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Zero-dimensional modelling of a producer gas-based reciprocating engine

Article  in  Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part A Journal of Power and Energy · December 2006
DOI: 10.1243/09576509JPE265

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 923

Zero-dimensional modelling of a producer gas-based

reciprocating engine
G Sridhar
, P J Paul, and H S Mukunda
Combustion, Gasification, and Propulsion Laboratory, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India

The manuscript was received on 23 December 2005 and was accepted after revision for publication on 22 August 2006.

DOI: 10.1243/09576509JPE265

Abstract: A zero-dimensional modelling study has been conducted using wrinkled flame theory
for flame propagation to understand the in-cylinder pressure behaviour with time in a reciprocat-
ing internal combustion engine. These are compared with experiments conducted on the engine
operated on biomass derived from producer gas and air mixture. The required inputs on the
laminar burning velocity and turbulence parameters are obtained from separate studies. The
data related to laminar burning velocity for producer gas and air mixture at thermodynamic con-
ditions typical of unburned mixture in an engine cylinder were obtained from one-dimensional
flame calculations. The turbulence parameters were obtained by conducting a three-dimensional
computational fluid dynamics study on a bowl-in-piston geometry to simulate motored or
non-firing conditions. The above mentioned data were used in the zero-dimensional model to
make pressure–time (p– u) computation over the complete engine cycle, for a range of test
cases at varying compression ratio (CR) and ignition timing. The computational results matched
reasonably well with experimental p– u curves at advanced ignition timing at all CRs. The error
in computed indicated power (IP) at advanced ignition setting (188–278 CA) is around 3–4 per
cent for CR ¼ 17.0 and 11.5, and between 6 and 9 per cent for CR ¼ 13.5. However, at less advanced
ignition setting, the error in computed IP is larger and this is attributed to enhanced fluid dynamic
effect due to reverse squish effect. And, whenever major part of the combustion occurred during
this period, the deviation in the computed result appeared to be larger. This model has also
been used to predict output of a commercially available producer gas engine of 60 kW. The
optimum ignition timing on this particular engine was experimentally found to be 228–248
before top centre. The zero-dimensional model has been used in a predictive mode and results
compared with brake power under wide throttle open condition.

Keywords: producer gas, zero-dimensional modelling, optimum ignition timing, compression

ratio, derating

1 THE APPROACH governing equations alone. Empirical relations and

ad hoc approximations are used to bridge this gap
It is well recognized that the processes that govern and these are argued as appropriate [1] till better
the engine operation are extremely complex in understanding prevails over the underlying physics.
nature. Although much is known about these pro- An advantage of such empirical models is that they
cesses, there is no adequate understanding from a can be put to immediate use in areas of engine
fundamental point of view. Therefore, it is difficult design and analysis. Therefore, thermodynamic or
to make predictions of engine operation based on zero-dimensional model still continues to be popular
among the engine designers [1, 2].


Corresponding author: Combustion, Gasification and Propul- The work that is reported here is commensurate
sion Laboratory, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian with the above thought process. This paper is a con-
Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India. email: tinuation of earlier work reported by the authors
gsridhar@cgpl.iisc.ernet.in
[3, 4]. In the current work, the zero-dimensional

JPE265 # IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy
924 G Sridhar, P J Paul, and H S Mukunda

