Stone Age and Pre-history of India:

By: Bipin R. Shah and Praveen Singh Parihar

Introduction to Pre-history

First of all I want to acknowledge the field work done by my young friend Praveen Singh
Parihar, who has supplied me much of the field data of his field work conducted in Central
India. For easy understanding for the readers, we like to restate the difference between
various phases of stone ages as defined by the archeologists and anthropologist. The
Paleolithic era of human history is a prehistoric period characterized by the development of
the most primitive stone tools. Paleolithic age goes back further in time and was the longest
period in the human history. It has three stages as categorized by the development of stone
technology for these early humanoid. These three stages of stone technology were based on
selection of material and sophistication of the tools. These phases are early, middle and last
phase also called as Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. Mesolithic word derives from Greek
word “mesos” meaning middle and “litho” means stone. Mesolithic culture was followed by
Paleolithic. Neolithic stage followed Mesolithic. The term Neolithic is the most advanced
state of Stone Age where sophistication of stone tools were well developed. The brief outline
from various sources can be summarized below. The dates are approximate as new
discoveries keep pushing the date back in the time.
Outline of India’s Stone Age history
Riwaitian People 1, 900,000 BC
Soanian People 500,000 BC
Stone Age 100,000- 6000 BC
Indus-saraswati 6000-2500 BC Bronze age agriculturalist
Iron Age 2500- BC Elamite (Tamil) and Aryan arrivals

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Riwaitian People derives their name from place called Riwat (Rawat, Murree) that is a Lower
Paleolithic site in Punjab, northern Pakistan, providing evidence of Homo occupation outside
Africa, dating to 1.9 million years ago not yet factored in any Genographic studies. The site
was uncovered in 1983 AD. The artifacts which consist of flakes and cores were made from
quartzite. Another site shows a later occupation dated around 45,000 years ago. The Soanian
on the other hand is an archaeological culture of the Lower Paleolithic (ca. 500,000 to 125,000
BC) in India, Contemporary to the Acheulean, it is named after the Soan Valley in the Shivalik
Hills of India where most of the major Rivers of India originates. Various local tributaries carry
similar names. Mr. Parihar, and my coauthor works in Sone river valley of Central India and
have found similar evidence and that will be reported here. Mr. Parihar, my co-author has an
undergraduate degree and he is studying the archeology and works in the field all the time as
shown below from his pictures. He has discovered various stone tools and cave painting in
central India known in Hindi language as “Madhya Pradesh” (Middle India).

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 Stone Age Tools from various sources

Mr. Parihar’s discovery of cave painting and rock shelter, habitat of early humans.

In a nutshell, this early history of human in India can be described as starting from the
Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Period all the way to the beginning of the Indus-

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Saraswati civilization when agriculturalist and pastoralists settled and constructed very large
and well planned cities conducting trades with distant lands (8000-2600 BC). This early
prehistoric period of India perhaps started as far as over million years ago by some experts,
although National geographic genome study places modern human migration out of Africa to
India around 80,000-100,000 years ago and probably lasted until 8000 BC when Indus-
saraswati age began. However, the new data coming out of genome project may move the
date even further. The field data shows that the humanoid lived in India for a very long time.

Some analyses of mitochondrial DNA data suggest the immigration of Homo sapiens to South
Asia to as early as 100,000 or even earlier from Africa and they may have discovered the
presence of other humanoid species. An analysis of Y chromosome Haplogroups found with
one man in a village near Madurai, South India turned out to be a direct descendant of these
early people.

This modern human presence was extensive and spread to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia
by around 40,000 years ago. The Cave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest record of
modern Human in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago. While some finds in
Uttar Pradesh are dated to 18000 -20000 years ago, the discovery of various megalithic sites
throughout India by Subhasis Das have demonstrated as an additional proof that India is the
ancient land of modern human and other humanoid species. Bhimbetka cave painting is one
of many sites where the humans lived throughout the Paleolithic age. Some cave paintings
are dated as far as 30,000 BC. There is round saucer like depressions found at the end of the
Auditorium Rock Shelter that is dated by some estimate as far as 100,000 years ago. The
Himalaya Shivalik and some region of Pakistan also show foot print of humans (sonian
people) with finds of Paleolithic era stone tools. India has abundant sites to indicate that it
was the home of other unknown humanoid species as well as early modern humans who first
migrated out of Africa and spent thousands of years in India before moving out to populate
the world. The map below shows the sites location of various stages of human development.

