MQC Lab

DEPARTMENT O MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GCEM
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

LAB (15MEL47B)
IV SEMESTER (MECHANICAL)
LABORATORY MANUAL
ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-17
Mechanical Measurements & IV SEMESTER

Metrology Lab (15MEL47B)
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS & METROLOGY LAB
SUB CODE: 15 MEL 47B IA MARKS: 20

HRS/WEEK: 03 EXAM HRS: 03
EXAM MARKS: 80
PART – A: MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

1. Calibration of Pressure Gauge
2. Calibration of Thermocouple
3. Calibration of LVDT
4. Calibration of Load Cell
5. Determination of modulus of elasticity of a mild steel specimen using strain
gauges.
PART – B: METROLOGY
6. Measurements using Optical Projector/Toolmaker‟s Microscope
7. Measurements of angle using Sine Centre / Sine bar / bevel protractor
8. Measurements of alignment using Autocollimator / roller set
9. Measurements of cutting tool forces using
a. Lathe tool Dynamometer
b. Drill tool Dynamometer
10. Measurements of Screw thread parameters using two wire or three-wire
methods.
11. Measurements of surface roughness using Tally surf / mechanical comparator.
12. Measurements of gear tooth profile using gear tooth Vernier / gear tooth
micrometer.
13. Calibration of micrometer using slip gauges.
14. Measurement using optical flats.
Scheme of Examination:
One question from part – A 25 marks

One question from part – B 40 marks
Viva – Voce 15 marks
Total 80 marks

CONTENTS
S L. PAGE NO.
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
NO FROM TO
PART A:MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

Introduction to Mechanical Measurements 1 3
1. Calibration of Pressure Gauge 4 6
2. Calibration of Thermocouple 7 10
3. Calibration of LVDT 11 14
4. Calibration of Load Cell 15 17
5. Determination of Elastic Constant using Strain Gauge 18 23
PART B:METROLOGY
Introduction to Metrology 24 30
6. Measurements using Optical Profile Projector 31 34
7. Measurements using Toolmaker‟s Microscope 35 38
Measurements of angle using
a. Sine bar
8. 39 45
b. Sine Centre
c. Bevel protractor
9. Measurements of alignment using Autocollimator 46 50
10. Measurements of Screw thread parameters using three-wire method. 51 52
11. Measurements of Screw thread parameters using two-wire method 53 56
12. Measurements of surface roughness using Tally surf 57 59
13. Measurements of gear tooth profile using gear tooth vernier. 60 62
14. Calibration of micrometer using slip gauges. 63 64
15. Measurement using optical flats. 65 66
Measurement Of Cutting Forces Using Lathe Tool/Drill Tool
16. 67 67
Dynamometer

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GCEM
PART – A
MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS LAB
INTRODUCTION
Measurement: Measurement is the act or the result of a quantitative comparison between a

predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude. It is essential that the procedure and apparatus
employed for obtaining the comparison must be provable.
The results of measurements be meaningful and followed by all the standard which is used for
comparison must be accurately known and commonly accepted.
Aims of Measurement:
i. In R & D program, measurements and correct interpretation are greater
importance.
ii. In the process industries and power plants, and production industries, the aim is to
achieve quality of product and have maximum efficiency.
iii. In automation or automatic controls, the measurement is based on comparison of
the actual condition (known by measurement) and the desired performance (Set
value).
Measurement in Design:
There are 3 methods to solve the complex problems in mechanical design.
a. The empirical method – based on previous performance
b. The rational method – is based on accepted scientific theory
c. The experimental method – based on trial and error on existing knowledge.
Classification of methods of measurement:

a. Mechanics type or Self-operated type
- Commonly applied to experimental or developmental programs
Ex: mercury in glass thermometer (Thermal expansion)
b. Power Type
 Used for monitoring of operational measurement in control system.
 Require a source of auxiliary power, such as compressed air, electric power,
hydraulic supply or a mechanical source of power
c. Self-contained or remote indicating type
 Self contained type means, all parts contained in one physical assembly.
 In remote indicating type, the primary element is located hundreds of feet from
the secondary indicating instrument.
Fundamental methods of measurement:
There are two basic methods of measurements
i. Direct method – not accurate, not sensitive
ii. Indirect method – Comparison by a standard
Factors in selection of measuring instruments:

The following factors are very essential for the proper selection of a correct instrument for
any application.
a. How accurate is the measurement to be made
b. When are the final data required?
c. How expensive can the measuring process be?
d. In what form the data should be displayed.
e. Whether quality to be measured has constant value or is it a time variant?
Mechanical Measurements &

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Metrology Lab (15MEL47B) IV Semester
Measurement Systems:
1. Primary sensing device
2. Transducer
3. Intermediate modifying stage
4. Terminating stage i.e. Secondary indicating instrument (recording or information)
Static Measurement:
In deals with the measurement of those quantities which remain constant.
Drift:
No drift means, the instrument reproduces same readings at different times for same variation
in measured variable.
Errors in Measuring Instruments:

i. Assembly Errors – due to displaced scale, non-uniform division of the scale, bent or
distorted pointer.
- Rectified easily
ii. Environmental Errors – due to temperature, humidity, altitude etc.,
- more trouble than assembly errors
iii. Random errors – These vary in an unacceptable, manner and it is difficult to list out all the
source of errors.
Ex: Friction, backlash, Hysteresis, vibration, parallax error etc.,
Sources of Errors:
i. Noise – signal disturbances
ii. Response time (or time constant) is defined as the time taken by the instrument to
show 63.2% change is reading to a step input.
iii. Design limitations
iv. Effects of friction in the instrument movement
v. Resolving power – it is the ability of the observer to distinguish between nearly equal
division.
Sensing Elements:
The sensing elements (sensors) sense the condition, state or value of the process
variable and produce an output which reflects this condition, state or value. Thus sensors
could be considered as transducers.
Transducers:
It transforms the energy of the process variable to an output of some other type of energy.
 Primary sensing elements – also called basic detector, transducer elements. It
converts into analogous form.
 Secondary Transducers (also simply called transducer) – It converts first stage
(analogues) into electrical quantity.
Ex: Pressure is measured by a Bourdon Tube which is primary sensing element. Displaying the
analogous measurement into digital by Secondary transducers.
Secondary transducer may be employed to transform the output of primary sensor to still
another type of energy.

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1. Mechanical members as Primary detectors:

Elastic members are used to change force into displacement.
Ex: Proving Ring, Elastic Torsion member, springs, Bourdon tube, Bellows etc.
2. Mass – sensing elements:

The inertia of a concentrated mass provides another basic mechanical detector – transducer
element, used in accelerometers and serves to measure the characteristics of dynamic motion, i.e.,
displacement, velocity, acceleration etc.,
Ex: Pendulum, manometer
3. Thermal Detectors:
Thermal detectors are the devices used to measure the temperature of solids, liquids and
gases.
The following factors will affect due to temperature change:
 Change in physical state
 Change in chemical state
 Altered physical dimensions
 Change in electrical properties
 Change in radiating ability
The most commonly used thermal detectors are:

i. Glass thermometers
ii. Bimetallic Thermometers
iii. Thermocouples
iv. Resistance thermometers
v. Thermistors
vi. Pyrometers (optical, radiation, fusion)
STRAIN GAUGES:
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer (externally powered) that converts a
mechanical displacement into a change of resistance. A strain gauge is a thin, wafer like device that
can be attached (bonded) to a variety of materials to measure applied strain. Metallic strain gauges
are manufactured from small diameter resistance wires such as Constantan or etched from thin foil
sheets. The resistance of the wire or metal foil changes with length as the material to which the gauge
is attached undergoes tension or compression. This change in resistance is proportional to the applied
strain and is measured with a specially adapted „Wheatstone bridge‟.
Gauge factor is sensitivity of strain gauge.
Gauge configuration:
i. Uniaxial
ii. Biaxial
iii. Multi directional

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Experiment No: 1 Date:
CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE

Aim: To calibrate the given pressure transducer with dead weights.
Apparatus: Dead weights, pressure transducer and digital pressure indicator.
Experimental Setup:
Functional Details of Pressure Transducer:

Power supply to Pressure Transducer = 230 volts AC
Power supply to the Amplifier =  5 volts DC
Resistance of each Strain gauge = 300 ohms
Number of strain gauges used = 4
Maximum range of Pressure Transducer = 10 Kg/cm2
Theory: Pressure is defined as force per unit area and is measured in Newton per square
meter (Pascal) or in terms of an equivalent head of some standard liquid (mm of mercury or
meter of water). A typical pressure gauge will measure the difference in pressure between
two pressures. Thus, if a pressure gauge is connected to an air line the gauge itself stands in
atmospheric pressure. The gauge reading will be the difference between the air pressure and
the atmospheric pressure and is called gauge pressure. The absolute pressure (the actual
pressure within the airline) is the sum of the gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Pressure transducer is basically an electro mechanical device, especially manufactured
and designed for wide range application in pressure measurement. The pressure transducer
comprises of diaphragm and an inputs to facilitate pressure measurement. The strain gauges
are bonded directly to the sensing member to provide excellent linearity, low Hysteresis and
repeatability. Fluid medium whose parameter has to be measured is allowed to deflect the
diaphragm (sensing member), which is a single block material and forms an integral part of
the pressure transducer. It is made up non-magnetic stainless steel and thus has the advantage
of avoids the yielding effects and leakage problems. The slight deflection of the diaphragms
due to the pressure provided an electrical output
The materials most commonly used for manufacture of diaphragms are steel,
phosphor bronze, nickel silver and beryllium copper. The deflection generally follows a

