General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements 

Minerals​ ​which are naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust obtainable by mining. 
only a few are viable to be used as sources of that metal. Such minerals are known as ​ores. 
 
The extraction and isolation of metals from ores involve the following major steps: 
• Concentration of the ore, 
• Isolation of the metal from its concentrated ore,  
• Purification of the metal. 
Process used for isolation of the metal from its ores is known as​ ​metallurgy​. 
Ores: haematite- Fe​2O ​ ​3​ Bauxite – Al​2O ​ ​3​ .xH​2​O Cuprite pyrites- CuFeS​2​ zincite - ZnO 
#C​ oncentration of Ores 
 
Removal of the unwanted materials (e.g., sand, clays, etc.) from the ore is known as concentration, dressing or 
benefaction 
(a) ​Hydraulic washing :​This is based on the differences in gravities of the ore and the gangue particles. 
 
(b) ​ Magnetic Separation:​ T​ his is based on differences in magnetic properties of the ore components. If either 
the oreor the gangue (one of these two) is capable of being attracted by a magnetic field, then such separations 
are carried out. 
(c)​ Froth Floatation Method 
 
This method has been in use for removing gangue from sulphide ores. 
In this process, a suspension of the powdered ore is made with water.  
To it, collectors and froth stabilisers are added. Collectors (e. g., pine oils,  
fatty acids, xanthates, etc.) enhance non-wettability of the mineral particles  
and froth stabilisers(e. g., cresols, aniline) stabilise the froth. 
 
Sometimes, it is possible to separate twosulphide ores by adjusting 
proportion of oil to water or by using ‘depressants’. For example,  
in case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the depressant  
used is NaCN. It selectively prevents ZnS from coming to the 
froth but allows PbS to come with the froth. 
ZnS +NaCN → Na​2​Zn(CN)4​ ​ sodium tetra cyano zincate + Na2​ S ​  
(d) ​Leaching 
Leaching of alumina from bauxite 
Al2​ O​ 3​ (s)
​ + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2​ O(l) ​ → 2Na[Al(OH)​4](aq) ​  
2Na[Al(OH)​4​](aq) + CO​2​(g) → Al2​ O ​ ​3​.xH​2​O(s) + 2NaHCO​3 
Al2​ O
​ 3​ .xH​ 2​ O(s)
​ 1470 K → Al​2​O​3​(s) + xH2​ ​O(g) 
 
In the metallurgy of silver and that of gold, the respective metal is leached with a dilute solution of NaCN or KCN 
in the presence of air (for O​2​) from which the metal is obtained later by replacement: 
4M(s) + 8CN–​ (aq)+ ​
2H​2​O(aq) + O​2​(g) → 4[M(CN)2​ ​]–​ ​ (aq) + 4OH–​ ​(aq) (M= Ag or Au) 
2[M(CN)​2]​ ​ (aq) + Zn(s) → [Zn(CN)​4​]​2-​ ​(aq) + 2M(s) 
– ​

 
#Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore 
(a) Conversion to oxide, (b) reduction of the oxide to metal 
(a)Conversion to oxide 
(i) Calcination: Calcinaton involves heating when the volatile matter escapes leaving behind the metal oxide: 
Fe​2​O​3​.xH​2​O(s) → Fe​2O ​ ​3​ (s) + xH​2​O(g) ZnCO​3​ (s) → ZnO(s) + CO​2​(g) 
(ii)Roasting: In roasting, the ore is heated in a regular supply of air in a furnace at a temperature below the   
melting point of the metal. 2​ ZnS + 3O​2​ → 2ZnO + 2SO​2​ FeO + SiO2​ ​ → FeSiO​3​ (slag) 
(b)Reduction of oxide to the metal 
Reduction of the metal oxide usually involves heating it with some other substance acting as a reducing agent 
(C or CO or even another metal). The reducing agent (e.g., carbon) combines with the oxygen of the metal oxide. 
  
Thermodynamics principles of metallurgy 
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS ΔG ° = – RTlnK 
When the value of ΔG is negative , only then the reaction will proceed. If ΔS is positive, on increasing the 
temperature (T), the value of TΔS would increase (ΔH < TΔS) and then ΔG will become –ve. 
 