Mr. Parihar -Explorer

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Prehistoric sites of India

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 Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Bhimbetka cave painting in Madhya Pradesh

In the mid-19th century, English and Indian archaeologists in southern India identified hand
axes comparable to those of Stone Age of Europe. Since then significant field work have been
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done by ASI archeologists of India in evaluating and cataloging the burgeoning body of
evidence that correlate Indian chronologies of Stone Age with the Mediterranean
chronologies. This work is still continuing. The Genome project undertaken by National
Geographic society corroborates the field work of archeologists and it is worth mentioning
here their research.
Genome Project by National geographic society

To uncover modern human history and migration, the genome project was funded and
sponsored by NGS in USA, and over 700,000 DNA samples were collected from all over the
world to chart human ancestry and reveal our earlier past and the history of migration along
with the interrelationship of today’s world population. Although, small percentages of our
DNA is not traceable and is attributed to other hominid species that interbred with modern
humans. Those ancestors were most likely were Stone Age people and migration theory as
proposed by Genome project have not explained the presence or migration of these Stone
Age people across the globe. The dates proposed by Genome project is subject to change and
may go back to earlier period. The most recent posting by Archeology news Network
reported that neglect have caused the defacing of ancient painting near Agra, (See below)
that dates back to ancient time.

Defaced painting near old sites near Agra near seat of Archeological survey of India
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Miguel Vilar posted in Explorer Journal the most recent research findings on India. He wrote:

“For ten years, Genographic Project scientists have explored and explained how patterns in our DNA show
evidence of migration and expansion routes of our ancient ancestors across the globe. DNA has shown that
genetically (note the word Genetically) modern humans arose in Africa some 150,000 years ago, and left Africa
around 60,000-100,000 years ago in series of migration and went east into Asia, north into Europe, and south
into Australia. But new research from Genographic Project, the scientists of India shows that eventually some of
them also moved back west, and brought their language with them.” This is indeed a startling revelation
as some have claimed support out of India theory in context of early history and how Proto-
Sanskrit can be the mother of all indo-European languages. He further states: “Genographic
Project scientists Drs. Ramaswami Pitchappan and Ganesh Prasad Arun Kumar from Tamil Nadu, India, analyzed
the Y-chromosome (paternally-inherited) DNA from more than 10,000 men from South India. The findings,
published in the Journal of Systematic and Evolution, showed that in the last 8,000 years humans expanded
west from Southeast Asia and entered back India. This previously undetected migration is evident from the
frequency and diversity of a specific genetic clan, or haplogroup, in that part of the world. The Genographic
scientists found a much higher frequency of haplogroup O2a1 in their research than expected. Since O2a1 is
accepted as the founding lineage of Austro-Asiatic languages (a group of related languages from Southeast Asia),
the origin and spread of this lineage gives clues on the history of these speakers and the region. The study shows
a clear decrease in age and diversity of haplogroup O2a1 from Laos to East India.” explains Dr. Arun Kumar
about his findings.

Dr. Arun Kumar working in the field collects samples in the field in eastern India. But why did they focus on just
one haplogroup, when there are hundreds of distinct Haplogroups in Asia? “The Y chromosomal haplogroup
O2a1 accounts for almost 15 percent of Indian male lineages and 58 percent of male lineages from Southeast
Asia, and the distribution of this haplogroup matches the distribution of Austro-Asiatic languages (i.e.
Vietnamese, Cambodian, Munda, and Nicobarese), and some of these Austro-Asiatic speaking populations are
100-percent haplogroup O2a1,” adds Dr. Arun Kumar. Thus understanding the distribution of O2a1 sheds light
on the origin and movement of people in that part of the world.