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linear variation with the pressure differential, when the deflection is less than one third of the
diaphragm thickness.
Initial Setup:
1. Air should be released completely from air chamber
2. Pressure indicator should be set to zero.
3. Output of the gate wall should be closed.
Procedure:
1. Couple the pressure transducer to the pressure indicator.
2. Connect the pressure indicator to the main power supply and keep it in the ON position.
3. Switch on the Instrument.
4. Adjust the pressure indicator to read zero on DPM (Digital Panel Meter) using ZERO pot
knob without applying any pressure.
5. Press push button switch, DPM shows range of sensor (ie., 10.0 Kg/cm2)
6. Couple the other end of the pressure transducer to the Pressure chamber.
7. Connect the foot pump input pipe to Pressure Chamber. Close the output of gate wall,
apply the pressure step by step upto 5 kg/cm2 as shown in tabular column below.
8. Pump the air up to unknown pressure (Less than 5 kg/cm2 ) and note down the reading
from digital Indicator.
9. Tabulate the results and plot graphs.
10. Find the actual unknown pressure from the graph.
11. Release the air completely from air chamber.
Pre-Viva Questions:
1. What is atmospheric Pressure?
2. What is gauge Pressure?
3. What is absolute pressure?
4. What is strain gauge?
Observations:
Range of Bourdon Tube pressure gauge =
Selected range of Calibration Pressure Transducer =
Least count of bourdon pressure gauge =
Least count of Pressure Indicator (DPM) =
Actual Reading Measured Reading Error

Sl. No. % Error
„Ra‟ (kg/cm2) „Rm‟ (kg/cm2) „E‟
Specimen Calculations:
1. Ra = Actual Reading (Pressure gauge reading)
2. Rm= Measured Reading (Indicator reading)

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3. „E‟ Error = Rm  Ra
4. % Error = Error
Actual Reading
Model Graphs: X- axis vs. Y- axis
Actual Reading (Ra) vs. Measured Reading (Rm)
Actual Reading (Ra) vs. % Error
Ra Ra
% error Rm
Calculations from Graph:
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:
Post Viva Questions:
1. What is measurement?
2. What is calibration?
3. What is least count?
4. What is one Main Scale Division?
5. What is one Vernier Scale Division?

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CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE
Aim: To calibrate the given thermocouple at different temperatures.
Apparatus: Thermocouple, a heating coil to heat the water in the beaker, a thermometer and
a digital indicator to indicate the temperature of thermocouple.
Experimental Setup:
Theory: The most common electrical method of temperature measurement uses the thermo-
electric sensor, also known as thermocouple. The construction of the thermocouple consists
of two wires of different metals twisted and brazed or welded together with each wire
covered with insulation which may be either:
1. Mineral (Magnesium oxide)) insulation for normal duty, or
2. Ceramic insulation for heavy duty.
The basic principle of temperature measurement using a thermo-electric sensor was

discovered by Seebeck in 1821. When two dissimilar metal wires are joined at both ends,
and an electromotive force (e.m.f) will exist between two junctions, if the two junctions are
at different temperatures. This phenomenon is called Seebeck effect. If the temperature of
one junction is known then the temperature of other junction may be easily calculated using
the thermoelectric properties of the materials. The known temperature is called reference
temperature and is usually the temperature of ice.
Potential (emf) is also obtained if the temperature gradient exists along the metal
wires. This is called Thomson effect and is generally neglected in the temperature measuring
process.
If two materials are connected to an external circuit in such a way that current is
allowed to flow in the circuit, an emf will be produced. This is called Peltier effect. In
temperature measurement, Seebeck effect is of prime concern since it is dependent on
junction temperature.
The law of Intermediate metals defines the basic thermocouple loop consists of two
dissimilar metals A & B. If a third wire C is introduced then three junctions are formed B –
C and C – A and at the same temperature.

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Thermocouple Materials:
 The choice of materials for thermocouples is governed by the
following factors:
 The thermocouple material must be homogeneous.
 Ability to withstand the temperature at which they are used
 Immunity form contamination, oxidation, etc., which ensures
maintenance of the precise thermo-electric properties with
continuous use.
 Linearity Characteristics
It may be noted that the relationship between thermo-electric emf and the difference
between hot and cold junction temperature is approximately of the parabolic form.
Emf = aT + bT2
Thermocouples can be broadly classified in two categories.

1. Base – metal thermocouple
2. Rare – metal thermocouple
Base metal thermocouple use the combination of pure metals and alloys of iron,
copper and nickel and are used for temperature up to 1450 oK. These are most commonly
used in practice as they are more sensitive, cheaper and have nearly linear characteristics.
Their limitation is the lower operating range because of their low melting point.
Rare metal thermocouples use a combination of pure metals and alloys of platinum
for temperature up to 2000 oK and tungsten, rhodium and molybdenum for temperature up to
2900 0K.
Approx. Approx.
Thermocouple Temperature
Thermocouple Materials Sensitivity Accuracy
Type range 0K
in mv/K in %
Base-metal Copper-Constantan (Type-T) 0.05 3 – 673 0.5 %
Base-metal Iron – Constantan (Type-J) 0.05 63-1473 1 %
Base-metal Chromel – Alumel (Type-K) 0.04 3-1643 1 %
Base-metal Chromel–Constantan (Type-E) 0.08 3-1273 1 %
Rare Metal Platinum-platinum/10% rhodium 0.1 223-2033 0.5 %
Rare Metal Platinum-platinum/30% rhodium 0.12 223-2033 0.5 %
Rare Metal platinum/30% rhodium - 0.12 273-2093 0.5 %
platinum/60% rhodium
Platinum-Platinum Rhodium (type R)
Initial Setup:
1. Make sure the sensor is in water before heating the water.
2. Make sure the display reads the room temperature.
3. Make sure there are no loose connections
Procedure:
1. Connect the Temperature Transducer to the front panel of the instrument.
2. Switch ON the power to the instrument.
3. The displays read room temperature as sensed by the sensor.
4. Keep the sensor in water bath and heat the water.
5. Note the temperature of water using the glass thermometer.

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6. Note the temperature of water and induced emf using the Digital Indicator.
7. Raise the temperature of water by switch on the heater and note down the reading for
every 50 C (up to 600 C).
8. Rise the temperature to an unknown value (Below 600 C) and note down the Digital
Indictor reading.
9. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column. Find the actual unknown temperature
from the graph.
10. Switch of the heater and digital indicator.
Pre-Viva Questions:
1. What is Thermocouple?
2. What are the different types of Thermocouple?
3. What are the different materials used in Thermocouples?
Observations:
Materials for the thermocouples wires = Copper & Constantan
Range of Thermometer (Actual) =
Least count of Thermometer (Actual) =
Range of Thermocouple Indicator =
Least count of Thermocouple Indicator =
Actual
Sl. Measured Reading Induced emf in Error
Reading % Error
No. „Rm‟ 0K mV „E‟
„Ra‟ 0 K

4. % Error = Error
Actual Reading

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Graphs: on X- axis & Y- axis

Measured Reading (Rm) vs. emf induced
Ra Ra
% error Rm
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:
Post viva Questions:

1. What is calibration?
2. What do you mean by calibration of Thermocouple?
3. What is the range of Thermocouple?
4. What is the temperature range a thermocouple can withstand?

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CALIBRATION OF LVDT
Aim: To calibrate Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) for the performance
using Micrometer.
Apparatus: An LVDT, Digital indicator, Micrometer.
Experimental Setup:
(())

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Theory: LVDT is an inductive transducer used to translate the linear motion into electrical
signal LVDT consists of a single primary winding „P‟ and two secondary windings (S 1 and
S2) wound on a cylindrical Armature. An AC source is connected to the primary winding. A
movable soft iron core attached with an arm placed inside the Armature.
The primary winding produces an alternating magnetic field which induces alternating
voltage in the secondary windings. Single voltage is obtained by connecting the two
secondary windings in series. Thus, the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of
the two voltages of the secondary windings as shown in the sketch.
When the core is at null position, the flux linking with both the secondary windings is
equal. Since both the secondary windings have equal number of turns, m the induced emf is
same in them. The output voltage is the difference of the two emf‟s say E1 and E2. When
they are equal, the voltage is zero at null position.
When the core is moved to the left side from the null position more flux links with S1.
The output voltage is V=E2 – E1, since E1 is greater, the V value is (-)ve. Means the voltage
is read in terms of mm length on the display board indicates the negative value.
When the core is moved to the right side of the null position, more flux links with S2
induces voltage which is (+) ve. The display board indicates the (+)ve value in mm of length.
The voltage output is linear and is depending on the position of the core. Hence
LVDT can be conveniently used to measure the thickness ranging from fraction of a mm to a
few cm‟s. Normally LVDT can give better result up to 5mm.
Initial setup:
1. Make sure the indicator is set to th initial reading.
2. Make sure the display board (Meter) indicating zero at this null position
Procedure: The experiment can be carried out for both (+) ve and (-) ve sides.
1. Connect a cable from LVDT to a digital indicator. From indicator to power supply.
2. Adjust the Indicator reading to ZERO by adjusting micrometer.
3. Make sure the display board (Meter) indicating zero at this null position.
4. Note the micrometer reading as initial value and displayed reading.
5. Move the micrometer in steps of 0.5 mm (1 rotation) and note the reading of the
Displacement Indicator reading.
6. Tabulate the reading as shown and plot a graph of displacement by micrometer and
indicator.
7. Move the micro meter to an unknown value (with in a range).
8. Find the actual unknown value from the graph.
9. Finally set to null position.
Pre viva questions:

