CHAPTER II

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT:

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The seeds of urbanization germinated in the Indus valley around 2500 B.C, but
the actual sequence of this event has remained a great mystery till date. One should first
of all consider the early village settlements for more positive clues for better
understanding of successive urban developments.

It was during the late Stone Age, that the people started to live in permanent
shelters, in caves and in rock shelters. Hunting and gathering were the main
occupations of the people. Flourishing village culture be considered as the first step
towards later urbanization, but it does not appear as the direct result of the process of
transition from food gathering to the food production. The excavations of sites reveal
no data about existence of any pre- agricultural stage with hunting and gathering as the
primary bases of living. Although it all happened on the Indian soil but it parenthood is
doubtful, on the contrary evidences of cultural similarity in these settlement and those
of West Asia speaks of foreign influence on the origin of Indian settlements.

Evidences are lacking which may point out the gradual transformation of
villages into the urban centers. Hence, it may be quoted that the urban culture did not
directly evolve out of rural environment, but its ancestry lies in this direction.

A) First Phase of Urban Development in India

In the middle of third millennium B.C. urban life in India was on its full
expression and the Indus valley was considered to be the first place from where the
urban planning started. The urban development designated by archeologists as the
Harappan Culture found its zenith in the metropolitan cities like Mohanjodaro and
Harppa in northwest India, both the cities have confirmed certain distinctive principles
of urban planning, which provides the first example of planned city culture in the
world. These cities had solid towers, large buildings, the Great Bath, the State Granary
and Citadels, the religious headquarters of the empire, planned streets with
underground drainage system well connected to the drains of houses by pipes and city
drainage finally found in soak pits which were emptied into the rivers. All these signify
the existence of strict municipal bodies in these cities. Buildings and houses were made
 35

up of bricks and water was taken from wells constructed in most of the big buildings
and houses, these in turn were equipped with drains, bathrooms. This gives us an idea
about the social status of human societies in earlier times.

Copper and bronze were used for the manufacture of utensils, blade-axes,
knives; fish hooks etc. Metallurgy also had a significant place in the industrial
activities. The most important feature of that civilization was the same pattern of the
urban planning which was followed all through the centuries of city rebuilding.

Urban development in this phase was at its zenith and had a very strong
impression. The light of urban civilization went out of India during the period of 1500-
1600 B.C. with the fall of Indus civilization due to natural calamities and some other
reasons. But this is not doubtful that the Indus people were the founders of urban
development in India.

B) Second Phase of Urban Development

Indus civilization ended in around 1500 B.C., and it left a vacuum for about five
centuries during which urban development appears to be completely halted, a fresh
beginning of development took place around Ist millennium B.C., by the Aryans. Epics
like Mahabharta and Ramyana throw some light on Aryan cities. These cities provide
many evidences of an urban civilization, which emerged at about 1000 B.C. and
extended its influence up to the area of middle Ganga plain. Aryan civilization is
regarded as the most important turning point in the urban history of India. Urban
development at that period gradually acquired a momentum; they build many large
cities.

They were the first who introduced iron ploughs with the help of them they
brought improvements in agriculture. Many specialized industries were established
producing the objects like wool, leather and fur.

Many Roman and Greek scholars like Strabo and Arrain had given an account
of urban development in India. Quite a number of urban functions provided a base for
the development of many big cities. Some of them were really great, but their records
were more concentrated to the position of physical characteristics. Claudios Ptolemy
(90-168 A.D) had given some comprehensive details of the urban development at that
time.
 36

Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveller has given accurate details of towns and cities
of that time. According to him, “the towns have inner gates, with very high walls, the
streets and lanes were quite wide. The thoroughfares were dirty and slats were arranged
on both sides of roads with appropriate signs. The walls of cities were mostly built up
of the bricks and tiles. The towers on the walls were constructed with help of woods
and bamboos, the houses had balconies and belvederes which were made up of woods.
The walls were covered with lime and mud.” From this account one can conclude, that
urban development at the time of Aryans was expanding and improving, but the cities
were lacking in meticulous planning, central part was occupied by royal palaces, houses
developed around these palaces gave a compact look, basic amenities with municipal
vigilance were completely lacking in cities. So we can say that, Aryan civilization was
far behind the Harappa culture in terms of urban development and quality of life.

C) Urban Development in South India

Urban development in south India is attributed to Dravidian culture, two states

of Tamil Nadu and Kerala show high level of urban development at that time. A
distinctive feature of the urban development in these areas was the existence of two
capital cities for each kingdom, Madurai and Kanchipuram, which were most
important.

The cities comprised of the King’s palaces, the temples which were surrounded
by many walls, but the common people have to live outside the walls.

D) Factors Contributing to the Urban Development Since Early Historic Period

Agriculture, industry and efficient communication systems were some of the

major sectors without which urban development could have not taken place on such a
wide and prosperous manner. Hence, it would be worthwhile to review the situation
and conditions of these sectors.

i. Agriculture

Agriculture was the principle means of livelihood. There were lands belonging
to states, government employs, besides this there were some lands to belonging to
farmers. Megasthenes, has presented a very bright picture of India in his work.
According to him, “fertile soil, efficient irrigation used to give two crops a year
supplemented by sufficient rainfall. Food supply was so abundant that no famine death
 37

were reported in the country till date. State maintained a large number of cattle and
other animals in the charge of separate officials”.

Agriculture constituted the back bone of the Indian economy. A reference is

found in the writings of Eratosthenes, who pointed out the striking regularity of copious
rainfall guaranteeing double crops. Among the crops mentioned by him are: rice, flax,
wheat, pulses, jowar, bajra etc.