model has been used in predictive mode and the technique for intake and exhaust processes, as
output of a commercial gas engine predicted. The outlined in Heywood [6], (b) Eddy entrainment and
producer gas typically contains 18 –20 per cent H2, laminar burn-up (EELB) model for simulation of
18 –20 per cent CO, 2 –3 per cent CH4, 12 per cent heat release, as derived by Keck [1], and (c) the
CO2, 2.5 per cent H2O, and N2 as balance [5]. The heat loss due to convection based on Annand’s con-
lower calorific value of the gas is 5.2 + 0.2 MJ/m3, vective heat transfer correlations, as discussed by
with a stoichiometry requirement of 1.2 –1.4 kg of Baruah [7]. The flame propagation (or heat release)
air for every kg of producer gas [5]. Stating the exper- is modelled as a two-zone model, where a thin
imental work briefly, performance of spark ignited wrinkled multi-connected laminar flame separates
engines using producer gas derived from biomass the burned and the unburned mixtures. The EELB
has been studied. One set of experimental work model as formulated by Keck [1] is represented by
was conducted on a multi-cylinder gas engine at two equations, namely
varying compression ratio (CR) of 17, 14.5, 13.5,
and 11.5 using producer gas fuel. The engine utilized dmb m
for the study is a conversion of a production diesel ¼ ru Af Sl þ (1)
dt tb
engine, having the same cylinder and piston arrange- dm m
ment (bowl-in-piston) of the compression ignition ¼ r u A f uT  (2)
dt tb
engine. The relevant parameters such as the gas
and air flowrates, gas composition, power delivered,
where m ¼ ru ‘T (A‘  Af ). Equation (1) represents the
and exhaust emissions were continuously moni-
mass burn rate, whereas equation (2) represents the
tored. The minimum advance for best torque
rate of change of mass of unburned mixture within
(MBT) at CR of 17, 14.5, 13.5, and 11.5:1 has been
the flame front. In these equations, there are two
identified as 68, 108, 148, and 178 CA, respectively.
quantities, namely the characteristic speed (uT ) and
Similarly, the in-cylinder p – u data were obtained
length (‘T ), which could be related to the turbulence
using a pre-calibrated (the calibration was con-
parameters, namely u0 and II as identified in Hey-
ducted using rapid step functions of pressure gener-
wood [6]. These turbulence parameters can either
ated by a pneumatic pressure pulse calibrator and
be determined using empirical correlations or from
readout on a oscilloscope) Piezo-based pressure
fundamental studies [6]. Keck [1] has provided
transducer in steps of one crank angle (CA). The
empirical relationship for obtaining characteristic
sensor is hermitically sealed (model no. HS 111A22)
speed and length by coupling with few other vari-
with a built-in charge amplifier, the other specifica-
ables related to engine geometry. Moreover, these
tions being: resolution 0.69 kPa, rise time ,1 ms, dis-
correlations have been formulated for simpler geo-
charge time constant .500 s, and natural frequency
metries where turbulence is more dependent on
of the crystal 550 kHz. The experimentally acquired
the intake port design and less on the fluid –piston
p – u curves were used for the validation of zero-
interaction inside the cylinder. Using the same corre-
dimensional computational results for a range of
lation for complex geometries is not appropriate,
CRs and ignition timing. Further, the validated
since the flow is known to become substantially
zero-dimensional model was used in predictive
modified in the compression process. Therefore, a
mode and the output of a commercial gas engine
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study was con-
predicted. The engine data that were employed for
ducted on a cylinder – piston geometry (with bowl),
zero-dimensional computation is a naturally aspi-
simulating motoring condition for the complete
rated (Cummins make, G743G model), natural
engine cycle in one of the previous studies by
gas engine (CR ¼ 10), but operated on producer
the present authors [8]. Turbulence parameters,
gas fuel. Performance evaluation showed that the
namely turbulence intensity and length scales, are
2.0 l engine developed a maximum brake output
extracted from the CFD results and used as a zero-
of 60 kW (Brake mean effective presure (BMEP) of
dimensional model input. It was further assumed
3.85 bar) at rated speed of 1500 r/min, corresponding
that during combustion, the unburned mixture
to MBT timing of 228–248 before top centre (BTC) [5].
undergoes isentropic compression sufficiently
rapidly for the simple distortion process to occur as
outlined in Heywood [6]. These are given as follows
2 THE ZERO-DIMENSIONAL MODEL
 1=3  1=3
The model comprises of sub-models to simulate the ru ru
u0 ¼ u00 , lI0 ¼ lI,0
0
(3)
four processes of reciprocating engine cycle, namely r0 r0
intake, compression, heat release followed by expan-
sion and exhaust. The various sub-models used in where ru is the density of the unburned gas, r0 the
the above simulation are (a) the filling and emptying state at the start of combustion, u0 and u00 the