Haplogroup O2a1

Around the darkest red spot in southern Asia in the map below, two small arrows indicate the westward
movement of people of haplogroup O2a1 from Laos back into India. (Image courtesy The Genographic Project)
Previous Genographic Project studies have also shown strong correlations between language and frequency of a
certain haplogroup. Examples include the relationship between Indo-European languages and paternal
haplogroup R1, and Austronesia languages and mitochondrial DNA (maternal) haplogroup B4. In each case,
language similarities paralleled genetic similarities. So, does this mean that the language you speak is ingrained
in your DNA? Well no, but even though language is learned (nurture) and DNA is inherited (nature), the two are
undoubtedly interconnected and, as the study have shown it is correlated. More research is continuing. In
previous genetic research in India has revealed very deep branches, or Haplogroups, of the human family tree.
India is home to maternal macro-Haplogroups M and N, among many others Like H and L, the presumed
grandmothers to all non-African maternal lineages. With regards to paternal Haplogroups, India is the birthplace
of haplogroup R1, the most common group in Europe; haplogroup Q, the grandfather of most Native American
lineages; and even Haplogroups C and D, the oldest paternal branches outside of Africa. India is also home to its
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own unique Haplogroups – such as H and L – found almost nowhere else in the world. The diversity and history
of the region are both rich and complex, and we are just now starting to piece them together.”

Courtesy national geographic Society-Genome Project

Courtesy National Geography

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Devoting insufficient resources and restricting access to foreign archeologists, India is doing a
disservice to itself by delaying uncovering of our past. According to one theory of formation
of continent, if India in prehistory was separated from Africa by unknown geological event, it
is possible that humans resided in India just like Africa over one million years ago. However,
more discoveries and search have to done to certify that claim.

Field Work by Mr. Parihar

The genome studies only relates to the migration of modern human and does not address the
presence of early humans or other humanoid species that thrived during the Stone Age in
India. North central India has number of old prehistoric sites. Madhya Pradesh (Central India)
has total ten River basins. As Madhya Pradesh is located in the center of India, most of the
rivers are interstate rivers, originating from mountain springs but connecting with major
rivers. The ten rivers namely, Chambal, Sindh, Betwa, Ken Rivers flow northward and meet
with Yamuna River, whereas the River Sone falls directly into River Ganges. Narmada, Tapi
and Mahi Rivers flow westward and meet Arabian Sea near Gujarat coast. The rivers
Waingangā and Pench meet Godavari River in the south.

Mr. Parihar’s work is focused on three districts of Madhya Pradesh (Central India). These
districts include “Satna, Sindh, Panna related Sone River valleys. His findings most likely
involve the “Soanian People” who may be there perhaps as far as 500,000 BC. The tribal of
India may have inherited their culture and customs.

Early human resided close to the water source where he can find games, fish and other edible
foods. The Sone river valley is a vast and has many Paleolithic sites. The Sone River also called
“Son” River is the largest of the southern tributaries of River Ganges originating in Shivalik
region. The local Sone River is fed by springs from mountain originating near Amarkantak in
Madhya Pradesh, just east of the headwater of the Narmada River, and flows north-
northwest through Madhya Pradesh state before turning sharply eastward where it
encounters the southwest-northeast-running Kaimur mountain range. The Sone parallels the
Kaimur hills, flowing east-northeast through Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bihar states to join
the Ganges just above Patna. The Son River of India runs 487 miles and it is the largest river of
India. Sidhhi (Sidhi) district of MP is benefitted by Sone rive and area is well known for its
natural beauty, its historical importance and rich cultural roots. Sidhhi possesses abundant
natural resources with the presence of Sone River. The district also has large coal deposits
which feed major industries across the country and attest to its antiquity.

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Satna and Panna have mostly Mesolithic and Neolithic rock paintings. Maihar in Satna have
very important sites of Neolithic and Mesolithic age. As the early human migrated constantly
searching for games, foods and hunters crisscrossed north-central Indian region leaving
remnants of hunter gatherers tools. This region has served well for hunter-gatherers-foragers
of early human tribes and various sites discovered spans Paleolithic era and covers also
Mesolithic-Neolithic periods. All these sites give us a valuable insight of development of tools
technology during various phases of human evolution. Kaimur hill range was the natural
habitat of these early hunter-gatherers.