Hieun Tsang, visited India in the middle of the 7th century A.D had made a
copious reference to agricultural conditions. Major crops as he mentioned were rice,
wheat, corn, fruits, mustard seeds etc, milk products, which were widely used by the
natives.

ii. Industry

Industries played a vital role in social life, and industrial development gave a
push to urban development. On the other hand industries developed on the basis of
urban markets and market facilities played an important role in industrial expansion.
All of these had a direct impact on the urbanization of the country where the growing
stature of non-agricultural activities boosted up the rate of urban development.

iii. Trade commerce and transport

Trade and commerce were having a well defined place in the country’s
economy since the early time. This fact is proved by the existence of the people
belonging to merchant class in the society and the large scale movement of goods
irrespective of physical as well as political barriers. Trade was highly expensive at that
time due to the huge taxes and entry fees.

Thus India maintained a unique position in the commerce as the main

supplier of luxury goods to other nations. Trade and commerce also pushed up urban
development, merchant class people paid attention for the provision of civic amenities
in their locality, and thus the cities with good infrastructural facilities sprung up all over
the country.

A mention of internal roads operating as the main trade route is found for the
first time in the Buddhist literature; well established trade routes both land and water
covered most part of the northern India in 300 B.C. The Mauryan Empire extended then
further to south India. The most important road was Imperial Highway or Royal Road,
 38

running for about 16,000 Km traversing the entire Great Plains and continued to
Central Asia.

The main rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and those in the south constituted the
principle commercial arteries of the country to carry both goods and passengers.

E) Urban Development During the Medieval Period

Medieval period in the history of India is dominated by Muslim rulers. They

invaded India in 11th century before their arrival, Rajputs and Cholas were the rulers in
Western and Central parts of the country. Their invasions played a havoc with already
declining urban phase. These invaders razed the cities to dust and imposed their rule in
India by the 1526 A.D. Mughals decided to live permanently in India and set up their
great empire.

Mughals realized that the urban prosperity is the only way which could enrich
the royal exchequers and this could be done only by the stable and efficient
administration.

India attained a high level prosperity and economic development during the
Mughals rule. They constructed many beautiful buildings and very excellent network of
roads like the presently known as Grand Trunk Road, they connected far of places of
the country with this a transport network.

In spite of widespread nature of urban development, the material standard of the

urban centers in respect of their houses, streets, were not of very high standard, besides
the capital cities of Delhi, Agra and Hyderabad, these cities were having palaces
surrounded by number of buildings, good houses and better street conditions. There
were big market places with innumerable shops. Various mosques, public baths,
squares and gardens with all civic amenities were found, but they were only in big
cities. On the other hand small cities do not have planned network of roads and streets,
there was a haphazard overlapping of residential, commercial and industrial land uses
and civic amenities were lacking in cities.

The over all picture that emerges pointedly refers that, almost all the cities of
that period have pre-industrial slums providing residences for the poor urban dwellers.
The cities were divided into two sections: the smaller sections were having royal
 39

palaces, and the large sections formed by low and poorly built, and congested houses
on narrow lanes.

Regardless of all this, Mughals contributed a lot in the urban development,

which is evident from the work of many scholars who visited India during that period.

Ibn-e-Batuta a muslim traveller, visited India in 14th century and has written
about the cities and towns of India in his travel account, and he made a special mention
about Delhi as one of the greatest city of the world with respect to architecture, urban
development and planning.

According to Barni, “at that time there was safety on roads in all directions.
Agriculture received special encouragement during the muslim rule, many big canals
were constructed for irrigation, gardens were laid with beautiful flowery plants and
trees and huge forts buildings were built for providing shelter to the people.

Abul Fazal a courtier of the Emperor Akbar during 1542-1605A.D in his work
Ain-e-Akbari and Akbarnama brought forward that urbanization was no longer
remained as an isolated phenomenon, but had diffused throughout the country. He also
considered agriculture, industries and trade as the main contributing factors in the field
of urban development during Mughal’s reign.

F) Urban Development During the British Period

British period is the most important part of the Indian history in which lies the
roots of modern urban development in India.

In 17th century Europeans came in India as traders. The East India Company
after receiving the permission from Mughal emperor started a factory at Surat and
slowly spread throughout the country by the end of 17th century. Indian goods were
excluded from the list of export items by the Britishers and they planned to crush
Indian industry by bringing their goods at a very low price, which had created a
vacuum, and a modern colonial economy was created in India. Thus India was reduced
to an agricultural colony of industrial England supplying raw material and providing
large and cheap market for their products. As a result a deep root feeling was developed
in Europe that India should remain as an agricultural and rural economy for their selfish
interests.
 40

Nehru, former Prime Minister of India expressed in 1960 that, “India was far
more advanced and had higher civilization in the later part of 18th century; literacy in
India was very high with better civic amenities”.

G) Construction of Railways

Railways brought a new revolution in India, it was considered as the most active
step towards the urban development in the country. East India Company during 1843-
53 gave the first proposal to construct railways in India, with the aim to carry raw
material to the ports easily. They were least concerned with the development of the
hinterlands. Large ports like Bombay, Calcutta and Madaras were connected by railway
tracks; this led to the development of textile industries in these cities. Although
railways laid the foundation of the large scale industries, but this facility was confined
to ports only.

Though British rule introduced “Industrial Age” in India, but under sever
restrictions. According to Brahama, Pore and Pore in 1975, “in British reign the Indian
economy came into the fold of the international market in a big way. It served as the
supplier of the raw material to the British industry and a captive market for their
products. The process of commercialization and modernization however did not bring
in its wake subsequent development of the economy”.