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE265 # IMechE 2006
 Zero-dimensional modelling of a producer gas-based reciprocating engine 925

turbulence intensity under reacting and non-reacting and H2 content at an equivalence ratio (F) of about
0
conditions, respectively, and II and II0 the integral 0.9 revealed the burning velocity to reduce by
length scale under reacting and non-reacting about 7 per cent for reduction of every 1 per cent in
conditions, respectively. H2 or CO content.
Laminar burning velocity is another input par-
ameter required for the heat release model. It was
computed using an in-house code called ‘FLAME
CODE’ [9] that uses a transient calculation procedure
to compute one-dimensional laminar flame speed 3 DETAILS OF ZERO-DIMENSIONAL
for a premixed flame. The code has been validated SIMULATION
with experimental results [10, 11]. The fuel con-
sidered was of nominal composition with 20 per The geometric details of the engines used for zero-
cent each of H2 and CO, 2 per cent CH4, 12 per dimensional simulation are given in Table 1. All the
cent CO2, and N2 as balance. Therefore, the theoreti- experimental measurements with respect to p – u
cal burning velocity calculation has been done at were conducted on engine E1 – a gas engine con-
varying equivalence ratio, initial temperature and verted from the diesel engine at varying CR of 17,
pressure, and with varying amounts of external 13.5, and 11.5:1. Also, these results were utilized for
exhaust gas recycled (EGR) ranging from 0 to 10 per initial validation of the zero-dimensional compu-
cent. The details of this part of the work are given tational results. Therefore, in the initial part of the
in an earlier publications by the authors [12]. An paper, the zero-dimensional computation results of
expression for laminar flame speed derived from engine E1 are presented. Later, the results of engine
this analysis for fuel – air equivalence ratio between E2 at optimum ignition timing are presented. Prior
0.9 and 1.3 is as given below to proceeding with the computation of firing p – u
curves, computations under motoring conditions
 0:2744 were validated by comparing with the in-cylinder
p
Sl (cm=s) ¼ 94:35 [0:96 þ 1:2(F  1)] motoring curve recorded on the engine E1 [4]. The
p0
data used in zero-dimensional simulation are
 (1  2:4c) (4) shown in Table 2. An important outcome of this
motoring simulation was the estimation of charge
where p is the actual pressure during combustion in trapped inside the cylinder at the closure of the
bar (abs), p0 the reference pressure (1.0 bar), C the intake valve. The motored pressure history was
external EGR fraction, and F the fuel –air equival- simulated using producer gas and air mixture and
ence ratio. The burning velocity dependence upon validated against the experimental p – u curve in
the initial temperature is built into the pressure order to arrive at the realistic initial thermodynamic
term in equation (4). The burning velocity is about conditions. This validation procedure was followed
30 per cent higher than that for the natural gas; it is at all CRs for engine E1. The possible error in
also quite sensitive to the variations in H2 and CO pressure matching is well within 0.5 per cent for all
content that may occur naturally in the gasification the cases. The assumptions and features used in
process. A sensitivity analysis of variation in CO the zero-dimensional model are listed below

Table 1 Engine configuration details

Diesel engine converted to gas
Engine model engine (E1) Cummins, G743G (E2)

Bore  stroke, mm 110  116 130  152

Number of cylinders 3 6
Compression ratio (CR) 17:1 10:1
Aspiration Natural Natural
Bumping clearance, mm 1.5 11
Combustion chamber Flat cylinder head and cylindrical Flat cylinder head and
bowl-in piston shallow bowl-in piston
Squish area 70% 40%
Spark plug location offset from centre of combustion Central
chamber by 8 mm
Valve lift, mm 11 10
Valve timing
Inlet valve opening, BTC 26 10
Inlet valve closing, ATC 66 49
Exhaust valve opening, BBC 64 41
Exhaust valve closing, ATC 38 18