1. What is LVDT?
2. What is the least count of LVDT?

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Observations:
Range of Micrometer =
Least count of Micrometer =
Linearity Range of LVDT =
Least count of LVDT =
Initial reading of Indicator (null position) =
Micrometer reading at null position =
Display for (+) ve side: (Backward Traverse)

Actual Measured
Sl. Error
Reading Reading % Error
No. „E‟
„Ra‟ 0K „Rm‟ 0K
Display for (-) ve side: (Forward traverse)

Actual Measured
Sl. Error
Reading Reading % Error
No. „E‟
„Ra‟ 0K „Rm‟0K
4. % Error = Error
Actual Reading

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Graphs: on X- axis & Y- axis

Actual Reading (Ra) vs. Measured Reading (Rm) [for both +ve and –ve
displacements]
+ve - ve +ve side

Side side
Ra Ra -ve side
% error Rm
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:
Post viva questions:

1. Where is LVDT applicable?
2. What are the different types of Transducers?
3. Define cumulative error and total error
4. What are the categories of S.I units?

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CALIBRATION OF LOAD CELL
Aim: To calibrate the given load cell.
Apparatus: Load cell and digital strain indicator and weights.
Experimental setup:
Theory: In addition to measurement of the surface strains, electrical resistance strain gauges
have important application in devices of measuring load, pressure and deflection. A load cell
used for measuring the load applied to the test structure or for weighing vehicles consists of a
short pillar of high tensile steel to which strain gauge elements are attached as shown in fig1.
By two axial and two circumferential gauges on alternate arms of a Wheatstone bridge
circuit, bending effects are eliminated and temperature compensation is provided. As long as
the stress in the pillar remains within the elastic range, a linear relationship will be obtained
between the load and output from the strain gauge bridge circuit. Load cell of this type can be
constructed to cover a very wide range of loads, as they are compact and relatively
inexpensive.
Initial setup:
1. Adjust the load indicator to zero position.
2. Wait for the equipment to get stabilised before performing the experiment.
Procedure:
1. Switch on the equipment and wait for a minute for it to stabilize.

2. Adjust the load indicator to show ZERO for no load condition.
3. Place a standard weight of 1 kg and note the reading from digital load indicator.
4. Continue increasing the load in steps of 1 kg up to 6 kg and note the corresponding
indicated load.

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5. Put an unknown weight (Less than 6 kg) and note the reading from digital load
indicator.
6. Tabulate the results and plot graphs.
7. Find the actual unknown weight from the graph.
8. Slowly unload the weights from the load cell.
Pre viva questions:

1. What is load cell?
2. Where is load cell applicable?
3. Explain the principle of load cell?
Observations:
Maximum range of Load cell =
Least count of Load cell =
Increment of load =

Sl. No. % Error
„Ra‟ (kg) „Rm‟ (kg) „E‟
1. Ra = Actual Reading
4. % Error = Error
Actual Reading
Graphs: On X- axis & Y- axis

Ra Ra
% error Rm

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Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:

1. What are the applications of load cell?
2. What are the standards used in calibration of load cell?
3. What is linear Measurement?

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ELASTIC CONSTANTS BY BENDING TEST
Aim: To determine the elastic constants (modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity and bulk
modulus) of a cantilever beam subjected to concentrated end load by using strain gauges.
Apparatus: A cantilever beam with concentrated end load arrangement, strain gauges,
weights and digital strain indicator.
Experimental setup:
Functional Details of Strain Indicator:

Maximum strain can be measured up to 20,000 micro strains with a resolution of 1
micro strain.
Power supply to the indicator = 230 Volts AC
Power supply to the amplifier =  8 volts DC
The most common bridge arrangements are one arm, two arms and four-arm mode.
One arm mode (one-fourth bridge): This bridge arrangement consists of a single active gauge
in position R1 and three resistors are internal to the device. Temperature compensation is
possible only if a self-temperature-compensating strain gauge is used.

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Theory:
A body subjected to external forces is in a condition of both stress and strain. Stress
cannot be directly measured but it‟s effect, i.e. change of shape of the body can be measured.
If there is a relationship between stress and strain, the stresses occurring in a body can be
computed if sufficient strain information is available. The constant connecting the stress and
strain with in elastic limit is the modulus of elasticity.
The principle of electrical resistance strain gauge was discovered by lord Kelvin,
when he observed that a stress applied to a metal wire, besides changing it‟s length and
diameter, also changes it‟s electrical resistance.
Metallic electrical resistance strain gauges are made into two basic forms, bonded
wire and bonded foil. Wire gauges are sandwiched between two sheets of thin paper and foil
gauges are sandwiched between two thin sheets of epoxy.
The strain gauge is connected to the material in which it is required to measure the
strain, with a thin coat of adhesive. Most common adhesive used is Eastman, Duco cement
etc. As the test specimen extends or contracts under stress in the direction of windings the
length and cross sectional area of the conductor alter, resulting in a corresponding increase or
decrease in electrical resistance.
The usual method of measuring the change of resistance in a gauge element is by

means of Wheatstone bridge circuit. It consists of galvanometer, four resistors and a battery.
Two arm mode (one half bridge): In this mode, two resistors are internal to the device, and
the remaining two are strain gauges. One arm of this bridge is commonly labelled as active
arm and the other as compensating arm. The bridge is temperature compensated.
Four-arm mode (full bridge): In this bridge arrangement, four active gauges are placed in
the bridge with one gauge in each of the four arms. If the gauges are placed on a beam in
bending as shown in figure of the elastic constant by bending test experiment, the signal from
each of the four gauges will add. This bridge arrangement is temperature compensated.
The strain gauges R1 and R3 measure the tensile stress while the strain gauges R2 and R4
measure the compressive stress. The strains 1, 2, 3 and 4 are measured by the strain
gauges are of equal magnitude.
Applications:
Strain is measured using resistance gauges attached to member under investigation.
Stain resulting from stress (N/mm2) can be measured by attaching strain gauges to suitable
parts of machines or structures. Direct indication of strain produced is provided. Any other
physical quantity can be obtained by calibration with known input. This instrument has a
very wide range of application in the industrial field of construction, machinery, civil
engineering, mining, spinning, ship building, aircraft and so forth.
Uses:
 Teach strain distribution at different points of a material

 Demonstrate stress concentration

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 Measure of elastic constants of a material

 Evaluate Poisson‟s Ratio
 Calibrate strain gauges
 Verify material properties
Formulae:
Consider a cantilever beam as shown in figure.
Let W = Load applied in N.
b = width of the cantilever beam in mm.
h = Thickness of the cantilever beam in mm.
l = Length of cantilever beam in mm.
A = Cross sectional area = bh mm2.
 = Bending strain in microstrain = i / i
i = Number of active gauges .
i = Strain indicator reading in microstrain
I = Moment of Inertia = bh3/12
M = Bending Moment = W x l N-mm
c = h/2 mm
Y = Young‟s modulus or modulus of elasticity
The bending equation is
M 

I c
Mc W lh 6W l
 2 
Bending stress, σ = I b h3 bh2
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Bending strain  = (i x 10 - 6) / i mm/mm

Modulus of elasticity, Y = Stress (σ) N / mm2
Strain ()
Y
Modulus of rigidity, G = 2(1   )
Bulk modulus, K = Y
3(1  2 )
Where  = Poisson‟s Ratio of the given material
Initial setup:
1. Based on the type of bridge select the corresponding bridge arrangement
2. Make zero by using ZERO potentiometer provided in front panel
Procedure:
1. Connect the mains card to 230 Volts mains.
2. Switch ON the Instrument provided power ON switch in the Back Panel of
Instrument.
3. To operate Full Bridge (4-arm bridge) select the range selection switch to 4th range
and connect the 4 arm connection from cantilever beam provide Red, Black and
Yellow.
4. Blue Recorder and short Black and Green Recorder to back panel of Instrument.

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5. Make zero by using ZERO potentiometer provided in front panel.