Pathak (1975) explained that, “independent India inherited what may be called a
semi-urbanized and semi-industrialized pattern centered on the big metropolis mainly
the Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta (Kolkata)”.

Later in the half of the 19th century British power extended to the interior and
several other cities like Kanpur, Ahmadabad, Hubli, Barielly and Nagpur, sprang up as
centers of communication and trade.

Britishers also developed many hill stations for the recreational purpose to
escape away from the intensive heat during the summer months in the north India like
Simla, Mussorrie and Nainital. They opened up missionary schools for the promotion
of western education and culture in these areas.

H) Urban Local Bodies During the British Period

Britishers introduced municipal bodies in the cities and town for more effective
urban growth and development.
 41

The history of the local municipal governments in the country is divided into
four different phases: (i) First Phase (1833-1882), (ii) Second Phase (1882-1919), (iii)
Third Phase (1919-1935) and (iv) Fourth Phase (1935-1945).

(i) First Phase (1833-1882)

The first local government was introduced with a power to levy house tax and a
responsibility to provide civic amenities. In 1870 Lord Mayo’s resolution brought a
change in the administration. A scheme of decentralization of administration was
introduced with facilities like education, health and roads, the provisional governments
for these purposes were given some grants.

(ii) Second Phase (1882-1919)

On 18th May 1882 Lord Ripon’s resolution laid the foundation of the system as
it exists today. The principles include, the provision to have at least two-third members
of municipalities as non-officials. System of elections was introduced for the selection
of the Chairman or Head of the municipality.

Several taxes such as octroi, house tax and property tax were introduced.
Lighting of roads, public health and primary education were included within the
responsibilities of municipality.

(iii) Third Phase (1919-1935)

This period was influenced by the recommendations of the Royal Commission

on the decentralization in 1907-1908, which led to the formulation of resolution of
1915 of the Government of India. The reforms incorporated during 1919 made a clear
cut demarcation of tax collection power of the local bodies. The local taxes were
collected on land values, on buildings, vehicles and on animal trade.

(iv) Fourth Phase (1935-1945)

This phase was started with the inauguration of provincial autonomy in 1935.
Further decentralization was made in respect of local bodies. Though functions were
enlarged, but the revenue collections were decreased, thus the local bodies became
more dependent on the grants and aids.
 42

I) Urban Development After Independence

In the post- independence era, urban development achievements were desired

through planning. Independent India embarked on a national programme of over all
development. In this endeavor, ‘planning for urban development’ occupied a prime
place. Planning encompassed policies for various aspects of city progress to bring about
the necessary changes. In 1950, the Planning Commission was set up by the
Government of India with Jawaharlal Nehru bring the Chairman of Planning
Commission and was given the task to further articulate and implement programmes
through Five Year Plans, the national policy directives and development objectives.
The setting of Planning Commission enabled the central government to take the
initiatives for policy making through the formulation of Five Year Plans.

Thus, the central government’s statement on the urban development and policy
as expressed in the national development five-year plans reflect the general policies
being followed by the central and state governments.

The national policy issues were incorporated by the Government of India,

which also allocate the resources to the state governments through variously sponsored
schemes and assistance programme for the housing and urban development in the
country as a whole. Ministry of Urban Development an apex authority of Government
of India at the national level formulates policies, whereas central ministries, state
government and the local bodies are given the task to monitor the issue of urban
development in the country.

According to the Indian Constitution, urban development is a state subject.

Without a constitutional amendment, the central government does not have a power to
pass legislation on urbanization, urban development and urban planning. However,
urban development as the state subject has received a scanty attention in almost all the
states. Thus, what exists as the urban policy for urban development, has estimated more
often than the central government. Hence five year plans were made as the policy
proposals for the urban development.

J) Government’s Role in Urban Development in India

Urban development activities are concerned on three levels of governments-

centre, state and local, and also among civil society organizations. Though urban
 43

development policies are related to the state government, but the central government
has played a much important role in this field since after the independence.

In towns and cities local governments were established for the purpose of urban
administration and development. Since urban local bodies have only those powers
which are given to them by the state government, this prevents them from effectively
achieving their goals, they have been ill equipped in terms of resource, skills and
infrastructure.

After independence many ambitious measures were taken in order to transform

the socio-economic scene of urban areas in India, through a number of five year plans.

First-Five Year Plan (1951-56)

This plan was mainly concerned with the problems of agricultural sector
because soon after independence these problems required urgent national attention.
Moreover, with limited resources the government gave top priorities to achieve goals
pertaining to agriculture. Therefore, the matters related to urban development occupied
low position with the list of First Five Year priorities.

Second Five-Year Plan (1956-61)

Central scheme was initiated to provide financial assistance to the states and
local bodies for clearing the squatter settlements and big slums in big cities. In this plan
an attempt was made to operationalise the Modernisation Theory. There was a belief
that, the underdevelopment could be overcome by the technical and organizational
structure that would made development possible in the industrialized countries.

Third Five-Year Plan (1961-66)

In this plan more attention was paid to urban planning in India. Through this
plan government for the first time, formulated an urban planning and land policy. The
main objective of this policy was to achieve a balanced development in different urban
areas of India by establishing large, medium and small scale industries.

The most important contribution of planning in this plan period was the
diffusion of the ideas of town planning, from the centre to the states. Master Plans were
made for the capital towns and other growing cities.
 44

This plan recognized the role of industrialization in the urban development. It

implemented a policy aimed at the establishment of heavy industries away from the big
cities. It is also important to stress here that this plan also took note of urban
community development schemes in selected cities to solve the problems related with
the slums. The plan also emphasized the need to strengthen municipal administration
for initiating new development policy.

Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-74)

This plan stressed the need for the regional approach to the issue of the urban
development, decongestion of cities, dispersal of urban population, adoption of the
community development programme for the cities as well as the environment
improvement in urban slums. During this plan government recognized the urgent need
to check population growth of big cities like Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai)
and also to initiate population dispersal to reduce pressure on the big cities.

Towards the end of this plan an agency Housing and Urban Development
Corporation (HUDCO) was established to provide funds for the metropolitan
authorities, state housing boards and other urban institutions to finance scheme for the
construction of houses in the urban areas were set by the state and central government.

Certain state governments during this period took serious steps to disperse
industries in cities like Ahmadnagar, Aurangabad, Nagpur, Nasik and Tarapur, which
are intermediate cities of the states concerned.

Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79)

This plan emphasized the need for the environmental improvement in big cities.
There was an increased concern and recognition of urban problems, among these urban
poverty was most important. Many development programmes were launched during
this plan and Urban Development Authorities were set up by the state government in
big cities.

Small and medium towns were given special attention to highlight the urban
growth and to check the population pressure in big cities. In 1976 The Urban Land
(ceiling and regulation) Act was introduced as a part of this plan, it put a ceiling on the
ownership of the vacant lands in the urban agglomerations and thereby sought to secure
more land for public use, including provision for social housing.
 45

Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980-85)

This plan stressed more emphasis on the integrated development of small and
medium towns, as initiated in previous plans. This was done with the view of
promoting development of not only small towns but the rural areas as well, by their
functioning as the growth centers.

The National Policy on Urbanization highlighted the urban problems and

indicated that in each region urban development should be viewed in relation to the
surrounding areas. As far as making provision for urban development there was a
specific mention for slums. This was primarily in response to alarming problems of
slum settlements in large cities.

Thus Sixth Plan, therefore, made substantially a larger provision for the
environmental improvement of the slums.

Seventh Five-Year Plan (1985-90)

This plan had continued with ongoing programmes initiated in the earlier plan.
In this plan government noted the rapid growth of metropolitan cities and the slow
growth of small and medium towns, indicated by statistics of 1981 census. As a result,
the Seventh Plan stressed the need for the integrated development of small and medium
towns and the need for slowing the growth of metropolitan cities.

Main contribution of this plan was the creation of Urban Infrastructure

Development Finance Corporation to provide capital for the development of
infrastructure in small and medium towns. Beside all this two schemes namely, Urban
Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) and the Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY) were
initiated with the main objectives of poverty alleviation and the generation of urban
employment.

The Seventh Plan laid emphasis the revitalization of civic bodies and greater
devolution of funds to the local bodies. This plan stated that “serious efforts will be
made to involve voluntary agencies in various development programmes, particularly
in the planning and implementation of the programmes of the rural areas”.

During this plan an attempt was made to grant constitutional status to urban
local bodies as a precursor to their regeneration. On 7th August 1989, a bill was
introduced in the Lok Sabha to strengthen urban municipal bodies. This bill referred to
 46

as 65th Bill, 1989, incorporated some of the major recommendations of the National
Commission on Urbanization which submitted its report in August 1989. The bill
sought to create a third level of urban government, below the level of the union and the
states. But it was failed to pass in the Rajya Sabha in 1989. After the modifications the
bill was reintroduced for ratification as 74th Bill in 1992, and the Act came to force on
March 1993.

Meanwhile, report of the National Commission clearly pointed out the critical
deficiencies in various services of infrastructure, the concentration of poor and deprived
people, the acute disparities in the access to the shelter and basic services, deteriorating
environmental quality and the impact of poor governance on the productivity and the
income of enterprises in the cities.

Urban component was accorded only of secondary importance in previous

plans. These plans also suffered from many shortcomings mentioned below:

These plans did not gave any comprehensive appreciation of the India’s urban
problems, nor was there any framework for dealing with the increasing problems of
urbanization. Though the urban population was one-sixth of the total population in
1951 and over one-fourth in 1991, the outlay for the urban development was less than
three per cent in virtually all plans. It was pointed out that, “the central and state
governments pursued laissez-faire policies of urban development”.

There has been a strong feeling that urban problems escalated because of that
there was not any clear cut policy or even philosophy for the urban development.
Ashish Bose (1971) lamented about the “lack of social philosophy for the urban
development”. This could be due to the compulsion finding a solution first to the rural
problems, therefore, the emphasis on urban development took the back seat.

Another important missing dimension in the plan documents was the element of
the people’s participation. Besides this, there was a very wide gap between the
promises and performances.

The most important lacuna was in not giving urban development an independent
identity. Because urban development was often associated with work, housing, water
supply and health. At the state level also urban development responsibilities were
diffused.
 47

Above all these weaknesses, one of most glaring errors was in the fact that there have
been policy proposals on the policy of industry, agricultural improvement and
population growth but there has been no national urban policy until the Eighth Five
year Plan.

Table 2.1 shows that, the plans for the urban sector despite of its increasing
importance has declined significantly.

Table 2.1: Plan Outlays in Housing and Urban Development in India

Funds allocated in
Share from
Total outlay housing and urban
Plan total
(in crores of Rs) development
(in percentage)
(in crores of Rs)
First Plan 20,688 488 2.1
Second Plan 48,000 1,200 2.5
Third Plan 85,765 1,276 1.5
Fourth Plan 1,57,788 2,702 1.7
Fifth Plan 3,94,262 11,500 2.9
Sixth Plan 9,75,000 24,884 2.6
Seventh Plan 1,800,000 42,295 2.3
Eighth Plan 4,341,000 1,05,000 2.4
Source: Census of India, 2001

Eighth Five-Year Plan (1992-97)

This plan encouraged investments in urban development. It emphasized the

government to play a role of creating an environment that would encourage people’s
initiatives rather than making them dependent on the government.