Rock shelter for hunter-gatherers and rock art painting found at Pena (Parihar’s pictures)

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 Map showing young Mr. Parihar’s work- the districts are highlighted

Satna, Panna and Sidhhi (Sidhi) as marked in red in the map of Madhya Pradesh (above) have
number of rock paintings dating back to Mesolithic and Neolithic time period. The number of
rock painting have animals pictures as well as symbols carrying some religious or worshipping
meaning of the blessing from dead ancestors and probably was very important to that early
tribal culture and we found the evidence of its continuity now.( see examples below on hand
print on a house). We also find the hand prints in caves outside of India. Perhaps the ancient
belief was carried to other lands from India.

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 Mesolithic rock painting In Penna region of forest

Sone River Madhya Pradesh-India

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Sindh River General map of Madhya Pradesh River

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Tools and Technology
Initial technology involved hand axes that were made with exquisite craftsmanship, and
eventually pave the way to smaller, more diverse toolkits for hunter gatherers for higher
emphasis on flake tools rather than larger core tools. The River basins and hills provided
enough sources of materials to collect and make tools for hunting.

Paleolithic Hand Axes large and small found at Maihar region of Madhya Pradesh- Acheulean.

For easy understanding, Acheulean derived from the French word acheuléen used by
archeologist and anthropologist to characterize the stone toll manufacturing by early
humans. They are oval and pear-shaped "hand-axes" associated with hunter-gatherers of
Stone Age. Acheulean tools were produced during the lower Paleolithic age across India,
Europe, Africa and west Asia and are typically found with Homo erectus and Homo habilis
long time ago.

The primary technology associated with Acheulean hand-axes is that the stone was worked
symmetrically on both sides. For the latter reason, hand axes are, along with cleavers, bifacial
worked tools that could be manufactured from the large flakes themselves or from prepared
cores.

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 Clever and scrapper
Middle Paleolithic tools found in sone valley and Narkui River valley in Sidhhi district see
below.

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 Scraper, clever and small hand axes

Advanced (Upper Paleolithic) Blades, borers, side scrapers, concave scraper and misc tools in sone valley site
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Mr. Parihar’s search for rock painting in a forested region with rock shelter with a guide-satna district

Rock painting discovered in the same region by Mr. Parihar

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Use of tools and Rock Painting by the ancients
Obviously, the primary purpose of hunter-gatherers was the food and water for survival and
it was followed by secured shelter for warmth and family living. The nearby rivers attracted
animals and plenty of fish. The mountains that had natural rock formation and caves served
as shelter and protection from adverse weather. The tools, technology and invention became
necessity and determined the power of the clan or tribe.

Indian Antelope and Deer were the games for hunter gatherers

Rivers was the source of food and water as animals gathered for water drink and predator hunter gatherer

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 Our Stone Age ancestors

Family workshop and entertainment Real cave painting in India of bull

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 Tools were used to hunt, kill, defend and cure animal hide for clothing and covering for cold night

The numerous Cave paintings found in various part of India are painted on cave walls and
narrow cave ceilings of prehistoric origin that may date back to over 50,000 years ago in India
and other parts of world. The exact purpose of these Paleolithic cave paintings is not known
but we can speculate that to be a favorite past time leisure activity for family or clan
gathering or just an artist desire to leave something for posterity.

The sites may or may not be the living areas in some cases as some sites do not show the
habitation of early humans. There are many theories as to the intent of early humans. Some
theories suggest that it was past time activity when humans had a free time during inclement
weather or way of communicating with each others. Some speculate that it was for some
religious or ceremonial purpose. Most of the paintings found have animals as the objects like
Indian bull or antelope. It is interesting to note that the paintings are remarkably similar all
around the world. The handprints found In Madhya Pradesh and group dance for some
religious purpose suggest some support for above theories. The handprints are mostly hand
stencils made by blowing pigment on a hand held to the wall.