6. Apply weights to cantilever beam in steps of 100 grams.
7. Note down Indicator Reading vs. applied load.
8. To operate Half Bridge (2-arm Bridge) keep open circuit in Cantilever beam Black
and Green recorder and connect Red, Black and Yellow to back panel of instrument.
9. Range selector switch select 2
10. Make zero by using ZERO potentiometer.
11. Apply load in steps of 100 grams.
12. Note down Readings
13. To operate Single arm bridge (1-arm Bridge) connect Red and Yellow from
cantilever beam to back panel of the instrument provided Red and Yellow.
14. Select selector switch 1.
15. Make zero by using ZERO potentiometer.
16. Apply load to cantilever beam 100 gram.
17. Note down Reading.
18. Calculate Stress and Strains.
19. Draw stress and strain diagram and find the modulus of elasticity from the graph.
Pre viva questions:

1. What is strain gauge?
2. What are the applications of strain Gauge?
Observations and tabulation:

Material of Cantilever Beam = Aluminium
b = width of the cantilever beam in mm = 50 mm
h = Thickness of the cantilever beam in mm = 6 mm
l = Length of cantilever beam in mm. = 275 mm
 = Poisson‟s ratio of Aluminium = 0.330 (for cast)
= 0.348 (for drawn)
Tabular Column for Full Bridge (4-arm Bridge)
(i=4)
Bending stress
Strain
Bending Strain 6WL/bh2
Sl. Load W indicator
 = (i x 10-6) / i
No. (N) reading, i
mm/mm
(Micro strain)
1
2
3
4
5
6

21
Tabular Column for Half Bridge (2-arm Bridge) (i=2)

Strain Bending stress
Bending Strain
Sl. Load W indicator 6WL/bh2
 = (i x 10-6) / i
mm/mm
(Micro strain)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tabular Column for Single arm Bridge (1-arm Bridge)

(i=1)
Strain Bending stress
Bending Strain
Sl. Load W indicator 6WL/bh2
 = (i x 10-6) / i
mm/mm
(Micro strain)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Graph:
Draw the graph of σ vs  (for different Bridges)
By plotting the graph  as base and σ as the ordinate, a straight line is obtained from which
the slope can be found.
From the graph
Modulus of elasticity Y = σ/  = slope of the graph.
Note: The load on the Cantilever beam should not exceed the elastic limit.

22
Calculations from graph:
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion

1. What is the difference between full bridge, half bridge and single arm bridge?
2. What is stress?
3. What is strain?
4. What is bending moment?
5. What are the different types of stresses?
6. What are the different types of strain?

23
PART – B
METROLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Metrology is a science of measurements and the measurement is the language of science.
It is divided depending upon the quantity like metrology of length, metrology of time
etc.,. Also, it is divided depending upon the field of application as Industrial metrology,
Medical metrology etc.,
Metrology is mainly concerned with

1. Establishing the units of measurements, reproducing these units in the form of
standards and ensuring the uniformity of measurement.
2. Developing methods of measurement
3. Analyzing the accuracy of methods of measurement, reaching into the causes of
measuring errors and eliminating these.
4. design, manufacturing and testing of gauges of all kinds
5. measuring instruments and devices
Dynamic Metrology: It is concerned with measuring small variations of continuous nature:

Ex: Temp, pressure
Legal Metrology: It is concerned with units of measurement, methods of measurement and

the measuring instruments, in relation to the statutory technical and legal requirements. It is
directed by National Organization is called National Service of Legal Metrology (NSLM).
Its object is to maintain uniformity of measurement throughout the world.
Function of Legal Metrology are – to ensure conservation of national standards, to
guarantee their accuracy by comparison with international standards, to impart proper
accuracy to the secondary standards of the country by comparison with national standards
and to carryout technical and scientific works.
Deterministic Metrology: This is a new philosophy is which, part measurement is replaced

by process measurement. In deterministic metrology, full advantage is taken of the
deterministic nature of production machines and all of the manufacturing sub-systems are
optimized to maintain deterministic performance within acceptable quality levels.
Passive Metrology: Checking the components by using gauges is Passive metrology.
Active Metrology: Checking the gauges with instruments is Active metrology.
Need of Inspection:
Inspection can be defined as the process of checking the materials, whether they
satisfy design standards. The need of inspection can be summarized as:
 to ensure that the part confirms to the established standard
 to meet the interchange ability of manufacture
 To maintain customer relation by ensuring that no faulty product reaches the
customers.

24
 Helps purchase of good quality raw materials, tools, equipment etc.,

 It gives necessary steps, so as to produce acceptable parts and reduce scrap.
Physical Measurements: It is defined as the act of deriving quantitative information about a

physical object or action by comparison with a reference.
There are 3 important elements of measurement:
i. Measurand – physical quantity or property like length, angle etc., being measure
ii. Comparison (or) Comparator – the means of comparing measured with some
reference to render a judgment
iii. Reference: The physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons
made.
Ex: Surface Table (Measurand), Scale or steel rule (Reference), Comparison by eye
(Comparator)
Measuring System: A measuring system is made of five basic elements (SWIPE). These
are
Standard - S
Work piece - W
Instrument - I
Person - P
Environment - E
Measuring Instruments: These are measuring devices that transform the measured quantity
or a related quantity into an indication or information. It can indicate either directly the value
of the measured quantity or only indicated its equality to a known measure of the same
quantity (equal arm balance, or null detecting galvanometer).
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (DEFINITIONS):
Measuring Range: It is the range of values of the measured quantity. The error does not
exceed the maximum permissible error. It is limited by the maximum capacity (upper limit)
and minimum capacity (minimum limit). It may or may not coincide with the range of scale
indication.
Scale Interval: It is the difference between two successive scale marks in units of the
measured quantity. It is an important parameter that determines the ability of the instrument
to give accurate indication of the value of the measured quantity.
Discrimination: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to react to small changes of the
measured quantity.
Hysteresis: It is the difference between the indications of a measuring instrument when the
same value of the measured quantity is reached by increasing or by decreasing that quantity.
It is due to the presence of dry friction as well as to the properties of elastic elements. It
results in the loading and unloading curves of the instrument being separated by a difference
called the Hysteresis error. Hysteresis results in the pointer not returning completely to zero
when the load is removed. Hysteresis in materials is due to presence of internal stresses. It
reduced by proper heat treatment.
Response Time: It is the time which elapses after a sudden change in the measured quantity
until the instrument gives an indication differing from the true value by an amount less than a

25
given permissible error. It is an exponential curve. It the inertia forces are not negligible, we
get second order response. There are 3 possibilities. Those are Over damped system, under
damped system and critically damped.
Bias: It is the characteristics of a measure or a measuring instrument to give indications of

the value of a measured quantity whose average differs from the true value of that quantity.
Inaccuracy: It is the total error of a measure or measuring instrument under specified

conditions of use and including bias and repeatability errors. This inaccuracy is called the
“Uncertainty of measurement”.
Accuracy Class: Measuring instruments are classified into accuracy classes according to
their metrological properties. There are two methods for classifying instruments into
accuracy classes.
i. Expressed by a class ordinal number that gives an idea but no direct indication of
the accuracy. (Ex: block gauges 0, 1, 2, etc.)
ii. Expressed by a number stating the maximum permissible inaccuracy as % of the
highest indication given by the instrument. (Ex: 0.2 ie., 0.2 for 0 – 100)
Precision: It is the repeatability of the measuring process. It refers to the group of

measurements for the same characteristics taken under identical conditions. If the instrument
is not precise it will give different results for the same dimension when measure again and
again.
Accuracy: It is the agreement of the result of measurement with the true value of the
measured quantity. For good accuracy avoid errors in manufacture and in measuring those
errors during inspection. Highly accurate instrument possesses both great sensitivity and
consistency. But the instrument which is sensitive and consistence need not necessarily be
accurate. Higher the accuracy, higher will be the cost.
According to the thumb rule, the instrument accuracy is more than component
accuracy. In calibration, accuracy of master instrument is more than instrument accuracy
(approximately by 10 times).
Error: Error is the difference between true value and the measured value. It the error is less,
accuracy will be more.
Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to give the same value every time
the measurement of a given quantity is repeated, when the measurement are carried out - by
the same observer, with the same instrument, under the same conditions, without any change
in location, without change in method of measurement. And the measurements are carried out
in short intervals.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to detect small differences in
quantity being measured. It is ratio of the scale spacing to the scale division value. It is also
called amplification factor or gearing ratio. It may by constant (linear scale) or variable (non-
linear scale) along the scale.
High sensitivity instruments may lead to drifts due to thermal or other effects and less
repeatable or less precise.
Readability: Readability refers to the ease with which the reading of a measuring instrument
can read. It is the susceptibility of a measuring device to have its indications converted into

26
meaningful number. Fine and widely spaced graduation lines improve the readability. By
using magnifying devices, the readability improves.
Magnification: Magnification means increasing the magnitude of output signal of

measuring instrument many times to make it more readable. The magnification is possible on
mechanical, pneumatic, optical, electrical principles or combination of these.
Reproducibility: Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern of variation in measurement

i.e., closeness of the agreement between the result of measurement of the same quantity,
when by different observers, by different methods, using different instruments, under
different conditions, locations, times etc.,,
Calibration: The calibration of any measuring system is very important to get meaningful
results. It measures the quantity in terms of standards unit. It is carried out by making
adjustments such that readout device produces zero output for zero measured input. It should
display an output equivalent to the known measured input near the full scale input value.
Accuracy of the instrument depends upon the calibration. Calibration depends upon
the severity of use, environmental conditions and accuracy of measurement required etc.,
Traceability: Concept of establishing a valid calibration of a measuring instrument of

measurement standard by step by step comparing with better standards up to acceptable
specified standards.
Uncertainty: Uncertainty is a parameter to quantify the reliability of mesurand. Uncertainty

of measurement determines the measurement capability of a laboratory.
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY:
The objective of a measurement is to provide the required accuracy at minimum cost.
The objectives of metrology are:
i. To evaluate, newly developed products, to ensure that components designed are
within the process and measuring instrument capabilities available in the plant.
ii. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the
relevant component tolerance.
iii. To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these are
adequate for their respective measurements.
iv. To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available
facilities and to reduce the cost of rejects and rework.
v. Standardization of measuring methods.
vi. Maintenance of the accuracies of measurements
vii. Solution of problems arising on the shop floor
viii. Preparation of designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.
STANDARD:
A standard is defined as something that is setup and established by authority as rule
for measurement of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality etc., any system of
measurement must be related to known standard otherwise the measurement has no meaning.
The role of standards is to support the system which makes uniform measurement throughout
the world and helps to maintain interchangeability in mass production.

