES-7. Blade erosion in steam turbines takes place [IES 2007]

(a) Due to high temperature steam (b) Due to droplets in steam
(c) Due to high rotational speed (c) Due to high flow rate
MEAN TEMPERATURE OF HEAT ADDITION
IDEAL REGENERATIVE CYCLE
Reasons for not practical possibility
Regenerative Cycle
3 1 kg
Steam turbine

a
Steam
m 4
boiler
(1-m)
2 condenser
1 kg 1 (1-m)
5
Feed water pump 6
Feed water heater
drainage pump
T

3 The feed water is

heated by steam
1 bleeding out from
2
a
steam turbine. The
m average temperature
1 of heat absorption
6
1 m process increases
5
4 then.

s
m1 can be determined using steady flow energy equation

As to the 1st stage heater

m1 ha

h1 h6
1  m1
 3 1kg
Steam turbine

m1 a b 1  m1  m2
boiler 4
m2

2 7 condenser
1kg 1 1  m1
5
Feed water pump drainage pump
Feed water heater
1  m1  m2 6
 The more stages of
T bleeding steam, the
higher efficiency the
3 cycle has

1kg
a
2
m1 b
1
m2
6 7
1  m1  m2
5 4

s
The efficiency of regenerative Cycle
As to a two stages regenerative cycle,the properties: p1,
t1 , pa , pb , p2 are available. If neglect the pump work, the
T-s diagram should be as following.
T 1
qin  h1  h6
1 a
m1 qexhaust  (h2  h3 )(1  m1  m2 )
6
b
5
m2 w  qin  qexhaust

4 1  m1  m2 qin  qexhaust

3 2 qin

s
 The enthalpy of each point
h1: From p1 , t1, get h1 , s1
T 1
ha: From pa , s1, get ha
1 a hb: From pb , s1, get hb
6
m1
b
m2 h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”
5

4 1  m1  m2 h2’ , h2”
3 2
s2  s1  xs2 "(1  x) s2 '
s So, x can be known
h2  xh2 "(1  x)h2 '
m1 and m2
As to the 1st stage heater
m1 ha

h6 h5
1  m1

According to the first law of thermodynamics

h6  h5 (1  m1 )  m1ha

h6  h5
m1 
ha  h5
As to the 2nd stage heater
m2 hb

h5 h4

1  m1 1  m1 - m2

According to the first law of thermodynamics

h5 (1  m1 )  h4 (1  m1  m2 )  m2 hb

(1  m1 )(h5  h4 )
m2 
hb  h4
Advantages of Regenerative cycle over Simple Rankine cycle :

 The thermal stresses set up in the boiler are minimized. This is due to the fact that
temperature ranges in the boiler are reduced.
 The thermal efficiency is improved because the average temperature of heat addition
to the cycle is increased.
 Heat rate is reduced.
 The blade height is less due to the reduced amount of steam passed through the low
pressure stages.
 Due to many extractions there is an improvement in the turbine drainage and it
reduces erosion due to moisture.
 A small size condenser is required

Disadvantages:
 The plant becomes more complicated.
 Because of addition of heaters greater maintenance is required.
 For given power a large capacity boiler is required.
 The heaters are costly and the gain in thermal efficiency is not much in comparison
to the heavier costs.
• 1. Consider a reheat regenerative vapour power cycle with a open FWH. The
steam enters the turbine at 15 Mpa, 600ºc and expands to 2Mpa. Then the
steam is reheated to 600ºc at the same pressure. The steam for FWH is
extracted from the low pressure turbine at a pressure of 0.5 Mpa and the
remaining steam is further expanded to a condenser pressure of 10 kpa.
Determine
a.Fraction of steam extracted to FWH
b.Thermal efficiency of the cycle
c. Mass flow rate in kg/hr, if the cycle produces 120MW.
• a. 0.148 kg
• b. 47.1%
• c. 251.52 kg/hr
There are two types of closed feedwater heaters
Regeneration – Closed FWH

Closed FWH with Closed FWH with

Drain Pumped Drain Cascaded
Forward Backward

61
 Regeneration – Closed FWH
Closed FWH with Drain Cascaded Backward
1-m
y1  1
1

y1-m
3

my 2

1
y6 1y 5

y4
m

ym
8

y7
m
63
 Other Steam Power Cycle
Super-critical Cycle
Modified Rankine Cycle
The Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycle
BOILER DRAUGHT
 DEFINITION
 Boiler draught may be defined as the small
difference between the pressure of outside air
and that of gases within a furnace or chimney at
the grate level, which causes flow of air/hot flue
gases to take place through boiler.
 The draught is necessary to force air through the
fuel bed/ grate to aid in proper combustion of fuel
and to remove the products of combustion
 i.e. flue gases to the atmosphere after they have
given their heat to water being evaporated in
boiler.
 Draught also provides velocity to flue gases and
so increases the heat transfer co-efficient in the
boiler.
 Thus draught is essentially required in a boiler
and can be produced by a number of methods.
 NATURAL DRAUGHT
 Natural draught is obtained naturally by the use
of a chimney.
 Chimney is a conical shape vertical tubular steel
or masonry or concrete structure having a large
height.
 The flue gases after transferring their heat in
the boiler are guided by chimney to a
considerable height in the atmosphere.
 As chimney has a large height and is the only
outlet from boiler, it remains filled by hot flue
gases.
 These exhaust gases, however have given their
heat to water in the boiler, are still hotter than
the boiler room air.
 Due to this, the exhaust gases are lighter in
weight than outside air and so lifts up naturally
in the chimney and finally escape out in the
atmosphere from top of the chimney.
 As the flue gases lift up in the chimney, more
gases from fuel bed flow towards chimney to take
their place.
 During this process, they first flow through the
boiler and do the job of heating of water and
produce steam.
 As flue gases flow through boiler and then to
chimney, fresh air from outside naturally enters
the boiler and help in burning of fuel and
production of hot flue gases.
 So, in this way, a small pressure difference is
naturally created between the base of chimney
and the air inlet point of boiler because of density
difference between hot flue gases inside the
chimney and fresh colder air outside.
 This pressure difference is called natural
draught, because it is produced naturally.
 DESIGN OF
CHIMNEY

The natural draught is obtained with the use of tall chimney which may
be sufficient or insufficient.