JPE265 # IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy
926 G Sridhar, P J Paul, and H S Mukunda

Table 2 Data for zero-dimensional simulation 1 to 5 per cent of the initial mass is consumed, in
this work about 1 per cent of the initial mass is
Wall temperature 450 K
Simulation speed 1500 r/min assumed to have consumed, corresponding to a
flame kernel of about 12 mm radius. The flame is
Annand coefficient for heat transfer [13] - a ¼
assumed to move into the bowl during kernel
Compression and formation; the dislodging of the flame from its point
Suction expansion Exhaust
of ignition is well identified by Keck [1].
0.2 0.8 0.4
Annand coefficient for heat transfer [13] - b ¼ 0.78
4 PROCEDURE FOR ZERO-DIMENSIONAL
Recycled gas mass
fraction (%) with CR COMPUTATIONS
Engine–E1 Engine–E2
17.0 CR 13.5 CR 11.5 CR 10.0 CR In these computations, appropriate fuel –air mixture
6.5 7.5 8.5 8.5 recorded (the fuel gas is generated in a gas producer
Boundary condition unit and supplied to the engine, the minor variation
Intake manifold 90 kPa and 300 K in the fuel gas composition and thereof the fuel-air
Exit manifold 92 kPa and 300 K
Intake and exit valve [14] Cd, 2 0.32 and 0.55 mixture supplied to the engine is recorded) during
experiments constitutes the input energy (IE).
Dilution in terms of recycled gas fraction as depicted
1. The gas exchange process was simulated by using in Table 2 is considered at corresponding CRs. The
filling and emptying technique. The values are recycled gas fraction in the total air and fuel mixture
given in Table 2. was calculated in the gas exchange process of the
2. All the four processes, namely gas exchange, thermodynamic cycle simulating firing conditions.
compression, heat release, and expansion are The necessary inputs for the heat release process
simulated with heat loss, and mixture/product are derived from separate computations as indicated
gas considered as perfect gas. The heat transfer earlier. Similarly, the equilibrium calculations for
coefficients used for different processes are listed computing products and the adiabatic flame temp-
in Table 2. erature are obtained using the SP-273 code of NASA
3. Subsequent to ignition occurring at a preset time, [15]. The criterion for convergence is also high-
there is an apparent time delay in cylinder pressure lighted, it is the stabilization of the peak cylinder
rise due to combustion called the ignition delay. pressure value, which needs to be within about
During the ignition delay period, the flame kernel 1.0 per cent in the successive cycles.
is displaced from its point of formation.
4. The combustion during flame kernel formation is 5 COMPUTATIONS OF P – Q CURVE
considered to occur under constant volume con-
ditions, with products and mixture at different The salient features of the 11 test cases for engine E1
pressures. (case 1 to 11) and one test case for engine E2 (case 12)
5. With further movement of the flame, the heat are shown in Table 3, wherein the fuel gas
release is simulated using EELB sub-model,
wherein a spherical flame front (reaction zone)
is assumed to propagate into the unburned mix- Table 3 Principal parameters of the test cases used in the
ture using a two zone model. Heat transfer is con- zero-dimensional computations
sidered between individual zones and the Composition
combustion chamber walls. (vol %) Ign
Case Ign, delay,
The other assumptions on the heat release model no. CR H2 CO CH4 F Ia 8CA 8CA
are as discussed in Baruah [7]. The sub-models of 1 17.0 20.8 16.2 2.0 1.10 1.70 26 12
the zero-dimensional model other than the heat 2 17.0 21.0 18.6 2.0 1.03 1.70 22 9
release model are validated initially by comparing 3 17.0 21.5 16 2.5 1.09 1.69 17 9
4 17.0 2.10 19.2 2.0 1.00 1.69 12 9
with the experimentally motoring p– u curves. The pri- 5 17.0 20.0 20.0 2.0 1.10 1.73 6 6
mary information required to initiate the heat release 6 13.5 20.0 15.0 2.5 1.06 1.62 25 9
effect is the ignition delay period that was estimated 7 13.5 20.0 15.0 2.5 1.07 1.63 18 9
8 13.5 20.0 15.7 2.5 1.06 1.63 14 9
by superimposing the motoring curve over the exper- 9 11.5 18.0 18.0 2.5 1.09 1.63 27 9
imental firing curve and taking the point of deviation 10 11.5 21.0 20.0 2.0 1.07 1.70 17 9
(dp/du about 1.0 bar per unit crank angle) from the 11 11.5 19.5 20.0 2.0 1.07 1.66 6 6
12 10.0 17.0 24.4 1.6 1.02 3.15 22 9
point of ignition as the delay period. The literature
a
[6] indicates that during ignition delay period about I ¼ Input energy/cycle, KJ.