27
Sub-Division of Standards:
Primary Standards
IBWM (England),
BIPM (Paris)
Secondary Standards
Tertiary Standards
(National Reference Standards, NPL
(India, UK), NIST (USA), DIB (Germany))
Working Standards
(CMTI, FCRI, ETDC, NABL, RTC, CPRI)
Plants/Lab Reference Standards

(Slip gauges OO, CMM)
Work shops
Plants/Lab Working Standards
(Slip Gauges 2, 1)
Shop floor Standards

(Vernier Caliper, Micrometer, Dial guage etc.,)
Measurement: In industries, various quantities like length, width and other parameters are
expressed in meaningful numbers by comparing them with standards. This result of
quantitative comparison of unknown magnitude with the pre-determined standard is called
measurement.
Gauging: Gauging is the method of checking the dimensions of manufactured parts and it
does not indicate the actual value of the inspected dimension on the work and also used for
determining as to whether the inspected parts are made within the specified limits.
CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS:

In precision measurements various methods of measurements are followed depending
upon the accuracy required and the amount of permissible error.
The different methods are as follows:
1. Direct method of measurement
2. Indirect method of measurement
3. Fundamental method of measurement
4. Substitution method of measurement
5. Comparison method of measurement
6. Transposition method of measurement
7. Differential method of measurement
8. Coincidence method of measurement
9. Null method of measurement
10. Deflection method of measurement.
11. Interpolation method of measurement.
12. Extrapolation method of measurement.

28
13. Complementary method of measurement.

14. Composite method of measurement.
15. Element method of measurement.
16. Contact and Contact less method of measurement.
Classification of Measuring Instruments:

According to the functions, the measuring instruments are classified as:
i. Length Measuring instruments
ii. Angle Measuring instruments
iii. Instruments for checking deviations from geometrical forms
iv. Instruments for determining the quality of surface finish.
According to the accuracy of measurement, the measuring instruments are classified as

follows:
i. Most Accurate Instruments: Ex: Light interference instruments
ii. Second group consists of less accurate instruments such as tool room
microscopes, comparators, optical instruments etc.,
iii. The third group comprises still less accurate instruments. Ex: Dial indicators,
Vernier calipers and rules with vernier scales.
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
Error is the difference between the actual value and the indicated value of the
measured quantity.
Errors may be classified in the following ways:
I. a) Static Errors – result from the physical nature of various components of the
measuring system Ex: Internal imperfections, environmental effects,
calibration effects, reading erros etc.,
b) Dynamic Errors – result by time variations in the measurand like inertia, clamping
friction or other physical constraints in the measuring system.
II. Controllable or systematic or fixed errors:

i. Calibration erros
ii. Ambient conditions
iii. Stylus pressure
iv. Random or accidental errors
III. Illegitimate Errors:

i. Blunders or mistakes
ii. Computational errors
iii. Chaotic errors

29
GENERAL CARE OF EQUIPMENT:

i. As far as possible highly finished surfaces should not be touched by hand because
the natural acids on the skin are likely to corrode the surfaces and also the
temperature of the body may upset the dimensions of precision instruments.
ii. It is better to wash hands thoroughly and coat them with a thin film of pure
petroleum jelly, before handling the instruments
iii. Very precise equipments like slip gauges should be handled by using a piece of
chamois leather or tons made from of strip of Perspex
iv. When the equipment is not in use it should be protected from atmospheric
corrosion. The highly finished surfaces should be wiped to remove finger marks
and then coat them with mixtures of heated petroleum jelly and petrol.
v. For very precise measurements, the work piece and instruments should be allowed
to attain 20oC before use and the handling should be as little as possible.

30
TOOL MAKER‟S MICROSCOPE
Aim: To measure the screw thread parameters of a given specimen using Tool Maker‟s
Microscope.
Apparatus: Tool room microscope, screw thread.
Experimental setup:

31
Theory:
The large Tool Maker‟s Microscope (TMM) essentially consists of the cast base, the
main lighting unit, the upright with carrying arm and the sighting microscope. The rigid cast
base is resting on three foots screws by means of which the equipment can be leveled with
reference to the build-in box level. The base carries the co-ordinate measuring table, consists
of two measuring slides; one each for directions X and Y and a rotary circular table provided
with the glass plate (Fig.1). The slides are running on precision balls in hardened guide ways
warranting reliable travel. Two micrometer screws each of them measuring range of 0 to 25
mm permit the measuring table to be displaced in the directions X and Y. The range of
movements of the carriage can be widened up to 150 mm in the X direction and up to 50mm
in the Y direction with the use of gage blocks.
The rotary table has been provided with 360 degrees graduation and with a three
minute vernier. The rotary motion is initiated by activation of knurled knob and locked with
star handle screw. Slots in the rotary table serve for fastening different accessories and
completing elements.
The sighting microscope has been fastened with a carrier arm to column. The carrier
arm can be adjusted in height by means of a rack and locked with star handle screw. Thread
measuring according to the shadow image permits the column to be tilted in X direction to
either side about an axis on centre plane level. The corresponding swivel can be adjusted with
a knurled knob with a graduation cellar. The main lighting unit has been arranged in the rear
of the cast base and equipped with projection lamp where rays are directed via stationary
mounted mirror through table glass plate into the sighting microscope.
Measuring principle
The work piece to be checked is arranged in the path of the rays of the lighting
equipment. It produces a shadow image, which is viewed with the microscope eyepiece
having either a suitable mark for aiming at the next points of the objects or in case of often
occurring profiles. e.g. Threads or rounding – standard line pattern for comparison with the
shadow image of the text object is projected to a ground glass screen. The text object is
shifted or turned on the measuring in addition to the comparison of shapes.
The addition to this method (shadow image method), measuring operations are also
possible by use of the axial reaction method, which can be recommended especially for
thread measuring. This involves approached measuring knife edges and measurement in axial
section of thread according to definition. This method permits higher precision than shadow
image method for special measuring operations.
Applications
The large tool maker‟s microscope is suitable for the following fields of applications;
Length measurement in Cartesian and polar co-ordinates.
Angle measurements of tools; threading tool punches and gauges, templates etc.
Thread measurements i.e., profile major and minor diameters, height of lead, thread angle,
profile position with respect to the thread axis and the shape of thread. (rounding, flattering,
straightness of flanks)

32
Angle Measurement
Procedure:
1. Calculate the Least counts of thimble scale and vernier scale of micrometer and Least
count of angular scale.
2. Keep the given specimen on the table.
3. Adjust the horizontal line of the eyepiece so that it touches the tip of the image
formed. Note this as the initial reading for major diameter (R1).
4. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the root of the screw and tabulate the reading
(R2).
5. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the root on the other side of the screw and
tabulate the reading (R3).
6. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the tip of the image on the other side and note
down the reading (R4).
7. Make one vertical line coincide through the center of any crest or root. Note Reading
(R5).
8. Move the specimen such that the vertical wire passes through the center of the next
crest or root (R6). This gives the final value of pitch.
9. Using the cross wires adjusting it along the flank center of the root find out angle of
the screw. (R7 and R8)
Pre viva questions:

1. What is least count?
2. What is the least count of microscope?
3. Different types of microscopes?
Observations and Tabulations:
Least count of micrometer as follows:
Pitch = No. of divisions moved on the main scale =

No. of rotations given to thimble
Least count of thimble scale = Pitch =

No. of divisions on the thimble
Least count of vernier Scale = T.S.D =

Number of Vernier divisions
Total Reading of micrometer = MSR + (TSR x LC of thimble scale) + (VC x LC of vernier

scale)
Least count of Angular scale = 1MSD
Number of division of vernier

33
Tabular Column:
Engraved line
MSR TSR VSR Total Reading
Position
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
1. Major diameter = R1~R4
2. Root diameter = R2~R3
3. Depth of the thread = R1~R2 or R3~R4
4. Pitch of the thread = R5~R6
5. Angle of the thread = R7~R8
Results:
Verification:
Conclusions:

1. What is major diameter?
2. What is minor diameter?
3. What is precision?
4. What is accuracy?
5. What is effective diameter?