14:47:07
 A Thermal power plant has a chimney draught of 3.5 cm of water
column. The flue gas temperature flowing through the chimney is 280°c
and the ambient temperature is 15°c. The amount of air supplied/kg of
the fuel is 20kg. Calculate the height of the chimney.

 A boiler uses 16 kg of air/kg of fuel, when the fuel consumption is at the

rate of 1800kg/hr. Actual draught required is 20 mm of water when al
losses are considered. The surrounding air temperature is 27°c and the
flue gas temperature is 277°c. Determine the chimney height and its dia if
actual velocity of the flue gas is 0.35 times the theoretical velocity due to
the roughness of interior surface of the chimney.

CHIMNEY EFFICIENCY

 ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT

 When the draught is produced by some external

agency i.e. mechanical fan/blower or by steam jet
itself, it is called artificial draught.
 In modern commercial boilers, more value of
draught is required to increase the heat transfer
co-efficient and hence the thermal efficiency.
 So, artificial draught is must to use to overcome
the flow resistance offered by large flue passages.
 Forced Draught

In a forced draught system, a blower is installed near the base of the boiler.
This draught system is known as positive draught system or forced draught
system because the pressure of air throughout the system is above
atmospheric pressure and air is forced to flow through the system. The
arrangement of the system is shown in figure.
 Induced Draught

In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney
instead of near the grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing
the pressure through the system below atmosphere.

The action of the induced draught is similar to the action of the

chimney. The draught produced is independent of the temperature of
the hot gases therefore the gases may be discharged as cold as possible
after recovering as much heat as possible in air-preheater and
economiser.
 BALANCED DRAUGHT
 It is a combination of forced and induced
draught.
 Forced draught fan overcomes the resistance in
air pre-heater and grate.
 Induced draught fan overcomes draught losses
through boiler, economizer and connecting flue
passages etc.
 Depending on the type of fuel burnt and type of
boiler, the fan or blower used may be of any type
as radial or axial etc.
BALANCED DRAUGHT
 ADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL
DRAUGHT
 It is more economical and its control is easy.
 Desired value of draught can be produced by
mechanical means which cannot be produced by
means of natural draught.
 It increases the rate of combustion by which low
grade fuel can also be used.
 It reduces the smoke level and increases the
heat transfer co-efficient on flue gases side thus
increases the thermal efficiency of boiler.
 It saves the energy and the heat of flue gases
can be best utilized by it.
DISADVANTAGES OF MECHANICAL
DRAUGHT
 Initial costs of mechanical draught system are
high.
 Running cost is also high due to requirement of
electricity but that is easily compensated by the
savings in fuel consumption.
 Maintenance cost is also on higher side.

 Noise level of boiler is also high due to noisy

fan/blower etc.
 STEAM JET DRAUGHT
 It is a very simple and easy method of producing
artificial draught without the need of an electric
motor.
 Steam under pressure is available in the boiler.

 When a small portion of steam is passed through

a jet or nozzle, pressure energy converts to
kinetic energy and steam comes out with a high
velocity.
 This high velocity steam carries, along with it, a
large mass of air or flue gases and makes it to
flow through boiler.
 Steam jet is directed towards a fixed direction
and carries all its energy in kinetic form.
 It creates some vacuum in its surroundings and
so attracts the air of flue gases either by carrying
along with it.
 Thus it has the capacity to make flow of the flue
gases either by carrying or inducing towards
chimney.
 FORCED STEAM JET DRAUGHT
 Steam from the boiler after having been
throttled to a gauge pressure of 1.5 to 2 bar is
supplied to the jet or nozzles installed in ash pit.
 The steam emerging out of nozzles with a great
velocity drags air along the fuel bed, furnace, flue
passage and then to the chimney.
 Here steam jet is forcing the air and flue gases to
flow through boiler hence it is forced steam jet
draught.
FORCED STEAM JET DRAUGHT
 INDUCED STEAM JET DRAUGHT
 The jet of steam is diverted into smoke box or
chimney.
 The kinetic head of the steam is high but static
head is low i.e. it creates a partial vacuum which
draws the air through the grate, ash pit, flues
and then to motor box and chimney.
 This type of arrangement is employed in
locomotive boilers.
 Here steam jet is sucking the flue gases through
boiler, so it is Induced Steam Jet Draught.
STEAM JET DRAUGHT
 DRAUGHT LOSSES
 Loss due to the frictional resistance offered by
flue gas passage to the flow of flue gases.
 Loss due to bends in gas flow circuit, which also
offer flow resistance.
 Loss due to friction head in grate, economizer,
super heater etc.
 Loss due to flow resistance offered by chimney.

 Loss due to imparting some velocity to flue

gases, which is required to increase heat transfer
in boiler and also to throw away the flue gases
from chimney.
BOILERS
 Steam Boilers
• Generates steam by transferring heat by burning of fuel to
water.
• Energy released by burning fuel (solid, liquid or gaseous) is
transferred to the water in the boiler.
Applications:
1. Power generation
2. Sugar Extraction Plants
3. Steam engines
4. For heating of buildings in cold weather.
Primary requirements:
1. Water must be contained safely.
2. Steam must be safely delivered in desired conditions.
3
For Support notes, please visit: 8
 Classification of boilers

The steam boilers are classified as

•According to relative flow of water
and hot gases
1.Fire Tube Boilers
2.Water Tube Boilers
In fire tube boilers,
•The hot gases pass through the tubes
surrounded by water.
•The water is get heated up and converted
into steam
•The exhaust gases are sent to atmosphere
through chimney.
E.g Locomotive boiler, Lancashire boiler.

86
In water tube boilers,
• Water is circulated through number of tubes
and the hot flue gases flow over these tubes.

•The hot gases flow over these tubes many times

before escaping through the stack.

•The water is converted into steam and steam

occupies steam space.

E.g. Babcock & Wilcox, stirling, BHEL boiler,

Velox, Lamont, Lo-effler boilers.