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 The painting of “group dance” in sone River valley in Siddhi district in Madhya Pradesh, India

“Group hunting party” -cave painting in penna district of Madhya Pradesh, India

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 An example of hand prints found in a cave in Argentina

Neolithic - Rock paintings from Penna district (see below)

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 Although this painting can be construed by some as flying bird or fish, Mr. Parihar believes that it is a religious
symbol found in Sone river valley in Siddhi district-MP, India

Mesolithic Tools of advanced design found in Sone and Belan river valley

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Significance Of hand prints:
The significance of hand prints becomes more obvious when we find in today’s house of
people living in Central India. The state of Madhya Pradesh located in the central part of India
is mostly inhabited by different tribal communities. Madhya Pradesh is home to a large tribal
population, who have not enjoyed the benefits of the development. Some of the tribal adapt
to their age old tradition. This makes Madhya Pradesh one of the least developed states in
India. Some of the aboriginal tribal groups residing in the state are Baigas, Bhilals, Bhils,
Gonds, Halba, Kamaras, Kols, Korkens, Murias, Oraons and Sahariya. Among these tribes,
Bhils are said to be a group of hunters and warriors. Most of the Oraons have now adapted to
Christianity. Not too long ago, they used to be semi-nomads of the prehistory, but now
almost everyone has settled down with some occupation. The agriculture is the main
occupation of the Panikas and the Khaiwas whereas the Mangetri Pradhans earn their
livelihood by dancing and singing. Some have escaped and got them education and moved
towards the city to take a professional job.

Tribal people with holy hand print on wall found in Sidhhi District

Interestingly, modernization have not deviated them from their unique age old traditions
and customs perhaps coming from stone age era as you can see from the above picture.
These are modern tribal people and their houses still show the hand prints on the wall either
as a good omen or divine ancestral protection from spirit world. This hardly shows any
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religious significance since there are multitudes of idols to be worshipped. The tribal
communities of Bhilalas and Bhils follow an exclusive method of marriage, where life partner
is chosen in “Bhagoriya Haat”, a fair organized for the matrimonial match. Strange custom
indeed, but, it reminds us of the generational handover of ancient customs and beliefs once
practiced probably by their ancestors.

To learn more about Stone Age era, there are several Utube videos and one that we
recommend are in 15 part series. The first link is given here and other links are found on the
same Utube page on side bar.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-7bqi70B3tE

REFERENCES:
1. Whitley, David S. (2009). Cave Paintings and the Human Spirit: The Origin of Creativity and
Belief. Prometheus, ISBN 978-1-59102-636-5.

2. Hammond, Norman (September 11, 2009). "Cave painters' giveaway handprints at Pech-
Merle". The Times, published 31 December 2012.

3. Ghosh, Pallab. "Cave paintings change ideas about the origin of art". BBC News. 8 October
2014.

4. "Modern Human Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of
South Asia" by James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). Current
Anthropology 46 (Supplement)

5. God-Apes and Fossil Men: Palaeo- anthropology of South Asia by Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian
Raine (2000), University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

6. Distribution of Acheulean sites in the Siwalik region- An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulean
& Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian – A Theoretical Perspective
by Parth R. Chauhan.

7., The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House, by Spencer Wells ISBN 0-8129-
7146-9

8 Genographic studies, Genome Project, The human Migration by National Geographic

Society of USA

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9. Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: a Working Synthesis “in Journal of World
Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic" by Fuller, Dorian 2006

10. Field work by student archeologist Mr. Praveen Parihar of India and following reference
papers by main author Bipin shah

11.
https://www.academia.edu/11676960/Our_Distant_Ancestors_and_their_migration_out_of
_India_during_prehistoric_times_and_peopling_of_the_world

12.

https://www.academia.edu/7299351/Genetic_History_of_People_of_India

13. http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/prehistoric/hand-stencils-rock-art.htm Prehistoric hand

stencil

14. An Inquiry into the Meaning of Prehistoric Red Ochre Handprints

http://worldhistoryconnected.press.illinois.edu/9.2/forum_kimball.html

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