34
OPTICAL PROFILE PROJECTOR
Aim: a. To measure the screw thread parameters of a given specimen using

Optical Profile projector.
b. To determine the diameter of the holes drilled in a plate and to measure
the center distance between them
Apparatus: Profile projector, screw, specimen with drilled holes etc.
Theory: Optical profile projector is a measuring instrument which projects an enlarged

shadow of the part being measured on a screen, where it is compared to a master drawing.
By these devices, complicated shaped parts can be easily checked. In any projection system,
there are four essential elements viz., source of light, collimating lens, projection lens and
screen. The purpose of collimating lens is to render the beam of light from point source to
the parallel. The projection lens form a real image on the screen of an object placed between
it and collimator. The screen is generally translucent so that the image can be viewed from
the opposite side.
The function of the roof prism is to direct the beam of light horizontally towards the
back of the projector to assist in the projection of the image. There are three types of
projectors. Those are Horizontal projector, vertical projector, cabinet projector
Advantages of Optical projector:

 Compares all the elements of the thread with an accurate gauge
 Checking of dimensions from parts and lines.
 Locating centres of holes, the intersections of two straight lines.
 Checking of profiles which can‟t be projected.
 Locate the radius centre of a fillet.
Precautions:
1. Do not disturb the original setting of the mirror.
2. Never touch the surface of the mirror with bare hands
Procedure (to measure screw thread parameters):

1. Calculate the Least counts of thimble scale and vernier scale of micrometer and Least
count of angular scale.
2. Keep the given specimen on the table.
3. Adjust the horizontal line of the eyepiece so that it touches the tip of the image
formed. Note this as the initial reading for major diameter (R1).
4. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the root of the screw and tabulate the reading
(R2).
5. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the root on the other side of the screw and
tabulate the reading (R3).
6. Move the horizontal wire till it touches the tip of the image on the other side and note
down the reading (R4).
7. Make one vertical line coincide through the center of any crest or root. Note Reading
(R5).

35
8. Move the specimen such that the vertical wire passes through the center of the next
crest or root (R6). This gives the final value of pitch.
9. Using the cross wires adjusting it along the flank center of the root find out angle of
the screw. (R7 and R8)
Observations and Tabulations:
Least count of micrometer as follows:
Pitch = No. of divisions moved on the main scale =

Least count of thimble scale = Pitch =

Least count of vernier Scale = T.S.D =

Number of Vernier divisions
Total Reading of micrometer = MSR + (TSR x LC of thimble scale) + (VC x LC of

vernier scale)
Least count of Angular scale = 1MSD

Number of division of vernier
Tabular Column:
Engraved line
Position
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
Specimen calculations:
1. Major diameter = R1~R4
2. Root diameter = R2~R3
3. Depth of the thread = R1~R2 or R3~R4
4. Pitch of the thread = R5~R6
5. Angle of the thread = R7~R8

36
Procedure: (To determine the centre distance between two holes.)

1. Go through the operations and inspection manual of profile projector.
2. Remove the projector lens cap.
3. Switch on the mains and the lens cap.
4. Keep the object on the stage fitted with two micrometers and with the help of the focusing
system see that the profile is properly focused on the screen.
5. Move the two micrometers in X and Y direction (after initial setting) to measure the
center distance between the two holes chosen.
6. By adjusting the circular scale determine the included angle of the notch.
7. For finding the radius of the specimen, find the value of r and d using X-Y micrometers.
Precautions:
1. Do not disturb the original setting of the mirror.
2. Never touch the surface of the mirror with bare hands.
R1 R2 R3 R4
Pre viva Questions:

1. What is one main scale division?
2. What is one vernier scale division?
3. What is the least count?
Observations &Tabular Column:

Engraved line
Position
R1
R2
R3
R4
Sample Calculations:
1. Diameter of the first hole = D1 = R1 ~ R2.
2. Diameter of the second hole = D2 = R3 ~ R4.
3. Distance X = R3 ~ R2
4. Centre distance between the two holes = D1/2 + D2/2 + X =
Result:

37
Verification:
Conclusion:
1. What is the thread and explain different types of threads?
2. What is addendum?
3. What is dedendum?

38

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
Aim: To determine the angle of the given specimen using sine bar/sine center/bevel
protractor.
Apparatus: Specimen, sine bar/sine centre/bevel protractor.
Theory:
The angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet at a point. The
basic unit in angular measurement is the right angle (900), which is defined as the angle
between two lines which interest so as to make the adjacent angle equals (four equal parts).
10 = 60‟ (60 equal parts), 1‟=60” (60 equal parts).
Before 1,000 BC, the degree, minutes and seconds referred as „Sexagecimal System‟.
The difference between angular and linear division, is that in angular division no
reference is necessary to an arbitrary standard (Like wave length of light in linear division) to
establish angular units and that the calibration of angular subdivision is a self-checking
process.
Alternative method for angular units is radian. This is the relationship between the
radius and arc of a circle. Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center by an arc of
a circle of length equal to its radius.
2 radians = 360 degrees
The degrees system is used for engineering purposes; the radian system is used for
mathematical investigations.
Linear units, such as 1 in 30 or mm/m are often used for specifying tapers.
Angular measurement may be broadly be classified as follows:

1. Measurement of angular features on components or gauges.
2. Measurement of the angular rotation of a divided circle.
Angle Standards:
1. End standard takes the form of either angle gauges or polygon.
2. Line standards takes the form of uniformly defined circles with the lines engraved at
regular intervals of say one degree.
Instruments for Angular Measurements:

The selection of an instrument depends upon the component and the accuracy of
measurement required.
1. Bevel protractors (Vernier, optical, universal) (Accuracy : 2 ½ min, 2 min)
2. Sine Bar (Seconds) and Sine center
3. Angle gauges (3 seconds)
4. Clinometers
5. Angle dekkor
6. Autocollimator

39
a. Angle Measurement Using Sine – Bar
Aim: To find out the unknown angle of the given specimen-using sine – bar and slip gauges.
Apparatus: A surface plate, Sine Bar, Slip gauges, Specimen. Dial gauge.
Experimental Setup:
Theory: Sine bar is common and most precise way of getting the angle or finding the angle.
The angle is found out by knowing the ratio of the length of two sides of a right angle. The
angle to be measured or determined by indirect method as a function of sine, for this reason,
the device is called a „Sine bar‟. Angles are measured accurately by sine bars with the help
of other auxiliary instruments such as slip gauges, indicating devices etc.
The sine bar consists of a steel bar and two rollers. It is made from high carbon, high
chromium corrosion resistant steel, suitably hardened, precision ground and stabilized.
Rollers or cylinders are of accurate and equal diameters.
The sine principle uses the ratio of the length of two sides of a right triangle in
deriving a given angle. It may be noted that devices operating on sine principle are capable
of “self generation.” The measurement is usually limited to 450 from loss of accuracy point
of view.
Precautions in use of Sine bars:
1. Sine bar not used for angle greater than 450 (impractical) fairly reliable for
angles less than 150.
2. Longer sine bars should be used, since many errors are used by using longer
sine bar.
Formula:
h
sin 
l
h
  sin 1  
l
l = 150
Procedure:
1. Fix up the work specimen on the sine bar for which the angle is to be measured.
2. One of the cylinders or rollers of sine bar is placed on the surface plate and other roller is
placed on the slip gauges of height „h‟.

40
3. The height „h‟ is to be adjusted by introducing the slip gauges in such a way that the dial
gauges show zero reading on both the ends. Now the top surface of the work is parallel to
the surface plate.
4. This height „h‟ is obtained by trial and error method. After obtaining zero deflection on
both ends, note down the slip gauge height „h‟.
5. Find out the angle using the formula,
Sin θ = h / l
Note: First calculate the approximate angle (θ1) of the given specimen using bevel protractor,
then calculate the approximate height of slip gauges for the length of sine bar (h1).
Pre viva questions:
1. What is the difference between slip gauge and pitch gauge
2. Explain how you measure minor and effective diameter
1. l = Length of the sine bar = Distance between two centers of cylinders.

=
2. h = Height of the slip gauge. =
3. The angle „‟ of the given specimen,
h
sin  
l
h
  sin 1   
l
Results:
Verification:
Conclusion:

1. Which is instrument used to find the effective diameter very accurately
2. Name the instrument used to find the screw thread parameters
3. What is error?
4. Mention the two important requirements of measurements
5. Why we use Sine bars to find angles?
6. What are the sources of errors in sine bars?

41
b. Angle Measurement Using Sine Centre

Aim: To find out the unknown angle of the given specimen-using sine centre and slip gauges.
Apparatus: A surface plate, Sine centre, Slip gauges, Specimen. Dial gauge.
Experimental setup for Sine center:
Theory: Due to difficulty of mounting conical work easily on a conventional sine bar,
sine centres are used. Two blocks as shown in figure are mounted on the top of sine bar.
These blocks accommodate centres and can be clamped at any position on the sine bar. The
centres can also be adjusted depending on the length of the conical work-piece, to be held
between centres. Sine centres are extremely useful for the testing of conical work, since the
centres ensure correct alignment of the work-piece.
Procedure:
The procedure for its setting is the same as that for sine bar.
Formula:  h
sin 
2 l
h
  2 sin 1  
l
Note: First calculate the approximate angle (θ1) of the given specimen using bevel protractor,
then calculate the approximate height of slip gauges for the length of sine bar (h1).
1. l = Length of the sine bar = Distance between two centres of cylinders.
=
2. h = Height of the slip gauge=
3. The angle „‟ of the given specimen =
Results:
Verification:
Conclusion:

42

1. What is the major difference between Sine bar, Bevel protractor & Clinometers?
2. Explain the use of Sine Center?
3. Define: i) Major Dia ii) Effective Dia iii) Pitch iv) Angle of Thread.
4. Explain the three uses of sine bars
5. What are the major errors in screw thread?
6. Types of screw thread?
7. What are the types of pitch errors found in screws?