9
For Support notes, please visit: 8
According to Tube contents
 According to the position of furnace
In internally fired boilers,
• The furnace grate is provided inside the
boiler shell.
(E.g Lancashire, Locomotive boilers)
In externally fired boilers,
• The furnace grate is provided outside or
built under the boiler shell.
(E.g Babcock and Wilcox boilers, Striling
boilers)
Babcock and Wilcox boiler

Lancashire boiler
According to Method of firing
 According to the Pressure Developed
In Low Pressure Boilers,
Steam is produced at a pressure in between 15-20 bar.
(E.g. Cochran, Lancashire)

In Medium Pressure Boilers,

Steam is produced at a pressure in between 20-80 bar.
(E.g. Locomotive boiler)

In High Pressure Boilers,

Steam is produced at a pressure more than or equal to 80
bar.
(E.g. Lamont, Velox, Benson, Lo-effler boiler)
3
For Support notes, please visit: 9
According to the water circulation
arrangement

Natural and Forced circulation boilers

 Classification of Boilers
•Tube contents * Fire tube boiler Ex: Cochran,Lancashire, Cornish and
Locomotive
* Water tube boiler Ex: Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling
•Method of firing * Internally fired Ex: Lancashire, Locomotive and Scotch
* Externally fired Ex: Babcock and Wilcox
•Pressure of steam * Low pressure Ex: Cochran,Cornish,Lancashire and
locomotive
* High pressure Ex: Babcock and Wilcox, Lamont,
Velox, Benson, Power boilers etc.
•Method of circulation of water * Natural
* Forced
•Nature of service * Stationary

* Mobile Ex: marine and locomotive boilers

•Position and number of drums *Horizontal
*Inclined
* Vertical
 Classification of Boilers

•Gas passage * Single pass

* Multi pass
•Nature of draught * Natural
* Forced
•Heat source * Combination of solid, liquid or gaseous fuels
* Electrical or Nuclear energy
* Hot waste gases ( by- products of chemical processes)
•Once through boiler
•Boiler shell material * Cast iron boilers ( Suitable for LP)
* Steel boilers ( Suitable for HP)

List out the Differences between Fire tube and Water tube boilers?
 Water tube Vs Fire tube
S.No Particulars Fire tube boiler Water tube boiler

1 Position of water and hot Hot gases inside the tubes and Water inside the
gases water outside the tubes tubes an fire outside
the tubes
2 Mode of firing Internally fired in general Externally fired

3 Operating pressure Limited to 20 bar Can reach 250 bar

also
4 Rate of steam production Lower Higher

5 Risk of bursting Less risk More risky due to

higher pressures
6 Treatment of water Not so important More care should be
taken
7 Floor area More Less area is
occupied by this
 Requirements of a good Boiler
1.It should be capable of generating the maximum quantity of steam at a
required P and T and quality with min. fuel consumption
2. Should be light in weight and not occupy much space
3. The initial cost, installation cost and maintenance cost of the boiler
should be low.
4. Should be capable of quick starting and to be able to meet the fluctuating
demands of steam supply without over heating.
5.All parts and components should be easily accessible for inspection and
repair.
6.It should have minimum number of joints and these too should be as far
away as possible from the direct flames.
7. The design and construction of the component parts should be such that
they can be easily dismantled and transported.
 Boiler Mountings and Accessories
• Mountings are the machine components that
are mounted over the boiler body itself for the
safety and for complete control of the process
of steam generation.
• Accessories are installed either inside or
outside the boiler to increase the efficiency of
the plant and to help in the proper working of
the plant.
Water Level Indicator
•It is fitted in front of the
boiler and generally
present two in number.
It is used to indicate the
water level inside the
boiler.
•It shows the
instantaneous level of
water that is present
inside the steam boiler
which is necessary for its
proper working.
 Dead weight
safety valve

• Safety valves are attached to the steam boiler chest.

• It is used to prevent explosion due to excessive internal pressure.
• When the internal pressure inside the boiler exceeds its working
pressures than the safety valves blow off the steam and maintains the
internal pressure.
• Generally two safety valves are present on a boiler.
Fusible Plug

•It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or

firebox.
•Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace
when the water level in the boiler falls to an
unsafe limit.
• This avoids the explosion that may takes place
because of the overheating of the furnace plate.
 Pressure gauge

• It is also present in front of the boiler.

• It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the boiler.
• The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourden type
 Stop valve
• It is usually fitted on the highest part
of the boiler with the help of a flange.

• The main function of the stop valve is

a) To control the flow of steam from the
boiler to the main steam pipe.
b) To completely shut off the steam
supply when required.
 Feed check valve

• It is non-return valve and fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift.

• It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.
• A boiler must have its spindle lifted before the pump is started.
• It regulates the supply of water which is pumped into the boiler by feed pump.
 Blow off cock

• It is fitted at the bottom of the boiler drum.

• The functions of blow off cock is
a) To empty the boiler whenever required.
b) To discharge the scale, mud and sediments which gets
collected at the bottom of the boiler.
Super heater

• It is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace. A

super heater is an important accessory used in the boiler.
• Its main function is to increase the temperature of saturated
steam without raising its pressure.
 Air Preheater
• It is used to recover heat from the
exhaust gases.
• It is installed between the economiser
and the chimney.
Economiser

• It is used to heat the feed water by the utilization of heat from the
hot fuel gases before it leaves the chimney.
• A economiser improves the economy of the steam boilers.
 Simple Vertical Boiler

Working pressure : 7.5 – 10

bar
Steam produced: 2500 kg/h
 Features
• Internally fired, vertical boiler, portable and
requires less floor space.
• Max steam generation is limited to 2500
kg/hr and pressure is limited to 10 bar max.
• The water circulation is due to density
difference in the water (natural circulation).
• Maximum efficiency is 50%.
 Applications
 Railway locomotives
 steam wagon (steam lorry
or steam wagon)
 steam tractor
 steam cranes and steam
shovels
Cochran Boiler
Applications