Cu2​ O ​ +Cu2​ S​ → 6 Cu + SO2​ ​ solidified copper has blistered appearance due to evolution of SO2​  
 
 
Ellingham Diagram 
This provides a sound 
basis for considering the 
choice of reducing agent 
in the reduction of 
oxides. This is known as 
Ellingham Diagram 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The iron obtained from Blast furnace contains about 4% carbon and many impurities in smaller amount (e.g., S, 
P, Si,Mn). This is known as pig iron and cast into variety of shapes. Cast iron is different from pig iron and is 
made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke using hot air blast. It 
has slightly lower carbon content (about 3%) and is extremely hard and 
brittle. 
Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy 
ΔG​0​ = – nE​0​F 
 
Aluminium 
In the metallurgy of aluminium, purified Al​2O ​ ​3​ is mixed with Na​3​AlF​6​ or  
CaF2 which lowers the melting point of the mix and brings conductivity. 
Cathode: Al​3+​ (melt) + 3e​–​ → Al(l)  
Anode: C(s) + O2–​ ​ (melt) → CO(g) + 2e–​ ​C(s) + 2O2–​ ​ (melt) → CO2​ ​ (g) + 4e– ​
#Refining: 
(a)​ D​ istillation (​ b)​ L​ iquation ​(c)​ E
​ lectrolysis ​(d)​ Z
​ one refining ​(e)​ ​Vapour phase refining 
(f )​ ​Chromatographic methods 
Electrolytic refining:  
In this method, the impure metal is made to act as anode. A strip of the same metal in pure form is used as 
cathode 
Anode: M → M​n+​ + ne​–​ Cathode: Mn+​ ​ + ne–​ ​ → M 
 
Zone refining :​ T​ his method is based on the principle that the impurities are more soluble in the melt than in 
the solid state of the metal 
Vapour phase refining 
 
In this method, the metal is converted into its volatile compound 
and collected elsewhere. It is then decomposed to give pure metal 
Mond Process for Refining Nickel: In this process, nickel is heated in a 
stream of carbon monoxide forming a volatile complex, nickel 
tetracarbonyl: 
Ni + 4CO 330 – 350 K → Ni(CO)​4​ ​ ​Ni(CO)​4​ 450 – 470 K → Ni + 4CO  
Van Arkel Method for Refining Zirconium or Titanium: 
Zr + 2I2​ ​ 500 k → ZrI4​ ​ ZrI4​ 1800 k → Zr + 2I2
​ 
 
 
C​hromatographic methods 
 
This method is based on the principle that different components of a mixture are differently adsorbed on an 
adsorbent Different components are adsorbed at different levels on the column.Later the adsorbed components 
are removed (eluted) by using suitable solvents (eluant) 
 
Flux​ : which is used to remove impurity by chemical reaction CaCO​3​ ,SiO​2 
Acidic flux​: eg- SiO​2​ which removes basic impurity  
Basic flux:​ eg- CaO which removes acidic impurity 
Leaching:​ based on the difference in chemical properties of ores and impurities ore particle are dissolved in a 
solvent leaving behind the impurities ore particles are then recovered from the solution 
 
As​ signmen ​t
 
Q1
​ . What is the role of a depressant in froath floatation process? 
 
Q2
​ . Explain (i) zone refining (ii) column chromatography 
Q3
​ .what is the role of silica in the extraction of copper? 
 
Q4
​ . Describe the method of refining of nickel. 

Q5
​ . How is cast iron different from pig iron? 
 
Q6
​ . What is the role of cryolite in the metallurgy of aluminium? 
Q7
​ . Giving example differentiate between roasting and calcinations? 

Q8
​ . Outline the principle of refining of metal by the following methods: 
(i) zone refining (ii) electrolytic refining (iii)vapour phase refining. 
Q9
​ .Describe the principle involved in each of the following processes. 
(i) Mond process for refining of nickel. 
(ii) coloumn chromatography for purification of rare elements. 
Q1
​ 0. Write the reaction involved in the following processes: 
(i) leaching of bauxite ore to prepare pure alumina 
(ii) Refining of zirconium by van arkel method. 
(iii) recovery of gold after gold ore has been leached with NaCN solution.