This plan also emphasized on the ‘Human Development’. Thus the Eighth Plan
was qualitatively different from the previous plans in its aims, because, only through
this plan a clear cut progress was expected in urban governance.

The Eighth Five Year Plan, for instance, emphasized human development as the
core for all developmental efforts. The plan recognized for the greater involvement of
the voluntary agencies that have the ability to demonstrate and innovate and act as
support mechanisms to local level institutions. It also recognized the role of the
 48

government in facilitating the process of the people’s involvement by creating the right
type of institutional infrastructure.

Ninth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002)

The main objectives of this plan were for “ushering a new era of people
oriented participative planning, in which people at large and especially poor can
participate”.

This plan envisaged for the expansion and improvement in social infrastructure
like health care, education, housing, water supply and sanitation in urban areas. For
some sectors like housing, it was emphasized to achieve specific targets within a
defined time frame for other sectors such as health and education. Efforts were made to
achieve substantial expansion and improvement in the quality of services. Thus, urban
domains got the recognition it deserved in this plan.

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-2007)

In this plan the priority was given to the development of decentralized Urban
Local Bodies (ULBs) structure to cope with the demand for basic infrastructural
facilities needed in cities for their proper growth. The role of the ULBs was very
important for the urban development. They should improve their capabilities by
equipping themselves to undertake their tasks in resource raising, services provision
and poverty alleviation.

As the previous reports emphasized, “the feeling that urban planning ignores the
needs of the urban poor”, have been dispelled through “effective actions to meet these
needs” in this plan. In this connection it was stated that,the urban development
authorities that acquires the growth of cities should reserves a major part of such lands
to meet the requirements of the weaker sections. An outlay of Rs 29,719 crore was
allotted to the Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation.

This plan also stressed more on the proper availability of infrastructural

facilities like roads, sanitation, housing, education, health and recreation for the
improvement of quality of life of the people living in urban areas.

After examining these plans we can easily say that, despite having very positive
and promising goals, these measures really did not benefit people living in cities, nor
helped in improving their social welfare. A main reason for this situation is the uneven
 49

and tremendous growth of urban population which has laid an enormous pressure on
present civic amenities in cities.

In India the urban population living in during pre-independence years in 1941

was 13.9 per cent in 1941, which rose to 17.3 per cent in 1951 after the independence.
Before independence nearly 15 per cent of people were living in towns and now their
share has become just double. The reasons for an increase in urban population are
many, but the main reason has been a continues flow of rural population to urban
areas.

The growth of urban areas in India is related with a shift of a significant

proportion of population from villages to urban areas in search of better livelihood.
During the period of 1961-71 about 24 million people migrated from rural to urban
areas. Each year on an average about 4 million people migrate to cities like Mumbai,
Delhi and Kolkata. McGee (1995) has described this type of migration in the Third
World Countries as ‘pseudo-urbanization’, because it is not a consequence of
industrialization or other allied causes but is the product of failure to reform the
agricultural structure which has resulted in rural poverty. The reality is that because of
the sick urban phenomenon in million cities of India unemployment has risen, earnings
have gone down which also have degraded the quality of life in cities.

Table 2.2 Trends of Urbanization in India-1901-2001

Rate of Decadal
Census Total population Urban population
urbanization increase
year (in lakhs) (in lakhs) (in per cent) ( in per cent)
1901 2384.0 259 10.8
1911 2520.9 254 10.3 0.35
1921 2513.3 281 11.2 8.22
1931 2789.8 335 12.0 19.14
1941 3186.6 441 13.9 31.97
1951 3610.9 624 17.9 41.38
1961 4392.3 789 18.0 26.41
1971 5481.6 1091 19.9 38.28
1981 6833.3 1597 23.2 46.02
1991 8443.2 2171 25.7 36.19
2001 10270.2 2853 27.7 31.39
Source: Census of India, 2001
 50

Massive urban growth has led to complex problems of inadequacy of basic

urban services. About 21per cent of urban population is living in squatter settlements
where access to the basic services are very poor or of very substandard. About 80per
cent of population leaving in urban areas though has access to safe drinking water but
there are severe deficiencies with regard to equitable distribution of water. As per
estimates available about 46per cent of households have water borne toilets whereas
only 36per cent are connected with public sewerage system. Almost half of the solid
waste generated in towns and cities remains uncollected. The town roads are inadequate
to meet the growing traffic demand which in turn leads to traffic congestion.
Inadequacy of minimum basic services in urban areas have resulted in deterioration of
quality of life. The infrastructure development could not keep pace with rate of
urbanization. The Urban Local Bodies (ULB) and Municipal Corporations are
primarily responsible for providing minimum basic services to the inhabitants. The
ULBs/Municipal Corporations are unable to cope up with the increasing demand of
providing quality urban services in towns and cities due to lack of resources. From time
to time Government of India has provided central assistance through number of
centrally sponsored schemes like Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme, Low
Cost Sanitation Programme, and Mega City Scheme National Slum Development
Prorgramme, Swarna Jayanthi Shahari Rozgar Yojana, Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojna
and Scheme for Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns have been
initiated for the improvement of infrastructure in towns and cities. In order to bridge the
resource gap that towns and cities are facing today. The Jawaharlal Nehru National
Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) was lunched. It is a Mission mode approach that
integrates the two pressing needs-massive investments/resource required for
infrastructure development and at the same time urban reforms those are required to
sustain big investments. JNNURM is a reform oriented assistance fund which would
be provided as a grant to 63 identified large cities in the country and will cover all other
towns under Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns
(UIDSSMT), a component of JNNURM. The Mission aims to encourage reforms and
fast track infrastructure development. The focus is on efficiency in urban infrastructure
and service delivery mechanism, community participation, accountability of ULBs /
Parastatal agency towards citizens. Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for
Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) subsumed the existing schemes of Integrated
 51

Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT) and Accelerated Urban Water
Supply Programme (AUWSP). The objectives of the schemes are:

• To improve infrastructural facilities and help create durable public assets and
quality oriented services in cities & towns,

• To enhance public-private-partnership in infrastructural development and

• To promote planned integrated development of towns and cities.