 Textile industries
 rice mills
 Paper processing industries
 Brew house Industries
Lancashire Boiler
 Features
• Horizontal boiler, Internally fired, fire tube
and stationary boiler.
• The water circulation is due to density
difference in the water (natural circulation).
• Its heating surface area to unit volume is
considerably large.
• This boiler can easily handle the load
fluctuations to large steam capacity.
Applications
Cornish boiler
 5
For Support notes, please visit: 9
 Locomotive Boiler

The Max. Pressure : 25bar ; Steaming rate: 60 –70 kg/m2/hr

 Features
• Horizontal boiler, Internally fired, fire tube, multi
tube, mobile boiler.
• The steam rate is quite high and used in
locomotives for generating steam to drive a
steam engine.
• The draught losses is minimum.
For Support notes, please visit: 102
Scotch Marine Boiler
 Features
• Internally fired, fire tube, mobile boiler.
• The steam rate is 1000 kg/hr at a pressure of 17
bar.
• It’s compact in size and occupies less floor space.
Advantages

 Potable
 Less occupancy
 Two way tubes
Disadvantges

 Fixed dimensions
 Limited capacity
 Large dia of 6-8 feet
 Water Tube boilers
Pressures > 10 bar
Steam rate: 7000 kg/h
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Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
 Features
• Externally fired, Water tube, Stationary boiler.
• The steam rate is 20000 -40000 kg/hr at a
pressure of 11.5-17.5 bar.
• Natural circulation.
• Draught losses are minimum and defective tubes
can be easily replaced.
Evaporative capacity: 20000-40000 kg/h
Operating pressures: 11.5-17.5 bar ( Max.42 bar)
Suitable for small size thermal power plants and other industrial works
Application

The Babcock and Wilcox boiler are generally

used to produce high pressure steam in
power generation industries. The high
pressure steam so generated is used to
produce electricity.
 Features
• High pressure, Water tube, Stationary boiler.
• Forced circulation.
• The steam rate is 50000 kg/hr at a pressure of
130 bar and a temperature of 500°C.
loeffler boiler
 Features
• High pressure, Water tube, Stationary boiler.
• Forced circulation.
• Uses superheated steam for vaporisation of feed
water in the evaporator.
• The steam rate is 1,00,000 kg/hr at a pressure of
140 bar.
Loeffler Boiler
Advantage:
 It can use salt water for steam generation
 Feed Water converted into steam by its
generated super heated steam

Disadvantages:
 Loeffler Boiler only converts energy just using 35
percent of generated steam.
 Features
• It’s a subcritical boiler using supercharged
furnace at 2-3 atmosphere pressure.
• The flue gas from the boiler drives gas turbine,
which in turn drives the rotary compressor to
supply high pressure air to furnace.
• It’s a supersonic flow boiler.
Efficiency 90
%
Steam gener
ation 135 ton
nes/hr
 Features
• High pressure, Water tube, Stationary boiler.
• Super critical boiler.
• Forced circulation.
• The steam rate is 1,35,000 kg/hr at a pressure of
250 bar.
• The thermal efficiency of benson boiler is 90%
and it starts within 15 minutes.
• Requires less floor space and weight is 20% less
than the other boilers.
• It can be started and stopped very quickly.
Advantages
• It is light in weight
• Occupy smaller floor area for its erection.
• Explosion hazard is almost negligible
because of use of smaller diameter tubes.
• It avoids bubble formation due to the super
critical pressure of water.
• Transportation is easy.
Disadvantages

Due to supercritical types of boiler its controlling

need to monitor every time for preventing any
explosion
 Equivalent evaporation
• Equivalent evaporation actually indicates the
amount of heat added in the boiler for steam
generation.
• Equivalent evaporation refers to the quantity
of dry saturated steam generated per unit
time from feed water at 1000C to steam at
1000C at the saturation pressure
corresponding to 1000C.
2257
Assessment of a Boiler

1. Boiler performance
• Causes of poor boiler performance
-Poor combustion
-Heat transfer surface fouling
-Poor operation and maintenance
-Deteriorating fuel and water quality

• Heat balance: identify heat losses

• Boiler efficiency: determine deviation from
best efficiency

122
 HEAT BALANCE SHEET OF BOILER

HEAT BALANCE SHEET (Basis 1 Kg of low grade fuel)

Heat supplied % age Heat Expenditure (K J) % age

(K J) (in approx.)
Gross heat 100 (a) Heat utilized in steam generation 78.00
supplied (b) Heat carried away by flue gases 12.00
(c) Heat utilized in evaporating and superheating 4.750
the moisture fuel and water vapour formed
Due
to burning of hydrogen of fuel.
(d) Heat loss by incomplete combustion 3.00

(e) Heat carried away by excess air 1.50

(f) Heat carried away by carbon ash 0.50

(g) Heat uncounted for such as radiation and error 0.25

etc.
Total 100 Total 100
Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency: % of (heat) energy input that is
effectively useful in the generated steam

BOILER EFFICENCY
CALCULATION

1) DIRECT METHOD: 2) INDIRECT METHOD:

The energy gain of the

The efficiency is the
working fluid (water and steam)
different between losses
is compared with the energy
and energy input
content of the boiler fuel.
Assessment of a Boiler

Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

125
Parameters to be monitored:

- Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr

- Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr

- The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat

temperature (oC), if any

- The temperature of feed water (oC)

- Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in

kcal/kg of fuel
Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Advantages
• Quick evaluation
• Few parameters for computation
• Few monitoring instruments
• Easy to compare evaporation ratios with
benchmark figures

Disadvantages
• No explanation of low efficiency
• Various losses not calculated

127
 Problem
• Steam is generated in a boiler at 30 bar 3000C at the
rate of 11 kg/s with feed water entering economiser
at 1000C. During one hour test 5000 kg fuel is used in
boiler. Calorific value of fuel is 35000 kJ/kg. For the
feed water being supplied to boiler to be at 27°C
determine; (i) the equivalent evaporation per kg of
fuel (ii) the boiler efficiency (iii) the percentage of
fuel energy utilised in economiser
 Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Required calculation data

• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash
content)
• % oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Fuel gas temperature in ◦C (Tf)
• Ambient temperature in ◦C (Ta) and humidity of air in kg/kg of
dry air
• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
• % combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