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE265 # IMechE 2006
 Zero-dimensional modelling of a producer gas-based reciprocating engine 927

Table 4 Principal results at more advanced ignition settings

Experiment Computation

CR Ign, 8 CA Peak Pr, bar Occurrence, 8 CA Peak Pr., bar Occurrence, 8 CA Duration, 8 CA

17.0 26 60.9 366 60.8 365.8 43.4

17.0 22 64.4 366 63.0 366.4 39.6
13.5 25 46.3 368 44.8 367.2 60.0
13.5 18 36.9 372 36.8 371.0 56.0
11.5 27 38.0 368 35.2 367.6 68.0

composition, fuel – air equivalence ratio without simulation scheme is organized to calculate the com-
recycled gas (EGR), input energy per cycle, set plete engine cycle, till successive cycles converge.
ignition timing, ignition delay are highlighted. In The first cycle simulation is done by assuming a
Table 3, case 1 (in italics) corresponding to an recycled gas of 12 per cent H2O, 14 per cent CO2,
ignition advance of 268 CA at CR ¼ 17.0 was used and N2 as balance. Two more cycles are subsequently
as a trial case for choosing the coefficients for the attempted using the product gases obtained from the
heat loss equation. The coefficients chosen for the equilibrium calculations as the recycled gas. These
four processes of the engine cycle are given in computations are attempted with a time step of
Table 2. The computed p – u curve and the integrated 0.28 CA (0.022 ms) and confirmed to be time step
value of pressure – volume curves are discussed independent. The computations for two of the four
subsequently. test cases are shown in Figs 1 and 2. The principal
results are given in Table 4. The computed results
at CR ¼ 17.0 corresponding to an ignition advance
6 RESULTS
of 228 CA match excellently with the experimental
data, with marginal variation in the peak pressure
6.1 Computations with advanced ignition setting and its point of occurrence. In the computations at
The results of five test cases (cases 1, 2, 6, 7, and 9) CR ¼ 13.5 at an ignition advance of 258 CA, the press-
belonging to three CRs of engine E1 are shown in ures are marginally higher at the commencement of
Table 4. The ignition settings of these cases are heat release, with peak pressure falling short of the
between 18 and 278 CA. The case 1 represented in ita- experimental value by about 1.5 bar and as a conse-
lics is essentially used as a trial case for choosing the quence the expansion pressures are lower. However,
coefficients for the heat loss equation. All the four computation at 188 CA ignition advance matched
cases are computed with the well-observed phenom- reasonably well with the experimental data even
enon of a spherical flame propagating into the though the computed pressure deviates after about
unburned mixture. With the ignition occurring at 3568 CA. The predicted duration of combustion is
the pre-set time, a flame kernel forms at the ignition shorter at retarded ignition setting implying faster
site. During the ignition delay period, the flame burn rate. Similar is the case with computations at
kernel is assumed to move vertically downward due CR ¼ 11.5 at an ignition advance of 278 CA.
to the surrounding turbulent fluid flow. Subsequent
to the ignition delay period, the EELB model of
flame propagation is invoked, wherein a spherical
flame is assumed to propagate into the unburned
mixture, with continued movement of the flame
due to local fluid velocities. This spherical flame
propagation continues till the flame encounters a
wall, further the entrained unburned mixture is
assumed to burn exponentially [1]. During the
quasi-steady flame propagation, typical turbulent
burning velocities are of the order of 7 – 9 m/s (at
CR ¼ 17.0) and time scale of the order of 0.5 –
0.6 ms during the initial stages of flame propagation,
and once the flame reaches the wall, time scale for
exponential burning is of the order of 0.8 to 1.0 ms
and somewhat similar to the value (0.6 to 1.0 ms)
reported by Keck [1]. Using this theory, compu- Fig. 1 p – u computation at 228 CA ignition advance at
tations for four test cases have been attempted. The CR ¼ 17.0