There is a need to evolve a strategy to address the problems of urbanizing areas

for the stipulation of infrastructural services. Large investments for urban infrastructure
development like roads, rails, power, sanitation, sewerages and telecommunication are
required for accelerating the growth in economy and upliftment of social welfare.

K) Infrastructural Facilities in Aligarh City

The level of urban infrastructure and services in the city present a grim picture with
regard to availability of basic services like water supply, sanitation, solid waste
management, health care and education.

Only 23.86 sq. km. of the area is covered by the water distribution network with
a length of 612 km. Total number of water connections in the city amounts to 47263,
the duration of water supply is about 4 hrs per day, and during the summer months
people face a serious problem as the water supply more of the remains absent for the
entire day.

The city has a underground sewer line with a total length of 45 km, out of which
6 km is trunk line. These lines have completed their term of usability and are in very
bad condition. There are 50 large drains in total with a total length of 68.33 km and
with a length of 1276.92 km of small drains. The waste water generated amounts to
65.84 MLD. Out of the total water consumption of 82.3MLDfrom the ULB and non-
ULB sources, the waste water generated is calculated on the basis of sewerage return
factor taken as 0.8 MLD which indicates that 80 per cent of water supply returns as
sewerage. The drainage in the city depends totally on pumping of the water. There are
five pumping stations and ten pumping sets, and half of them are outdated and in bad
condition.
 52

Aligarh city has been divided into seven sanitary wards, each ward is looked
after by a Sanitary Inspector for streamlining the cleansing work. About 400 m.t. solid
waste is generated in city each day. A new pilot project of A-Z as a part of
infrastructure improvement has been started door to door garbage and waste collection.
Around 2940 households are served by this project. Arrangements have been made for
the collection of waste from the main residential areas and market places, for this
purpose 3 tractors have been put for work at night. The waste is disposed in open dump
sites, the total quantity of waste disposed off is 12000 m.t./month. More than 2007
workers are engaged to handle solid waste collection and disposal.

Health care provided by public sector include Department of Medical. Health

and Family Welfare and by the private sectors. Primary health care in city is provided
through 11urban health posts and seven health and family welfare sub centers. In
Aligarh there are only three government run secondary/ tertiary hospitals. The J.N
Medical College is run by the Aligarh Muslim University with the financial assistance
received from central government and rest of three comes under the direct management
of state government.

Aligarh has inadequacy in basic infrastructural facilities in terms of quality and

quantity both. These problems are increasing day by day due to the high rate of
population growth which puts enormous pressure on limited civic amenities. The rate
of land use for urban purposes was substantially moderate until the 1980’s, but the
1990’s witnessed sharp increase in land uses. The land use for urban development
during the last 15 years has been estimated to be 1.43 km/ year. According to District
Urban Development Authority (DUDA), there are about 128 registered slums with total
population of 380,776. Over a period of a decade, most of the slums have been
converted in to colonies. In order to improve housing conditions and quality of life of
people in Aligarh, DUDA has implemented several schemes like, Swarn Jayanti Seheri,
Rojgar Yojna, Thrift and Credit Yojna and Valmiki Ambedkar Awas Yojna,for the
vulnerable population and infrastructural improvement

Urban Development: Review of Literature

Urban geographers have examined patterns and trends of urbanization and

development in regional settings at macro and micro levels. Social consciousness about
 53

the attainment of civic amenities and variations therein have attracted attention of urban
geographers and planners.

Scholars working in this field, and in different countries including India have
carried out research on a wide spectrum of urban development. They have taken a
number of aspects and problems of towns and cities, and suggested a wide range of
measures to improve infrastructural facilities for social welfare.

a) Studies related to countries of the world

One of the earliest attempts on this aspect was made by Taylor (1946) on
urbanization, urban development and urbanism in his work. He has mentioned some
important aspects related to towns and cities.

Snails (1953) provided the basic outlines for the study of towns in which he
considered significance of growth of urban population, housing conditions and other
amenities.

Jones (1966) worked on different towns and cities of the world and mentioned
the problems associated with infrastructural facilities, and discussed the impact of civic
amenities on the social welfare.

Mayer and Kohn (1967) also contributed much to urban geography. According
to them, urban development is very important as far as the development of cities is
concerned.

Wilson (1969) has based his study on the quality of life in cities of the United
States. He selected some indictors like domestic goods, economic status of an
individual, equality, democratic problems, education, economic growth, living
conditions and health to examine the quality of life in urban areas.

Drewnoiski (1970) considered the welfare generation functions in 18

metropolitan cities of U.S.A. Local conditions like housing, health and education are
the major indicators for maintaining and planning of the quality of life in urban areas.
He investigated the quality of life by selecting 14 indicators to include employment,
income, housing, health, public order, racial equality, citizen’s participation, air quality,
education and social disintegration. He considered residential quality, health facilities
and recreational facilities for determining the social welfare status.
 54

Gilbert (1975) attempted to examine the urban development and planning in

developed and developing countries of the world, and concluded the study by pointing
out the countries belonging to developed world also suffer from failure in planning. It is
a mere assumption, that the planning work is sound in developed countries, if right
strategies are undertaken in developing countries they may prove successful.