129
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Advantages
• Complete mass and energy balance for each
individual stream
• Makes it easier to identify options to improve boiler
efficiency

Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Requires lab facilities for analysis
 a) Heat used for generation of
steam
• Heat taken for generation of steam per kg of
fuel burnt shall be
 b) Heat lost due to incomplete
combustion
• Heat loss due to incomplete combustion =
(Heat released when carbon burns into CO2 –
Heat released when carbon burns into CO).
 c) Heat loss to dry flue gases
• A large portion of heat getting lost goes along
with flue gases. Flue gases leaving boiler
comprises of dry flue gases and steam. Heat
loss with dry flue gases can be given by,

where mdfg is mass of dry flue gas per kg of fuel, Cpg

is specific heat of dry flue gas and Tg and Ta are
temperature of flue gas and air entering combustion
chamber.
 d) Heat loss to steam in flue gases
• Steam is produced due to burning of hydrogen
present in fuel into water vapour. Heat lost
with steam in flue gases shall be
 e) Heat lost in unburnt fuel
• Some portion of heat may get lost in unburnt
fuel, which could be given by the product of
mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel and its
calorific value, as

where mubf is mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel

and CV is calorific value of fuel.
 f) Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
Moisture present in fuel shall also cause the loss
of heat. This moisture shall get evaporated and
superheated as fuel is burnt.

where mmoist is mass of moisture per kg of fuel

burnt, hs2 is enthalpy of final steam produced
and hf2 is enthalpy of water at boiler furnace
temperature.
 g) Heat loss due to convection,
radiation and other unaccountable
losses
STEAM NOZZLES
 Steam Nozzle
• A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross sectional by
means of which the pressure energy of working fluid is
converted to kinetic energy.
• When a fluid is decelerated in a passage of varying
cross section causing a rise in pressure along the flow
stream then the passage is known as diffuser.
 Introduction
• A nozzle is a passage of varying cross-sectional
area in which the potential energy of the
steam is converted into kinetic energy.
• The increase of velocity of the steam jet at the
exit of the nozzle is obtained due to decrease
in enthalpy (total heat content) of the steam.
• The nozzle is so shaped that it will perform
this conversion of energy with minimum loss.
General form of nozzle
 Applications of nozzles
• Steam turbines
• Aircrafts
• Jet engines
• Diesel engines,
• Artificial Fountains etc..
• Spray paintings
• Injectors
 Types of nozzles
• Convergent
• Divergent
• Convergent and divergent
Relation ship between area velocity
and mach number
 Nozzle efficiency

Nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual

enthalpy drop to isentropic enthalpy drop

Velocity coefficient is defined as the ratio of actual exit

velocity to isentropic exit velocity
Condition for max discharge through
nozzle
SUPERSATURATION PHENOMENON
IN STEAM NOZZLES
 T
H
A
N
K
Y
O
U

“SUCCESS IS A LADDER WHICH CANNOT

BE CLIMBED WITH HANDS IN POCKET”
 26-09-2019

STEAM TURBINES

Steam Power Plant

2

1
 26-09-2019

Introduction
• A steam turbine is a roto dynamic machine that
extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical
work on a rotating output shaft.

• Applications: Power generation, transportation,

Chemical process industry, Petrochemical,
Pharmaceuticals.

2
 26-09-2019

T-S diagram of work out put of Steam turbine

Steam Turbine Work Output

3
 26-09-2019

AEROPILE or Hero’s Turbine

4
 26-09-2019

Advantages over steam engines

• Thermal efficiency is high
• Speed is high
• Friction losses are less
• Better mechanical balancing
• Less maintenance
• No internal lubrication
• High power output

Advantages over Gas Turbines

• Better speed control
• More part load efficiency
• Blade design is simple
• Low operating temperatures
• High thermal efficiency
• More work output

10

5
 26-09-2019

Classification
According to
Principle of Operation
Direction of steam flow
Exit conditions
No of pressure stages
Application

11

12

6
 26-09-2019

13

WORKING OF STEAM TURBINE

• A steam turbine has basically nozzle and ring of moving
blades mounted on a shaft called rotor.
• Thermal energy of steam is partly converted into
kinetic energy due to static pressure drop in nozzle.
• High velocity steam leaving nozzle enters the moving
blade and the direction of steam flow gets changed
from inlet to exit.
• This change in direction of steam flow causes change of
momentum, which results in dynamic force acting as
driving thrust for rotation of shaft.
• Steam turbine can be impulse turbine or reaction
turbine based on mechanism of driving thrust creation.

14

7
 26-09-2019

• If the static pressure drop occurs principally in

stationary nozzle with little or no static pressure
drop occurring in rotor blade passage, then
turbine is called an ‘impulse turbine’.

• Thus in case of impulse turbine driving thrust is

available due to change in momentum because
of change in velocity direction while moving
across the blade from inlet to exit.

15

Impulse Turbine

16

8
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17

Reaction Turbine

18

9
 26-09-2019

19

• If the substantial static pressure drop occurs in

stationary nozzle and rotor blade passage both
then turbine is called ‘reaction turbine’.
• In case of reaction turbine the static pressure
drop in rotor blade passage causes further
conversion of thermal energy into kinetic
energy and hence generation of resultant
reactive force.
• Driving thrust in reaction turbine comprises of
reactive force and force associated with change
in momentum due to change in direction of
velocity.

20

10
 26-09-2019

• Stationary nozzle: steam at high static pressure and low velocity is

expanded so as to increase velocity of steam at exit of nozzle.

• Moving blades: Moving blades are fixed around the

circumference of a rotor shaft with top of blades connected
together for rigidity by means of a blade shroud ring. Blades
actually cause change in direction of steam and so the momentum
change occurs and thus impulse is generated. Steam turbine
blades are made of alloy steel and manufactured by machining
from bar stock. Typical blade material called nickel based super
alloy.

21

22

11
 26-09-2019

Casing: Casing refers to the outer enclosure housing nozzles and

fixed blades. Casing is also referred to as shell or cylinder. Casing
confines steam to flow passages and also provides the structural
frame. For high pressures and temperatures casings are made of
cast carbon steel while low pressure turbine casings are made
from rolled flat steel plate. For very high temperatures stainless
steel casings are good.