JPE265 # IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy
928 G Sridhar, P J Paul, and H S Mukunda

by rapidly switching from firing to motored con-

dition (the ignition to the cylinder fitted with the
pressure sensor was cut-off and pressure data
acquired). The maximum cylinder pressure was
identical to the motoring pressure at wide-open
throttle condition. Had there been HCCI, then the
pressure should have been higher, which has not
been the case so. The possible cause for the discre-
pancy between the experimental and computation
results at less advanced or retarded ignition timing
is brought out in the following paragraphs.
Coming back to the computation results, it is not
immediately obvious as to why there is a deviation
beyond a certain point. The deviation in pressure
Fig. 2 p – u computation at 258 CA ignition advance at might be occurring as a result of increased burn
CR ¼ 13.5 rate either due to enhanced surface burning area or
the enhanced entrainment. Higher surface area for
burning is possible provided the flame does not
quench at the surrounding walls and the flame
6.2 Computations with less advanced ignition
remains floating. This calls for the displacement of
setting
the spherical flame in a more complex manner
The results of six test cases corresponding to less than what has been accounted in this analysis. How-
advanced ignition setting are shown in Table 5. Com- ever, considering, this effect had marginal effect on
putations using spherical flame assumption were the maximum pressure rise. This behaviour was
made for all the six test cases, one test result corre- found to be similar with all the six test cases. There-
sponding to CR ¼ 17 at 128 CA ignition advance is fore, at less advanced ignition setting, the enhanced
shown in Fig. 3. The principal results are given in fluid dynamics due to reverse squish flow could be
Table 5. From Fig. 3, it is evident that there is devi- modifying the burn rate to such an extent that
ation in the computed pressures beyond a CA. At there is a steep rise in cylinder pressure. The cold
careful look at the experimental curve shows that flow CFD studies [8] clearly indicate high velocity
there is a steep rise in the cylinder pressure, giving jets coming out of the bowl and reentering the cylin-
an impression of auto-ignition. However, this is not der during reverse squish period. And, whenever
true because if auto ignition were to occur then it major part of the combustion occurred during this
should have occurred even at advanced ignition time, there appears to be abrupt increase in the
timing, wherein the thermodynamic condition is of burn rate leading to steep pressure rise. This
the same severity. In fact, the engine has been effect appears to be more severe in for higher CR
tested between ignition timing of 33 and 6 BTC and of 17 and 13.5 when compared with CR ¼ 11.5.
no knock (either from the pressure data or from This could be true because the peak reverse squish
noise) has been observed. The pressure rise between velocities with CR ¼ 17 is of the order of 31 m/s as
ignition advance of 33 and 17 CA has been found to against 6 m/s for CR ¼ 11.5 [8]. Therefore, the
be gradual and matched well with the computational deviations in the computed results at CR ¼ 11.5 is
results. Similarly, HCCI could be ruled out because lower when compared with CR ¼ 17 and 13.5. The
as a part of measurement a ‘grab’ motoring test integrated values of pressure –volume data over a
was conducted on the instrumented cylinder (with complete cycle resulting in indicated power (IP) are
piezo sensor) under wide-open throttle condition presented in Table 6. At advanced ignition timing,