Knox (1975) suggested that, levels of living in urban areas provides best
framework for the development of social life. The levels of living in cities with the
given geographic constraints are constituted by the composition of infrastructural
facilities like housing, health, employment, education and security.

Harrison and Gibson (1975) have examined the problems people face in urban
areas because of inadequate urban infrastructural amenities, and have suggested some
measures to improve the quality of life.

de Souza (1978) in his work has evaluated poverty, ecology and urban
development and stressed, that the main cause of the urban poverty is due to inadequate
civic amenities, specially lack of housing is one of the main reasons for poverty in
India.

Smith (1979) evaluated the concept of urban development by selecting ten

major indicators pertaining to social welfare. According to him, income, education and
health are the most appropriate indicators to measure the quality of life.

Herbert and Johntson (1980) worked to signify the availability of infrastructural

facilities in cities, and emphasizing the residential structure and urban environment.

Pietro (1980) evaluated the public services and their effects on the quality of life
in towns. Inadequate provision of services in cities is due to the bureaucratic attitude of
municipal boards of the cities. He has suggested some measures for the improvement
of services in cities.

Kent and Sandoval (1984) with the help of postal survey in 114 districts of
Central Sierra of Peru have tried to investigate the state of provision of public
infrastructure. They have identified deficiencies in water supply, electricity, drainage,
health care and educational facilities in selected areas.

Hillman (1984) attempted to study in historical and geographical framework the

planned infrastructural development in London city during the past fifty years.
 55

Eberhard and Bernsten (1984) have presented a conceptual framework for the
urban services. According to them, the term infrastructure not only means the physical
infrastructure in the form of roads, sanitation, solid waste management, but it defines
the changing requirements of modern urban communities, and the capacity of the
institution and technology to meet the demand of urban infrastructural facilities.

Patton (1984) has attempted to study the problems of detritions of urban

amenities in U.S.A. on the basis of some selected variables: high ways, water system,
dams and roads, and found variations in the availability of these facilities in different
parts of the country.

Kalpan (1984) considered the magnitude of regional disparities in

infrastructural services in some parts of U.S.A., and accounted for per capita
availability in selected services.

Redclift (1992) discussed numerous aspects of development in urban areas and

suggested that, the development should be rational to improve the quality of life of the
people.

Hoff and Stenberg (1993) have studied Indonesia’s Integrated Urban

Infrastructure Development Programme (IIUIDP). Basically they have evaluated the
functioning and performance of IIUIDP.

Fox (1994) has tried to examine the levels of urban facilities, prior to that of
making investments on infrastructure development in urban areas. He suggests, that the
management of telecommunication, electricity supply, transportation and the solid
waste should be carried out on a private basis, so that, the quality of urban life can be
improved.

Browder, Bohland and Scarpaci (1995) have attempted to evaluate the status of
urban amenities in the fringe areas of some of the developing countries and highlighted
their poor status where they are poorly developed.

Azizi (1995) has analyzed the key infrastructural facilities like sanitation, roads,
water supply and electricity in his study of Iran. He attempted to show how the
government has failed to provide civic amenities in urban areas of Iran. A sizable
number of families still live in slums in some parts of the country with no basic
facilities.
 56

Bond (1999) has examined the significance of basic infrastructure in socio-

economic development and environmental protection. He suggested that, the
investment should be made on water and sanitation system, roads, electricity at the
municipal level. These facilities should be made accessible to low income groups in
South Africa.

Lewin and Strauss (1999) has studied the access to basic services and, variation
in the distribution of resources in Capetown district of South Africa among the racial
groups during the apartheid period. They have also discussed the initiatives taken by
the government to improve the environmental quality and health of people in the
district.

Pacione (2001) examined the rate of increase in urban population in third world
cities. He has asserted that, how the population residing in the cities is less equipped
with infrastructural facilities to cope up with urbanization. He points out that, the
process of urbanization in third world cities is consummative rather then generative.

Ribeiro and Srisawan (2005) have discussed the problems of infrastructural

development in association with environment in urban areas of Russia. They have
asserted, if proper provision of amenities is made in these urban areas can improve the
environment.

Swilling (2006) has highlighted the importance of economic sustainability in

city infrastructure plans and investments. He has reviewed the South African
government’s plans with reference to investments and infrastructural facilities for
improving the socio-economic conditions of the people.

b) Studies related to India

Some of the studies undertaken on parts of India are reviewed as under:

Singh (1955) studied the pattern of urbanization, urban development and

problems related with urban infrastructure in the city of Banaras of Utter Pradeh.

Alam (1965) has presented a systematic account of the urban landscape of twin
cities of Hyderabad and Secanderabad of Andhra Pradesh, and also has discussed the
infrastructural facilities available with them and their impact on the quality of life of
people of the state.
 57

Misra (1972) has attempted to evaluated the relevance of urban infrastructural

facilities in the regional planning. He is of the opinion that, infrastructural development
is a key factor in urban life and the development of cities. He has suggested various
measures in solving the problems related with the quality of life in urban areas.

Aziz (1973) has studied the urban influence of Aligarh city on the literacy of
population living in surrounding villages and on functions of trade and commerce,
manufacturing, agriculture and other services. The selection of villages was on the basis
of distance from city center.