23

• Shaft: Shaft or rotor or spindle refers to the rotating member

upon which moving blade ring is mounted.
• Ring or Wheel: Wheel refers to the ring upon which moving
blades are mounted. Wheel is keyed on to the shaft. This ring is
also called disc.
• Diaphragm: Diaphragm is attached to the casing containing the
nozzles and performs function of confining steam flow to nozzle
passage.
• Packing: Packing is provided for preventing the leakage across
the annular space between the diaphragm and shaft, casing and
shaft. Packing is provided in the form of carbon rings or
labyrinth glands.
• Steam chest: This is the steam supply chamber which houses
steam before being supplied to nozzles.
• Exhaust hood: The portion of casing which collects and delivers
the exhaust steam to exhaust pipe or condenser is called
exhaust hood.

24

12
 26-09-2019

• Throttle valve: Throttle valve may be manually operated or

hydraulically operated for regulating steam flow during start and
stop of turbine.
• Governor: Governor is also provided in steam turbine for
controlling the steam mass flow so as to maintain constant speed
with load fluctuations. An over speed governor with trip
mechanism is also provided to shut off the supply of steam.
• Bearings: Turbine has main bearings to support the shaft. Along
with these thrust bearings are also provided to support the axial
thrust.
• Turning gear: Turning gear is generally used with large turbines
and consists of a gear integral with turbine shaft driven by
electric motor through necessary speed reduction.
• Trip mechanism: Trip mechanism is actually safety device which
gets activated upon number of other adverse operating
conditions of turbine such as loss of lubricating oil pressure or
condenser vacuum or excessive axial thrust etc.

25

Steam Turbine
26

13
 26-09-2019

27

28

14
 26-09-2019

First Impulse and Reaction Turbines

29

30

15
 26-09-2019

In a single stage simple impulse turbine the steam flows at

rate of 5 kg/s. It has rotor of 1.2 m diameter running at 3000
rpm. Nozzle angle is 18°, blade speed ratio is 0.4, velocity
coefficient is 0.9, outlet angle of blade is 3° less than inlet
angle. Determine blade angles and power developed.

31

32

16
 26-09-2019

33

34

17
 26-09-2019

A single stage of simple impulse turbine produces 120 kW at

blade speed of 150 m/s when steam mass flow rate is 3 kg/s.
Steam enters moving blade at 350 m/s and leaves the stage
axially. Considering velocity coefficient of 0.9 and smooth steam
entry without shock into blades, determine the nozzle angle and
blade angles. Solve using velocity diagram.

35

36

18
 26-09-2019

Compounding Of Impulse Turbines

If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of
moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about 30,000 rpm
which is too high for practical use.
It is therefore essential to incorporate some improvements for
practical use and also to achieve high performance. This is
possible by making use of more than one set of nozzles, and
rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that either the steam
pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages.
This is called compounding. Two types of compounding can be
accomplished:
(a) Velocity compounding
(b) Pressure compounding

Either of the above methods or both in combination are used to

reduce the high rotational speed of the single stage turbine.

37

Velocity Compounding
Curtis turbine

38

19
 26-09-2019

39

In an impulse turbine, the steam issues from the nozzle with a

speed of 600 m/s and blade speed is 120 m/s. The velocity is
compounded by passing the steam through a ring of moving
blades, through a ring of fixed blades and finally through a ring of
moving blades.
The nozzle angle is 180 and the blade exit angles and relative
velocity coefficients are the following

Find the diagram efficiency under these conditions and power

output for steam flow rate of 5 kg/s.
What would be the maximum possible diagram efficiency for
given steam inlet velocity and nozzle angle?

40

20
 26-09-2019

Pressure
Compounding
Ex: Rateau turbine

41

Pressure-
Velocity
Compounding
Guide blades: Turbine rotor has
guide blades prior to moving
blades so as to guide steam in
proper direction for smooth entry
into moving blade. Guide blades
are stationary guides mounted
between the rotor blade rings.
Guide blades perform function of
reversing the direction of steam
leaving the preceding moving
blade row so that direction of
steam entering moving blade rows
is similar.

42

21
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43

44

22
 26-09-2019

Differences between Impulse and Reaction turbines

Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine

• Pr drop only in Nozzles • Pr drop both in nozzles and
moving blades
• Blade shape is profile • Blade shape is aerofoil
• Space required is less • Space required is more
• Power is less • Power is high
• Efficiency is less • Efficiency is high
• Blade manufacturing simple • Blade manufacturing difficult
• EX: Parson turbine
• EX: Delaval Turbine

45

Three stages of reaction turbine indicating pressure and

velocity distribution

Degree of Reaction =

46

23
 26-09-2019

47

48

24
 26-09-2019

49

Combined Velocity diagram

50

25
 26-09-2019

51

52

26
 26-09-2019

For impulse turbine

Power Developed = ms*Cbl*Cw
Condition for maximum blade efficiency = ρ = (Cos α)/2
Maximum blade efficiency = Cos2 α

For Reaction Turbine:

Power Developed = ms*Cbl*Cw
Condition for maximum blade efficiency = ρ = Cos α
Maximum blade efficiency = 2Cos2 α/1+Cos2 α

53

T
H
A
N
K
Y
O
U

“SUCCESS IS A LADDER WHICH CANNOT

BE CLIMBED WITH HANDS IN POCKET”
54

27
Steam Condensers

•1
General Arrangement of steam Power

Plant •2
 Introduction
• A steam condenser is a device in which steam is
condensed and heat rejected by steam is
absorbed by water.