Table 5 Principal results of at less advanced ignition setting

Experiment Computation

CR Ign, 8 CA Peak Pr, bar Occurrence, 8 CA Peak Pr., bar Occurrence, 8 CA Duration, 8 CA

17.0 17 67.4 369 52.0 370.8 37.2

17.0 12 75.6 369 47.1 372.4 37.4
17.0 06 54.5 379 39.2 375.0 35.4
13.5 14 45.0 376 33.2 373.2 52.6
11.5 17 37.5 372 30.5 373.0 48.4
11.5 06 25.0 383 24.0 377.6 52.0

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy JPE265 # IMechE 2006
 Zero-dimensional modelling of a producer gas-based reciprocating engine 929

7 ZERO-DIMENSIONAL COMPUTATIONS FOR

ENGINE E2

Considering the success of zero-dimensional predic-

tion at lower CR, the zero-dimensional model has
been extended to engine E2 of CR ¼ 10. The combus-
tion chamber of engine E2 is also of bowl-in piston
configuration, but is shallower compared to engine
E1. The squish ratio of about 40 per cent compared
to 70 per cent is the earlier case. Similarly, the
engine is provided with two intake and two exhaust
valves instead of one each in the earlier case. The
zero-dimensional model has been applied on the
above geometry with the following additional
Fig. 3 p – u prediction at 128 CA ignition advance at assumptions: (a) the values of turbulence parameters
CR ¼ 17.0 was considered to be same as that of engine E1 cor-
responding to CR ¼ 11.5, (b) since the valve lift pro-
file (but the valve lift of the engine is known and is
10 mm) for engine E2 was not available, the valve
the zero-dimensional model is able to make reason- lift profile of engine E1 was considered, and (c) an
ably good predictions by assuming the conventional ignition delay of 98 CA was considered based on
spherical flame propagation model. The accuracy in studies on engine E1. The fuel –air mixture compo-
IP prediction is around 3 per cent for CR ¼ 17.0 and sition considered for computation is shown in
11.5, and between 5 and 8 per cent for the other Table 3. These values were recorded during the
two cases at CR ¼ 13.5. In all the 11 test cases that long duration trials on the engine. The engine had
were discussed, for higher CR of 17 and 13.5, the developed a maximum brake output of 60 kW at an
error in the zero-dimensional prediction is large in optimum ignition setting of 228 –248 BTC. Therefore,
around ignition advance of 6 and 128 CA, respect- computation has been attempted corresponding to
ively. Whereas, for lower CR ¼ 11.5, the error in optimum ignition setting of 228 and 248 BTC. For
zero-dimensional prediction is of the order of the first cycle calculation, only fuel – air mixture
5 – 6 per cent. Sensitivity analysis was conducted for (without recycled gas) was considered. In the sub-
test case corresponding to CR ¼ 17 at an ignition sequent cycles, the recycled gas fraction in the total
setting of 228 CA. 10 per cent variation in laminar air and fuel mixture was calculated in the gas
burning velocity and turbulence intensity has very exchange process, the amount of recycled gas was
little influence on the IP. The zero-dimensional computed to be around 8.5 per cent. Here, it is
model has the drawback that it cannot take into the important to note that the recycled gas fraction is
fluid flow; therefore, a detailed three-dimensional comparable with engine E1 at CR ¼ 11.5, even
CFD modelling would be essential to understand though the CR of engine E2 is lower. This higher
the phenomenon. scavenging efficiency appears to be due to two
intake and exit valves and has been captured by the
gas exchange sub-model. The computed p – u for
Table 6 Summary of zero-dimensional computations for two ignition settings is shown in Fig. 4. There is mar-
different test cases ginal variation in the IP between 228 and 248 CA
ignition timing. The computed IPGross was 76 kW
Case Ign, IPa – Exp, IPa – 0-D, and 76.5 kW at 248 and 228 CA ignition timing,
no. CR CA kW kW % error
respectively. The peak pressure was computed to
1 17.0 26 19.5 19.1 2.0 occur at 373.48 and 377.68 CA for ignition setting of
2 17.0 22 21.3 20.6 3.2 248and 228 CA, respectively. It is well identified in
3 17.0 17 22.3 20.4 8.5
4 17.0 12 24.1 20.7 14.0 the literature [6] that MBT corresponds to a value
5 17.0 6 24.2 19.8 18.0 wherein the peak cylinder pressure should occur at
6 13.5 25 19.6 18.4 6.0 3768– 3778 CA. Therefore, 228 CA could be considered
7 13.5 18 19.9 18.1 9.0
8 13.5 14 21.4 18.2 15.0 as the MBT for E2 based on computation. There are
9 11.5 27 18.2 17.4 4.3 few uncertainties involved with respect to these
10 11.5 17 19.9 18.6 6.5 computations and they are: (a) turbulence par-
11 11.5 6 19.3 17.6 9.0
ameters could be different considering the variation
a
Net indicated power. of the bowl geometry, (b) under-estimation of the