43
c. Angle Measurement Using Universal Bevel Protractor:
Aim: To find the angle of the given specimen using Universal Bevel Protractor.
Apparatus: Surface plate, Bevel protractor, and specimen whose angle is to be measured.
Theory: The bevel protractor is simplest instrument for measuring the angles between two
faces of a component. It consists of important parts such as stock, blade, body, vernier, scale
etc., Back of the instrument is flat and there are no projections beyond its back. The blade
has 150mm to 300mm long, 13mm wide and 2mm thick. Its ends are beveled at angles of 450
and 600. These are hardened and tempered to reduce wear.
It is used for measuring and lying out of angles accurately and precisely within 5
minutes. The protractor dial is slotted to hold a blade, which can be rotated with the dial to
the required angle and also independently adjusted to any desired length. The blade can be
locked in any position. It is capable of measuring any angle from 00 to 3600. This is widely
used in workshops for angular measurement. The acute angle attachment enables very small
angles to be measured.
Procedure:
1. The blade is clamped to the body of the bevel protractor.
2. Base plate is held against one of the plane surface which forms an angle.
3. The adjustable plate is survived with respect to the base plate and the angular
position is adjusted and locked.

44
4. The angle between the two surfaces is determined by referring the position of
the pointer.
5. Also the sides of the given components are measured suing vernier calipers.
Calculation of Least count of Bevel Protractor:
The main scale is graduated in degrees of arc, which are grouped into four 900
quadrants. The degrees are numbered to read either way: from zero to 90, then back to zero
which is opposite the zero you started at.
The vernier scale is divided into 24 spaces, 12 on each side of zero, numbered 60-0-
60. 12 division occupy the space of 23 degrees on the main scale.
Therefore, each division of the vernier =1/12 or 230 or 11
1
23
Since two divisions on the main scale equals 2 degrees of arc, the difference
0
between two divisions on the main scale equals 2 of arc, the difference between two
divisions on the main scale and on division on the vernier scale is
11 1
2  1  or 5 min utes of arc
12 12
The reading of bevel protractor equals

a) The largest „whole‟ degree on the main scale indicated by the vernier zero division, plus
b) The reading on the vernier scale in line with a main scale division.
Tabular Column:
Angle measurement at each

SL. NO Component shape Result
corner
Results:
1. Angle using Sine Bar =
2. Angle using Sine center =
3. Angle using Universal Bevel Protractor =
Verification:
Conclusions:
Post Vive Questions:

1. Write down the applications of bevel protractor
2. What is the major difference between Sine bar, Bevel protractor & Clinometers?
3. Explain the principle of Wheatstone bridge

45
AUTOCOLLIMATOR
Aim: a). To measure the level difference between two points on a surface of the
given surface plate.
b). To find the straightness of the surface of the given surface plate.
Apparatus: Autocollimator, Surface plate, Mirror, straight edge
Experimental Setup:

46
Functional Details of Autocollimator
Type of Measurement Axis : Dual Axis

Accuracy of Autocollimator : 1 second
Power source : 230 Volts AC
Range of Measurement : 10 min
Reflector Size (Mirror)(base x Width) : 100 mm x 75 mm
Reflector Flatness Accuracy : 0.08 microns
Yellow Filter
Focal length : 430 mm
Eye piece : 10 X WF
Readout Means : Micrometer
No. of Division on Micrometer Drum : 120
Theory:
It is an optical instrument used for the measurement of small angular differences
(level differences), accurately. It is essentially an infinity telescope and a collimator
combined into one instrument. The general principle on which this instrument works is
shown in the following figure.
In an autocollimator there are three parts viz. micrometer microscope, lighting unit
and collimating lens. A line diagram of a modern auto-collimator (injected graticule auto-
collimator) is shown in the following figure.
Applications of autocollimator:
 The measurement of straightness and flatness of surfaces.
 Precise angular indexing in conjunction with polygons
 Comparative measurement using master angles
 Assessment of squarenss and parallelism of components
 The measurement of small linear dimensions, and
 For machine tool adjustment setting etc.,
Pre viva questions:

1. Differentiate between Progressive error and Periodic error
2. Define briefly about interchangeability and its types.
Procedure:
1. Place the autocollimator with the stand on a surface plate to be inspected.
2. Place the reflector along the axis of the autocollimator
3. Connect the autocollimator illumination leads to the power supply. Switch on and
turn the brightness to the maximum.
4. Adjust the stand, so that the autocollimator appears to be pointing straight at the flat
reflective surface.
5. View through the Eyepiece and try to locate the cross line image of the target
Graticule.

47
6. Check that the returned cross line image is in the field of the view.
7. Observe through eyepiece and adjust the micrometer so that the eyepiece Graticule
horizontal line made to coincide with the horizontal line of image of the target
Graticule.
8. Note the readings on the micrometer drum. This reading is the reference for all
subsequent observations (Position A).
9. Move the reflector to position B say by 100 mm away along the same axis from the
earlier position A.
10. Observe through the eyepiece. If the surface plate flatness is good you will see the
two horizontal lines coincide. If there is a level difference between the position A &
B then you will observer a gap between the two horizontal lines.
11. By means of the micrometer move the horizontal line to coincide again.
12. Note the micrometer readings of position B
13. The difference in reading for Position A & B refers to the angular tilt at Position B.
14. Repeat the above observation for various positions along a straight line.
a. Level difference between two points:
Aim: To find level different between two points with specified length on the given surface
Plate.
Apparatus: Autocollimator, Surface Plate, Reflector Mount
Procedure:
Procedure for the measurement of level difference between two points is same as
above. (Tabulate the readings by using Y-axis micrometer).
Observations and Tabular Column:
Least count of the Autocollimator =

Deviation for the length, L =
Least count of the Main Scale =
Least count of the Vernier Scale (X-axis) =
Least count of the Vernier Scale (Y-axis) =
Initial Reading Final Reading Linear Deviation,

Deviation , =
Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total X= L X tan
Final - Initial
Scale Scale Reading Scale Scale Reading in mm

48
Initial Reading =
Final Reading =
Deviation,  = Final Reading – Initial Reading
Tan  = X/L
Linear Deviation, X = L x Tan 
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:
b. To find the straightness of a surface of the given Surface Plate:

Aim: To find the straightness of the given surface Plate.
Apparatus: Autocollimator, Surface Plate, Reflector Mount
Procedure:
Procedure for the measurement of straightness of the given surface plate is same as above.
(Tabulate the readings by using Y-axis micrometer).
Take readings for every 100 mm base length.
Draw the Graph
Observations and Tabular Column:

Least count of the Autocollimator =
Deviation for the length, L =
Least count of the Main Scale =
Least count of the Vernier Scale (X-axis) =
Least count of the Vernier Scale (Y-axis) =
Alignment over Initial Reading Final Reading

Sl.
given sample Main Vernier Total Main Vernier Total
No.
length, L Scale Scale Reading Scale Scale Reading
100 mm
200 mm
300 mm
400 mm
500 mm
600 mm
700 mm

49
Linear Deviation, X
Deviation , =
= L X tan
Final - Initial
in mm
Initial Reading =
Final Reading =
Deviation,  = Final Reading – Initial Reading
Tan  = X/L
Linear Deviation, X = L x Tan 
Graph:
Draw graph between Length of Base (X-axis) to the Linear Deviation (Y-axis) and
find the mean straightness error.
Results:
Verification:
Conclusion:

1. What are the applications of Autocollimator?
2. What is Comparator?

50
MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF SCREW THREAD

USING THREE WIRE METHOD
Aim: To find the effective diameter of a given screw thread by three wire method.
Apparatus: Three wires of same diameter, flanged micrometer, thread specimen.
Theory: This method of measuring the effective diameter is an accurate method. In this
three wires or rods of known diameter are used: one on one side and two on the other side.
This method ensures the alignment of micrometer anvil faces parallel to the thread axis.
Best size wire: Best size wire has a diameter which makes contact with the flanks of the
thread on pitch line, since effective diameter wire which makes contact on the true flank of
the thread.
Procedure:
1. Find out the pitch of the given thread specimen.
2. Select the suitable wire. The diameter of the wire depends upon the pitch.
(Refer table – 1 3 – wire unit gauges 313 series)
3. Note down the diameter of the wire.
4. Keep one wire on one side and the other two wires on the opposite side of the flange
between the two flanks of micrometer as shown in the sketch.
5. Find out the dimension over the wires.
6. Find out the dimension under the wires using the formula.
7. Find the effective diameter of the wire using the formula.
1. d = diameter of the wire
r = radius of the wire.
p = pitch of the thread.
M = Measurement over the wire.

51
E = Effective diameter
D = Outside diameter of the thread specimen.
2.     p  mm
E  M  d 1  cos ec     cot
 2  2 2
Where  = Thread angle.