Objective:
• To maintain very low back pressure
• To supply pure hot feed water to the boiler

•3
Need of steam condenser in power
plant
•4
Elements of steam
condensing unit
•5
 Classification
Jet condensers:
• In which steam and water directly mix together

Surface condensers:
• in which water flows through the tubes and steam
passes outside it

•6
Elements ( Requirements) of Steam Condensing plant

5. Cooling
Tower

1.Condenser 4. C.W.P

2.Dry air pump

7. Make
up water
3. C.E.P pump
6. Feed water
pump

•7
 Jet condensers
• Parallel flow type jet condenser
• Counter flow jet condenser
• High level jet condenser
• Ejector condenser

•8
 Counter flow Jet Condensers
• The schematic diagram of a low-level counter-flow
jet condenser is shown in Fig. 23.2.
• Exhaust steam is supplied from the bottom side of
the condenser and it flows upwards while the
cooling water is supplied from the top of the
condenser.
• The water flows downward through a series of
baffles or trays.
• As steam comes in contact with falling water, it gets
condensed.
• The air-extraction pump, located at the top of the
condenser sucks the air and any uncondensed
vapour.
•9
• The air pump maintains enough vacuum in the
condenser shell, causing the cooling water to be
lifted up to a height of approximately 5.5 m.
• A pump for water supply is only needed if it is to be
lifted more than 5.5 m in height.
• The condensate extraction pump at the bottom of
the shell extracts the liquid condensate and cooling
water and discharges it to a hot well, from where it
may be fed to the boiler, if cooling water suits it.
• The excess amount of condensate from the hot well
flows into the cooling pond by an overflow pipe.

•10
•11
 Parallel Flow Low level
Condenser
• In this type of condenser, the exhaust steam and
cooling water both flow in the same direction.
• The steam usually enters at the top of the
condenser and the cooling water just below it from
the side as shown in Fig. 23.3.
• Other arrangements are similar to a counter-flow
jet condenser.
• The mixture of condensate, coolant and air is
extracted with the help of a wet air pump.
• This limits the vacuum created in the condenser up
to 600 mm of llg (approx 6 kPa).

•12
•13
 High Level Jet Condensers
• The schematic of a high-level jet condenser is shown in
Fig. 23.4.
• This condenser is also called a barometric condenser.
• The condenser shell is installed at a height greater than
that of atmospheric pressure in water column, i.e., 10.33
m.
• A long tail pipe, more than 10.33 m in height, is
attached between the bottom of the condenser and
the hot well.
• The pressure at the bottom of the pipe is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, while at its top in the condenser
shell, the vacuum is maintained. This allows the
condensate and coolant to fall from the condenser
under gravity without any extraction pump.
•14
 High level jet condenser
(Barometric jet condenser) •15
 Ejector Condenser
• In this, momentum of flowing water is used to
remove the mixture of condensate and coolant
from the condenser without the use of any
extraction pump.
• The cooling water enters from the top under a
water head of 5 to 6 m and passover a series of
converging nozzles and attains a high velocity.
• At the same time, vacuum is created in the side
gap of the nozzle, drawing in the exhaust steam
through the divergent nozzle.
• The mixing of steam and water causes the
condensation.

•16
 Ejector
Condenser
•17
 Surface condensers

Down flow surface condenser

Central flow surface condenser
Evaporative surface condenser

•18
Surface
condenser

•19
Surface condensers

•20
 Down-flow Surface Condenser
• The sectional view of a down-flow surface
condenser is shown in Fig. 23.7.
• The exhaust steam enters the top of the condenser
shell and flows downward over the water tube.
• The water tubes are double passed.
• The cold water flows in the lower side first and then
in the upper side in reverse direction.
• It enables the maximum heat transfer rate for a
condenser.
• The extraction pump connected at the bottom of
the condenser draws the condensate out of the
condenser.

•21
•22
Fig: Down flow surface
condenser
•23
Central flow Surface condenser •24
Evaporative condenser

•25
•26
•27
• In this type of condenser, the evaporation of some
cooling water provides cooling effect, thereby
steam condenses.
• An evaporative condenser is shown in Fig. 23.9.
• Water gets evaporated and evaporated vapours
are taken by air leaving condenser.
• Heat required for evaporation is extracted finally
from the steam flowing inside tubes and thus
causing its phase transformation.
• For preventing the exit of water vapours with air
going out the separator/eliminator is put on the top
before the final exit by which water vapour are
recovered upto certain extent.

•28
 Differences between Jet and Surface
condensers
Jet Condenser Surface Condenser
• Steam and water are • Steam and water are
directly mixed indirect contact
• Less space required • More space required
• Cooling water • Cooling water
requirement is less requirement is more
• Vacuum efficiency is • Vacuum efficiency is
less high
• Less cost • More cost
• Simple design • Complicated design
• Condensate can not • Condensate can be
be reused reused •29
 Requirements of a Modern Surface Condensers:
• The exhaust steam entering the condenser should be evenly
distributed over the whole cooling surface of the condenser
vessel with minimum pressure loss.
• The amount of cooling water being circulated in the surface
condenser should be regulated that the temperature of
cooling water leaving the condenser is equivalent to
saturation temperature of steam corresponding to steam
pressure.
This will prevent under cooling of condensate.
• The deposition of dirt on the outer surface of tubes in surface
condensers need to be prevented.
Passing the cooling water through the tubes and allowing the
steam to flow over the tubes makes this happen.
• There should be no leakage of air into the condenser because
presence of air destroys the vacuum in the condenser and
thus reduces the work obtained per kg of steam. If there is any
leakage of air into the condenser air extraction pump need to
be used to remove air as soon as possible. •30
Condenser
efficiency

•31
• Vacuum efficiency:

•32
Determination of mass of cooling water
• In the surface condenser
Heat lost by steam = heat gained by cooling water

•33
•34
•35
 Sources of air in the condenser
There is leakage of air from atmosphere at the joints.

Air is also accompanied with steam from the boiler

into which it enters dissolved in feed water.

•36
 Effects of air leakage in the
condenser
• Lowered thermal efficiency

• Increased requirement of cooling water

• Reduced heat transfer

• Corrosion

•37
 Methods for obtaining
maximum vacuum in
condensers
• Air pump

• Steam air ejector

• De-Aerated feed water

• Air tight joints

•38
Condenser

•39
Edward Air pump

•40
•41
THANK
YOU

•42
Simple Gas Turbine Power Plant
Axial Flow Compressor
S.No Centrifugal Compressor Axial-flow Compressor

1. Air flows radially in the Air flows parallel to axis of shaft

compressor

2 Low maintenance and running High maintenance and running

cost cost

3 Low starting torque required Requires high starting torque

4 Not suitable for multi-staging Suitable for only multi-staging

5 Suitable for low pressure ratios up Suitable up to a pressure ratio of

to 4 10

6 For given mass flow rate, it It requires less frontal area

requires larger frontal area

7 Isentropic efficiency 80-82% Isentropic efficiency 86-88%

8 Better performance at part load Poor performance at part load

Semi closed Gas Turbine
Open cycle gas turbine
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle (Fig. 9–29).
Air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and
pressure are raised. The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber,
where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.

The high-temperature gases then

enter the turbine where they expand
to atmospheric pressure while
producing power output.
Some of the output power is used to
drive the compressor.
The exhaust gases leaving the
turbine are thrown out (not re-
circulated), causing the cycle to be
classified as an open cycle.

28
The Brayton Cycle
The ideal cycle that the working fluid
undergoes in the closed loop is the Brayton
cycle. It is made up of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression;
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition;
3-4 Isentropic expansion;
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection.
The T-s and P-v diagrams of an ideal Brayton
cycle are shown in Fig. 9–31.
Note: All four processes of the Brayton cycle
are executed in steady-flow devices thus,
they should be analyzed as steady-flow
processes.

29
Thermal Efficiency
The energy balance for a steady-flow process can
be expressed, on a unit–mass basis, as

The heat transfers to and from the working fluid

are:

The thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle,

Constant specific heats

where is the pressure ratio.

30
Improvements of Gas Turbine’s Performance
The early gas turbines (1940s to 1959s) found only limited use despite their
versatility and their ability to burn a variety of fuels, because its thermal efficiency
was only about 17%. Efforts to improve the cycle efficiency are concentrated in
three areas:

1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures.

The turbine inlet temperatures have increased steadily from about 540°C
(1000°F) in the 1940s to 1425°C (2600°F) and even higher today.
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbo-machinery components (turbines,
compressors).
The advent of computers and advanced techniques for computer-aided design
made it possible to design these components aerodynamically with minimal
losses.
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or
recuperation, and reheating).
The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by
incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating.

31
Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles
Some pressure drop occurs during the
heat-addition and heat rejection processes.
The actual work input to the compressor is
more, and the actual work output from the
turbine is less, because of irreversibilities.

Deviation of actual compressor and

turbine behavior from the idealized
isentropic behavior can be accounted
for by utilizing isentropic efficiencies
of the turbine and compressor.

Turbine:

Compressor:

32
Brayton Cycle With Regeneration

Temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is higher than the temperature of the air
leaving the compressor.
The air leaving the compressor can be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat
exchanger (a regenerator or recuperator) – a process called regeneration (Fig. 9-38 & Fig. 9-39).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases due to regeneration since less fuel is used
for the same work output.

Note:
The use of a regenerator is recommended only when the turbine exhaust temperature is higher than the
compressor exit temperature.

33
Effectiveness of the Regenerator
Assuming the regenerator is well insulated and changes in kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, the actual and maximum heat transfers from the exhaust
gases to the air can be expressed as

Effectiveness of the regenerator,

Effectiveness under cold-air standard

assumptions,

Thermal efficiency under cold-air

standard assumptions, 36
Factors Affecting Thermal
Efficiency
Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle
with regeneration depends on:
a) ratio of the minimum to
maximum temperatures, and
b) the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at
lower pressure ratios and small
minimum-to-maximum temperature
ratios.

37
Physical arrangement of an ideal two-stage gas-
turbine cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration is shown in Fig. 9-43.

47
Conditions for Best Performance
The work input to a two-stage compressor is minimized when equal pressure
ratios are maintained across each stage. This procedure also maximizes the
turbine work output.
Thus, for best performance we have,

Intercooling and reheating always

decreases thermal efficiency unless
are accompanied by regeneration.
Therefore, in gas turbine power
plants, intercooling and reheating are
always used in conjunction with
regeneration.

48
Closed cycle gas turbine power plant

49
Closed Cycle Model
The open gas-turbine cycle can be
modelled as a closed cycle, using
the air-standard assumptions (Fig.
9–30).
The compression and expansion
processes remain the same, but the
combustion process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat
addition process from an external
source.
The exhaust process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat
rejection process to the ambient
air.

50
CLOSED CYCLE GAS TURBINE-
 It uses high density gas like Argon, krypton, Xenon etc as
working medium. In closed cycle gas turbine plant, the
working fluid (any other suitable gas) coming out from
compressor is heated in a heater by an external source at
constant pressure.
 The high temperature and high-pressure air coming out
from the external heater is passed through the gas turbine.
 The fluid coming out from the turbine is cooled to its
original temperature in the cooler using external cooling
source before passing to the compressor.
 The working fluid is continuously used in the system
without its change of phase and the required heat is given
to the working fluid in the heat exchanger.
Semi closed Gas Turbine
 Advantages of gas turbine power plant
 Storage of fuel requires less area and handling is easy.
 The cost of maintenance is less.
 It is simple in construction. There is no need for boiler,
condenser and other accessories as in the case of steam power
plants.
 Cheaper fuel such as kerosene , paraffin, benzene and
powdered coal can be used which are cheaper than petrol and
diesel.
 Gas turbine plants can be used in water scarcity areas.
 Less pollution and less water is required.

21 September 2019 54
 The combustion system is a reverse-flow type with
14 combustion chambers arranged around the
periphery of the compressor discharge casing.
 The major components consists of :
1. Fuel nozzles
2. Spark plug ignition system
3. Ultraviolet flame detector
4. Combustion wrapper
5. Combustion chamber - comb. liners &
transition piece
6. Crossfire tubes
1. The combustion chamber must be capable of
maintaining stable and efficient combustion over a
wide range of engine operating conditions.
2. High combustion efficiency
3. able to operate efficiently over a wide range of
conditions
4. In performing these functions, the flame tube and
spray nozzle atomizer components must be
mechanically reliable.
5. pressure loss should be minimum.
6. Ease and cheapness of manufacture.
7. Combustion stability (i.e. satisfactory rich and
weak mixture extinction limits)