JPE265 # IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy
930 G Sridhar, P J Paul, and H S Mukunda

that were attempted, the zero-dimensional model is

able to make reasonably accurate predictions at
advanced ignition settings (above 178 BTC) using
classical EELB heat release sub-model. However, at
less ignition setting (,178 BTC), the enhanced fluid
dynamics due to reverse squish flow modifies the
burn rate to such an extent that there is a steep rise
in cylinder pressure. By making use of the insight
obtained from the cold flow CFD studies, it appears
that the flame shape is modified during the reverse
squish period. Therefore, fluid –flame interaction is
sufficiently complex and predictions with simpler
techniques like zero-dimensional model are not
possible. This calls for a full-fledged three-
dimensional modelling with combustion for further
Fig. 4 p – u prediction at two ignition timings for E2
understanding. However, with zero-dimensional
model providing reasonably accurate predictions,
input energy to the engine – variation in gas calorific the model needs to be further validated for various
value to an extent of 5 per cent, (c) incorrect valve lift engine geometries.
profile chosen resulting in computed pumping loss to
be higher, and (d) uncertainty in the power consumed APPENDIX
by accessories. In the results presented in Table 7, the
net brake power (BP) has been computed after Notation
deducting the pumping loss, frictional loss – rubbing
and power consumed by accessories (fan). The fric- A f , Al spherical flame and laminar burning
tional power (FP) – rubbing, has been estimated area (m2)
from Willans line. The power consumed by the acces- I I , I 0I0 integral length under reacting and
sories (fan) is based on data from Cummins [16]. non-reacting condition (m)
Computational results are shown in Table 7 with ‘T characteristic length (m)
and without some of these uncertainties as cases I mb mass of mixture burned (kg)
and II, respectively. The results with some of the p, p0 actual cylinder pressure and reference
above uncertainties are shown as case I in Table 7. pressure (bar)
The uncertainties considered are with respect to Sl laminar burning velocity (m/s)
energy input and pumping loss. A higher input u0 , u00 turbulence intensity under reacting and
energy of 5 per cent resulted in an IP of 78.2 kW. Simi- non-reacting condition (m/s)
larly, if one extends the pumping loss results of engine uT characteristic speed (m/s)
E1, wherein the pumping loss is about 0.27 kW per unit
swept volume of the cylinder, the pumping loss for m parametric mass (kg)
engine E2 works to about 4.5 kW as against 6.5 kW ru unburned gas density (kg/m3)
computed originally. Results without the above men- r0 unburned gas density at the start of
tioned uncertainties are shown in the case II of combustion (kg/m3)
Table 7, wherein the difference is about 5–6 per cent. tb characteristic time (s)
F fuel-air equivalence ratio
C recycled gas fraction
8 CONCLUSIONS

Summarizing the zero-dimensional computation

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JPE265 # IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part A: J. Power and Energy

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