Singh (1978) has studied the problems pertaining to urban development in

India. He pointed out that of in bringing, the local governments of the states (municipal
bodies) were incapable improvements in conditions of cities due to paucity of
resources. He has asserted for the creation of special purpose bodies to undertake
specific urban development programmes like, housing, road improvements, provision
of health and educational facilities. He has suggested that, government should create
small and medium towns with urban facilities around the big cities to check the
migration of rural population to urban areas.

Bhattacharya (1979) has attempted to trace the history of urban development in

India from quite far back years up to the 20th century, and also identifies the factors
which have contributed to the urban development.

Rao (1982) has discussed the problems associated with the dispersal of urban
infrastructure. According to him slums, congestion and lack of civic amenities are the
major causes for low quality urban environment, which in turn affects the social
welfare in the urban areas. He has suggested some effective urban development
policies.

Kopardekar (1986) has examined the process of urban growth and development
trends in India and other developing countries within the frame of social, economic,
environmental and administrative policies

Verma (1989) has analyzed the patterns of urban growth in India considering
the components of regional development and civic amenities, which can help in the
healthy process of urbanization and enrichment of standard of living.
 58

Fakhruddin (1991) has attempted to study the quality of life in different

residential areas of Lucknow city. For understanding the study he selected 28 variables
pertaining to residential patterns, and 31 variables related to the quality of life. He
outlined five categories of housing conditions, territorial stress, and civic amenities
like, health, education and recreation.

Ahmad (1992) has attempted to ascertain the quality of life in Aligarh city and
found that the city lacks in infrastructural facilities. She pointed many problems like,
old and unplanned housing conditions, sewage problems, leading to waterlogging,
which results in several epidemic diseases.

Mohanty (1993) has undertaken the study on the provision of basic services like
water supply and sanitation in three big cities of Delhi, Bhubaneshwar and Raurkela,
and suggested an urgent need for improvement and increment of financing for basic
amenities in the cities

Ranjan (1997) in his study of some towns and cities in India has commented on
unplanned growth of urban centers and stresses on infrastructural facilities like shortage
of housing, roads, inadequate medical and educational facilities, less power and many
other problems.

Saxena (1997) has critically evaluated the Aligarh Master Plan. She has
emphasized that, proper basic amenities and facilities are inadequate in the city for the
proper urban development.

Singh and Rehman (1998) have analysed the problems of housing and health in
the low income households of the Aligarh city, and suggested for improvements in
infrastructural facilities.

Sharma (1999) has tried to underscore the importance of human development in

urban society, which in turn leads to economic development. He has presented a
comparative picture of the quality of life in different states of India. He has suggested
that, the provision of basic infrastructural facilities in backward states can be enhanced
with the pace of infrastructural development.

Singh (2001) has critically analyzed the urban development and planning, and a
number of socio-economic problems. He pointed out that, the medium, small towns and
 59

cities are the main sufferers in this process because enormous resources are being
pumped into big cities leaving very little for small cities.

Majumdar (2003) has examined the regional variations in the availability of

infrastructural facilities in a number of urban regions in India. According to him, first
step towards the development should be the equal distribution of infrastructural
facilities by implementing integrated regional development programmes in urban areas.

Bhakar and Bhargava (2003) have attempted to find out inter-district disparities
in infrastructural development in the state of Rajasthan. They have selected seven
sectoral indices for evaluating disparities in development processes like education,
health, transport, communication, banking, corporate and power indicators.

Dove (2004) attempted to evaluate urban development in the state of Andhra

Pradesh in India, and suggested how the sustainable changes can improve the life of
poors in cities. He suggested that, the municipalities and other local bodies are bound to
provide civic amenities and social welfare in cities of the state.

Dhaliwal (2004) has attempted to analyse some of the major issues pertaining to
urban development in Indian cities with special reference to infrastructural facilities.
The study deals with existing, emerging and future problems to be faced by local
bodies with regard to infrastructural facilities.

Basak (2005) has evaluated the housing development in northeastern regions of

India, and found on acute shortage of houses. He has suggested that, the government
should provide houses to the people belonging to mainly low income groups for an
effective and balanced urban development.

Tyagi (2005) by using GIS and Remote Sensing techniques has suggested that
municipal bodies in the cities should made effective allocations of civic amenities in
cities.

Majumdar (2005) has analyzed the status of urban development in the state of
Jammu and Kashmir, and has highlighted inadequate infrastructural facilities which are
hindering the sustainable development He stresses for the initiatives to be undertaken
for the waste disposal, provision of safe drinking water and transport.

Siddhartha and Mukherjee (2005) have tried to evaluate the on the cities, their
functions and the processes of urbanization in Indian cities. They have confined their
 60

study with the origin of the cities, and accounting factors which have influenced the
origin and growth.

Jetli and Sethi (2006) have discussed the infrastructural development in post
independence period in India, and suggested some important measures for the
improvement in the provision of amenities for the better quality of life.

India Urban Infrastructure Report (2006) as published by the Government of

India has highlighted the unequal distribution of urban infrastructure facilities in the
country like in urban transport, urban water supplies and disposal of waste water, solid
waste management and urban health and education. The same report shows disparities
in the availability of facilities among different states of the country. The report also
incorporates some suggestions for the improvement in the governance, delivery of
urban services and better urban planning.

Sultana (2008) has highlighted the issues pertaining to Muslim population and
social well-being in Aligarh city. She has computed an index for socio-economic
development by assigning score values for each variable, she has selected to illustrate
the study.

Patra (2010) has examined the inter-regional variations in infrastructural

facilities across 30 districts of the state of Orissa. He has applied ‘Principal
Component’ technique to compute a ‘composite index’ of infrastructure by integrating
various components of infrastructural services.
 61

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