In case of Whit Worth thread
 = 550
In case of Metric thread
 = 600
Diameter of best size wire is given by

p
d 
 
2 cos  
 2
Result:
Effective diameter of the given thread =
Verification:
Conclusions:

52

MEASUREMENT OF EFFECTIVE DIAMETER OF SCREW THREAD USING
TWO WIRE METHOD

53

54

55
Verification :

1. What is interferometry & how you get interference bands
2. Define hole basis and shaft basis.
3. What is roughness and define Ra, Rz values?
4. What is plug gauge and thread gauge?
5. What is a cosine error?
6. Types of fits.
7. Type of comparators.
8. What is the thread and explain different types of threads?

56
Experiment No. 12 Date:

MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS

57

58
Result:
Verification:
Conclusion:

1. What do you mean by surface roughness?
2. What are the instruments used for measuring surface roughness?
3. What are the different operations where you can find out surface
roughness?

59
GEAR TOOTH VERNIER CALIPER

Aim: a. To Measure the tooth thickness of the given gear using Gear Tooth Vernier
Caliper.
Apparatus: A gear tooth vernier caliper, gear specimen.
Experimental setup:
Theory: The gear tooth vernier caliper can be conveniently used to measure the tooth
thickness at a specified position on the teeth. The tooth thickness is measured at the pitch
circle and is therefore referred to as the pitch line thickness of the tooth. This caliper has two
vernier scales and they are set for width („w‟) of the tooth and depth („d‟) from the top at
which („w‟) is measured.
Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper
Procedure: (To measure the gear tooth thickness)
1. Find out the least count of the caliper.

2. Calculate the diametral pitch, pitch circle diameter and module.
3. Find out the theoretical thickness „Wt‟ and Chordal depth (h).
4. Set the vernier depth gauge (y-axis) of the vernier gear tooth caliper for the dimension of
chorda depth (h).
5. Measure the gear tooth thickness (Wm) using the gear tooth vernier caliper.
6. Repeat the procedure for different teeth (at least for three teeth) and note down the
reading.
7. Compare the actual measurement with calculated readings and find out the errors.
Formulas:
d 1
Module, m = 
N dp

60
Where d = Pitch Circle Diameter (pcd)
N = Number of teeth on given gear
dp = Diametral Pitch
Diametral Pitch, dp =
N

N  2
d D
Where D = Outside Diameter of Gear
 90 
Theoretical Thickness, Wt = N m sin  
N
Nm 2  90 
Chordal Height or depth, h =  1   cos  
2  N  N 
% Error = (Wt – Wm)/Wt x 100
Observations:
Least count of gear tooth vernier caliper
X – axis =
Y – axis =
Number of teeth on the given gear , N =
Outside Diameter of the Gear, D =
(Take minimum three trials)
Tabular Column:
Sl. No. Measured Thickness “Wm”
Average =
Results:
Tooth thickness
Theoretical Thickness of the given gear =
Measured Thickness of the given gear =
% Error =
Verification:
Conclusions:

61
1. Define GO and NO GO gauges.
2. Name the types of gauges.
3. How will you measure the major diameter & minor diameter of internal thread?
4. What are the major errors in screw thread?
5. What are the major errors in gear tooth?

62

CALIBRATION OF MICROMETER
Aim: To calibrate the given micrometer and to draw the calibration curve.
Apparatus: micrometer, slip gauges
Experimental setup:
Theory: The micrometer screw is fitted with a threaded spindle as the movable part for
measuring length. The micrometer collar is generally marked with a scale containing 50
intervals. The pitch is 0.5 mm with one rotation of the collar. Therefore the measuring pin
advances by 0.5 mm. One interval of the collar scale therefore equals 0.5 mm. 50 = 0.01 mm.
Whole millimeters and half millimeters are read off the main scale.
Procedure:
1. Find out the least count of the micrometer.
2. Select slip gauges of different sizes, which are to be measured.
3. Find out the thickness of each slip gauge and note down the reading.
4. Calculate the error.
5. Calculate the % error.
6. Plot the graph of error vs actual reading.
1. Pitch = No. of divisions moved on the main scale
L.C. = Pitch
Reading = (Main scale reading) + (Coinciding vernier x L.C.)

2. Error, E = Rm – Ra

63
Where RM=Measured Reading

RA=Actual Reading
3. % Error = (Error/Actual reading) x 100
= (E/Ra) x 100.
Tabular Column :

Sl.No. % of Error
(RA) (RM) RM-RA
Results:
Verification:
Conclusions:
1. What is slip gauge?

2. Explain the different grades of slip gauges.
3. What is meant by wringing process?

64

FLATNESS TEST
Aim: To test the flatness of the given specimen using optical flats.
Apparatus: Monochromatic light source, optical flats, and specimen.
Theory: Optical flats are cylindrical in form with the working surfaces flat. There are type A
and type B flats. The type A has only one surface flat and type B has both the surfaces flat
and parallel to each other.
Testing procedure:
1. Ensure that the flat and work piece is clean and free from dirt and even from finge prints.
2. Select type A flats, which are normally used for testing the flatness of slip gauges,
measuring tables. The type B flats are used for testing measuring anvils, measuring
surfaces of micrometers and measuring devices for testing flatness and parallelism.
3. Keep the specimen on the flat table under the monochromatic light source.
4. Keep the optical flat on the specimen. Thus in case of a perfectly flat surface, an alternate
light and dark straight lines on the surface can be observed as shown in the sketch.
5. Any deviation from this pattern will be a measure of the error in the flatness of the
surface being inspected.
Checking the Flatness of Rectangular Pieces (Gauges):

Source of light = Monochromatic light source
Wavelength of light = „λ‟ = 23.2 millionths of an inch.
Pitch = Distance between any two fringes (dark and bright)
= λ/2 = 11.6 millionths of an inch.
λ/2 = 0.0002794 mm or 0.0000116‫״‬
Straight, parallel and equally spaced bands show that, surface is perfectly flat within one
millionth of an inch.
Reflected tangent line intersects one full band or 0.0002794 mm (or 0.0000116‫)״‬.
Result:

65
Verification:
Conclusion:

1. What do you mean by flatness?
2. What are optical flats?
3. What is the material with which optical flats are made?

66
Experiment No:16 Date:
Measurement of Cutting Forces Using Lathe Tool/Drill Tool Dynamometer

Aim: To determine the various cutting forces and power required in turning.
Apparatus: Lathe, Specimen, Tool, Dynamometer, etc.
Procedure:
1. Fix the work piece between the canters of the lathe and cutting tool along with the
dynamometer in place of the tool post.
2. Select the cutting parameters speed, feed and depth of cut.
3. Make the necessary electrical connections and switch on the lathe.
4. Measure the various cutting forces, i.e. feed force – Fx, thrust force – Fy and the main
cutting force Fz using dynamometer for various cutting conditions.
5. Determine the cutting speed V in m/s by knowing the diameter of the work-piece and
then find the power required.
Tabulation:
Sl. Speed Feed Thrust Main Cuttin Power

Feed f, Depth of
No N, force Fx, Force Fy, cutting g speed in
mm/rev cut, mm
. rpm N N force Fz, N V, m/s Watts
Calculations:
Cutting speed V = dN/60000 m/s, where d is the diameter of the work piece in mm.
Power required = Fx * V Watts.
Results:
Verification:
Conclusions:

1. Explain bilateral tolerance.
2. Explain unilateral tolerance
3. What is dynamometer?
4. Types of dynamometers?

67

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DEPARTMENT O MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GCEM

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-17

Mechanical Measurements & IV SEMESTER

SUB CODE: 15 MEL 47B IA MARKS: 20

PART – A: MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

One question from part – A 25 marks

Mechanical Measurements & IV SEMESTER

PART A:MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS

Mechanical Measurements & IV SEMESTER

Measurement: Measurement is the act or the result of a quantitative comparison between a

Classification of methods of measurement:

Factors in selection of measuring instruments:

Mechanical Measurements &

Errors in Measuring Instruments:

Mechanical Measurements &

1. Mechanical members as Primary detectors:

2. Mass – sensing elements:

The most commonly used thermal detectors are:

Gauge factor is sensitivity of strain gauge.

Mechanical Measurements &

Experiment No: 1 Date:

CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE

Apparatus: Dead weights, pressure transducer and digital pressure indicator.

Functional Details of Pressure Transducer:

Mechanical Measurements &

Actual Reading Measured Reading Error

Mechanical Measurements &

Calculations from Graph:

Post Viva Questions:

3. What is least count?

4. What is one Main Scale Division?

5. What is one Vernier Scale Division?

Mechanical Measurements &

Experiment No: 2 Date:

The basic principle of temperature measurement using a thermo-electric sensor was

Mechanical Measurements &

Thermocouples can be broadly classified in two categories.

Mechanical Measurements &

1. Ra = Actual Reading (Pressure gauge reading)

Mechanical Measurements &

Graphs: on X- axis & Y- axis

Calculations from Graph:

Post viva Questions:

Mechanical Measurements &

Experiment No: 3 Date:

Apparatus: An LVDT, Digital indicator, Micrometer.

Mechanical Measurements &

Pre viva questions:

Mechanical Measurements &

Display for (+) ve side: (Backward Traverse)

Display for (-) ve side: (Forward traverse)

Mechanical Measurements &

Graphs: on X- axis & Y- axis

Actual Reading (Ra) vs. % Error

+ve - ve +ve side

Calculations from Graph: