Pipeline Service

e Journal
Issue 6 / 2017
Pipeline Technology Journal
OFFSHORE PIPELINES:
THE NEXT BIG THING IN PIPELINE DEVELOPMENT?
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PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 3
EDITORIAL
Offshore Pipelines:
The next big thing in pipeline development?
The boom of the past 20 years, especially in oil and gas pipelines
onshore transport, has resulted in remarkable developments in
construction, materials and predictive operations (safety, PIMS,
repair, etc.). Remarkable projects overcoming mountains, densely
populated areas, deserts and lakes have been realized with Dr. Klaus Ritter
high engineering skills. Due to problems identified by the Editor in Chief
meticulous monitoring the operation of transport pipelines,
engineers and scientists have continuously implemented rec-
ommendations and changes in the construction, operation and
maintenance of existing pipelines.
In Germany, for example, this has led to a 90% reduction in the frequency of not planned shut-
downs for operational reasons within 30 years. Take a look at the last issue of ptj for details
about this stunning development. Today, Pipelines are safe worldwide. Nonetheless, the res-
ervations of the population, especially in the industrialized countries, have risen sharply with
regard to new construction measures.
Today we need to pay more attention to offshore pipelines, because the world’s hunger for en-
ergy will not decrease so quickly. On the other hand, more and more onshore oil and gas fields
are being shut down and more and more offshore storage facilities are being developed. The
research and development focus here is somewhat different - especially in the field of mate-
rials. However, there is also much room for improvement regarding security and operational
issues.
The Pipeline Technology Conference will become more involved in this area in the future and
will provide operators, administrators, as well as technology and service providers with a plat-
form for the exchange of scientific and technical development. The present ptj and the 13th ptc
standing before us offer a good start.
We are working constantly to uphold the continuous exchange within the international pipeline
community. You are welcome to make use of the extensive opportunities we created. Kindly
find additional information on our websites or contact us directly via mail:
• eitep@eitep.de
• www.pipeline-journal.net
• www.pipeline-conference.com
Yours,
> Dr. Klaus Ritter, President EITEP Institut

4 PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL
DECEMBER 2017 / ISSUE 6
THIS ISSUE’S COMPLETE CONTENT

TECHNICAL ARTICLES
RESEARCH / DEVELOPMENT / TECHNOLOGY
Inspecting Pipelines With Discovery™, The World’s Only Subsea CT Scanner

Jennifer Briddon / Ben Metcalfe 06
Tracerco
Risk Reduction of Dropped Objects on Pipelines around Offshore Platforms

Henning Bø 16
TDW Offshore Services
Systematic Handling and “Live” Repair of Gas Pipeline Leaks

Asle Venas / Jens P. Tronskar / Lee Chon Gee 26
DNV GL
Integrity of Subsea Pipeline Butt Welds through Design, Construction & Operational Life
Harry Cotton / Istvan Bartha 50
Wood plc.
Innovative Technology of Non–Contact Magnetic Tomography for Subsea Pipeline

N. H. A. Ahmad / R. Z. Ismail / M. P. Othman / I. Kolesnikov 62
Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd / PETRONAS
Ultra-deep Water Gas Pipelines Collapse and Consequences

Hossein Pirzad / Leif Collberg / Samaneh Etemadi 68
EGIS / DNV GL / University of Oslo
Regional Report 38
Chinese Gas Market on the Rise

– Impact on the Pipeline and Pipe Industry (Preliminary Understanding)
REPORTS
CONFERENCES / SEMINARS / EXHIBITIONS
 www.linkedin.com/groups/4740567 ptc 2018 Preview 78

Company Directory
 www.twitter.com/pipelinejournal ptj Job & Carrer Market 82 Page 84
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Pipeline.Technology.Conference Event Calender 87
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INSPECTING PIPELINES WITH DISCOVERY™,
THE WORLD’S ONLY SUBSEA CT SCANNER
Jennifer Briddon > Tracerco; Ben Metcalfe > Tracerco
As an increasingly large number of ‘unpiggable’ pipe systems approach the end of

their design life, Operators are requiring new and innovative inspection technolo-
gies to verify that their pipelines remain safe for continued operation. An inspecti-
on technique now available to operators is Tracerco’s Discovery™, the world’s only
subsea Computed Tomography (CT) scanner. Discovery™ is a non-intrusive external
scanning technique which does not affect the operation of the pipe and does not
require removal of any external coating applied to the pipe, being equally adept at
scanning through 50mm of heavy concrete weight coats as it is at scanning through
micron-thick fusion bonded epoxy coatings.
Having now performed over 1000 scans on pipelines, flowlines and risers in the Gulf of
Mexico, and a similar number across the various North Sea sectors, Discovery™ has prov-
en itself across a wide variety of pipe systems, a selection of which will be discussed in
this paper and include: piggyback pipe systems, pipe-in-pipe systems, pipe bundles and
heavy concrete weight coated pipes. In addition to providing high quality wall thickness
measurement data, Discovery™ can also concurrently provide an assessment of the flow
conditions inside the pipeline. This means that, at the same time as determining a pipe-
line’s ongoing integrity, the Operator can enhance their understanding of the fluid con-
ditions enabling improved inhibition strategies, as well as allowing for a safe method to
determine the cause of any pipeline blockage, enabling targeted remediation strategies.
As well as discussing previous projects, this paper will outline the developments taking
place with Discovery™, including Tracerco’s innovative ‘fast scanning’ technique, an ap-
proach that can provide basic information about a pipe’s condition in only a tenth of the
time it would take for a conventional CT assessment of the pipe.
INTRODUCTION
Discovery™ is the world’s only subsea Computed Tomog- tive approaches which could prematurely incorrectly ‘fail’
raphy (CT) scanner. It is a non-intrusive external scanning a perfectly operational line. This is a particular concern
technique which does not affect the operation of the pipe. for lines approaching the end of their design lives and
It also does not require removal of any external coating ap- where information pertaining to their historic operation
plied to the pipe, being equally adept at scanning through may be unreliable or unavailable.
50mm of heavy concrete weight coats as it is at scanning
through micron-thick fusion bonded epoxy coatings. Having now performed over 1000 scans across more than
twenty different scanning campaigns in the Gulf of Mexi-
CT scanners are particularly suited for scanning pipelines co alone, Discovery™ is already providing Operators with
that, for various reasons, may be difficult to inspect by an additional tool to help ensure the long term safe and
conventional techniques, such as in-line inspection or local efficient operation of their pipelines.
inspections such as UT or PEC. Reasons a pipeline may be
considered difficult to inspect or unpiggable include: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
• No pig traps installed or pig traps removed Although many people will have experience with CT
• Multi-diameter pipes scanning, either through its use in non-destructive testing
• Tight bends in the line, particularly those associated (particularly of small, complex components) or through its
with smaller diameter pipes extensive use in diagnostic medicine (indeed, it has been
• Pipe cleanliness - deposit or build up inside the pipe reported that there are over 72 million CT scans performed
bore which may not be controlled by any existing every year in the United States of America alone), relatively
applied inhibition mechanisms few people will have much experience with how CT works.
• Internal coatings or linings
• External coatings The first thing to know about CT scanning is that, whilst it
• Additional metal items such as heating elements, is generally thought of as a modern technique, it traces its
centralizers or piggyback pipe supports origin to 1885 and the discovery of ‘X-Rays’. Developments
• Low or even no flow rate with x-ray continued over the next few decades but for CT
• Dead legs scanning the next key date was 1917 and the development
• Pipe-in-pipe or multi-pipe systems of the ‘Radon Transform’ method. This was further refined
in 1937 in the Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART)
In these situations, an operator may be forced to simply although it wasn’t until 1967 that computers of sufficient
‘manage’ their pipeline with assessments and models power were available to enable the development of the
which, while useful, can be limited by the information first CT machine with the first CT reconstruction (of a head)
they are built on. In turn, this can lead to over-conserva- being performed in 1971. From this point on, developments
in CT scanning occurred rapidly, with the second and third Hence why it is only really possible to ‘solve’ a CT scan by
generation of CT scanning machines (consisting of mul- the use of computers and iterative algorithms and why the
tiple detectors for the second generation and rotation of most major developments in CT scanning have all occurred
source and detectors around the item for the third genera- in parallel with improvements in computing.
tion CT scanners) following in only 1973 and 1975 and with
superfast CT being developed in 1985. Since this time the
majority of improvements to the CT scanning technique
have been associated with improving the speed and reso-
lution and understanding and handling any of the ‘detec-
tion artefacts’ which can occur in any CT reconstruction.
The basic principle behind CT scanning (and, of course,

Discovery™) is relatively simple – the CT beam passes
through a material and the density of this material can
then be calculated by how much the beam is weakened.
This weakening of the beam is due to the ‘attenuation
coefficient’ of the material and it is different for various
materials or for different combinations of materials in the
beam’s path (Figure 1).
Figure 2: Two of the Many Possible Solutions to a Simple Killer Sudoku Puzzle
CT scanning has several advantages over traditional radi-

ography. Firstly, CT has an inherent high-contrast resolu-
tion which means that much lower differences in physical
density can be seen than could be seen by traditional ra-
diography. Secondly, CT does not superimpose the image
of one area over that of another (for example the opposite
pipe wall). Finally, due to the method by which CT works
and reconstructs, a CT scan is immune to the effects of
the item inside the pipe.
DISCOVERY™
Discovery™ is the world’s only subsea computed to-

mography scanner. Completing its first full, commercial
scanning campaign in 2015; since that time there have
been a further two major evolutions of the Discovery™
instrument with the current fleet consisting of four of
the latest versions of Discovery™. As of November 2017,
Figure 1: Simple Density Measure Discovery™ has successfully performed over 1000 full
scans in the Gulf of Mexico alone and with new projects
These multiple line of sight measurements are taken and occurring regularly, this value is expected to increase
converted into a grid of values of density by use of recon- significantly in the forthcoming years.
struction models. The whole process is easiest to consider
as being like a Sudoku puzzle, in particular the challenging As with other non-intrusive techniques, Discovery™ is an
‘Killer Sudoku’ variant. Unlike in traditional Sudoku puz- external scan, which means that it requires full circumfer-
zles, with Killer Sudoku you have a grid with values at the ential access to the pipeline it is scanning. Unlike other
end and from this you work out what sum gives the correct external scan techniques however, a Discovery™ CT scan
answer (Figure 2). Now, whilst a 9 x 9 Killer Sudoku grid does not require coating removal. This is because the
would be a normal (if tough) challenge for a daily commut- source within Discovery™ produces a mono-energetic
er, for industrial CT scanners the grid is many times larger. gamma ray beam which is powerful enough to pass
through denser materials such as steel.

By comparison, a medical CT scan uses
an X-ray source, which is lower energy
and less ionizing, making it safer for the
person being scanned, but this lower
energy means that the beam cannot
even pass through bone. Each individual
Discovery™ scan produces a 15mm image
‘slice’ of the pipeline; in order to provide
scan data for a larger section, Discovery™
is able to crawl along the outside of the
pipeline. As with other inspection tech-
niques, Discovery™ is able to take the
information from each ‘slice’ and position
it to provide a wall thickness map of the
entire scanned length for the full 360
degrees of the pipeline (Figure 3). Table 1: Discovery™ and ILI Standard Reporting Tolerances
The Discovery™ CT scanners currently in operation are, As can be seen in Table 1, the standard Discovery™ report-
due to the radial space available between source and de- ing tolerances are comparable with reporting tolerances
tector, able to scan pipelines with an outer diameter up to provided by other non-destructive testing techniques
27 inches (including coating). Tracerco has also performed such as magnetic flux leakage (MFL) in-line inspection.
feasibility studies which have confirmed that the technique
can be scaled up to larger outer diameter pipes, up to ap- PROJECTS
proximately 50 inches, should a market need be identified.
In this section, we will be looking at various different
Discovery™ detection limits, according to the defect types of unpiggable and difficult to inspect pipe systems
classes as laid out by the Pipeline Operators Forum and identifying what a Discovery™ scan can provide
‘Specifications and Requirements for Intelligent Pig In- which other techniques cannot.
spection of Pipelines’ [1], are provided in Table 1.
Figure 3: Wall Thickness Colour Map Produced by Discovery™

PIGGYBACK PIPE SYSTEMS PIPE-IN-PIPE SYSTEMS
Although the presence of a piggyback pipe does not make Pipe-in-pipe systems have proven themselves to be
the pipe setup itself unpiggable, the piggyback pipe can a particularly common pipe system for a Discovery™
prevent access to a large area of the pipe for the majority inspection, as they present a particular challenge to the
of externally applied inspection techniques. Couple this current conventional inspection techniques, since the
with a pipeline which is unpiggable by a different means annulus typically presents an impassable barrier due to
(for example sharp bends, un-barred tees or heavy depos- the differing material. Furthermore, pipe-in-pipe systems
its in the line) then Discovery™ could be the solution. Fig- may also include heating elements or electrical tracing
ure 4 shows a piggyback pipe setup from a series of scans around the pipe, as well as spacers which can further add
performed by Tracerco in the Billingham, UK test facility. to the scan difficulty for many inspection techniques.
Since Discovery™ operates externally and
each scan generates a complete image
of the pipe with every rotation around the
pipe, the only issue for scanning a pipe-in-
pipe system is ensuring that sufficient time
has elapsed to ensure an adequate amount
of data and consequently an acceptable
reporting tolerance has been achieved.
The Discovery™ scan image produced in

Figure 5 is of a pipe-in-pipe which can be
seen to be in a generally good condition
with regards the wall thickness, for both
the inner and outer pipes. The pipe an-
nulus can be seen to be air filled with no
water or product present, which confirms
to the operator that there are no leaks in
either inner or outer pipe. The transported
material within the pipe in Figure 5 at the
time of the scan was water which was not
a requirement of the Discovery™ scan; had
the pipeline been transporting oil at the time
of the measurement then Discovery™ would
have been easily able to reproduce the flow
regime at the time of the scan (see Sections
2.5 and 2.6). In addition, the Operator was
able to determine that their inner (product)
pipe was slightly off-centre compared to the
outer (carrier) pipe, in spite of the presence
Figure 4: Discovery™ CT Scan of a Piggyback Pipe of centralizers. Although this variation was
not of concern to this Operator, it indicated
In Figure 4, both main and piggyback pipe are clearly visi- that movement (buckling) of the internal pipe with respect
ble and measurable at all positions, even the areas of wall to the outer pipe was possible, even with centralizers, and
in closest proximity, something which could be challeng- that Discovery™ could also be used to identify this move-
ing for many of the current ‘traditional’ inspection tech- ment. This scenario has been reproduced and scanned in
niques. In order to enable Discovery™ to clamp around the Tracerco facility in Billingham, UK (Figure 6).
the pipelines, an additional external clamping system
was devised; this is visible in the various circles and lines As can be clearly seen in Figure 6, the extent of the inner
around the outside of the reconstructed image which are pipe movement with respect to the outer pipe can clearly
the bolts and tie-pins used in the clamp. be identified and measured. In addition, Discovery™ was
able to measure wall thickness to within its standard
The pipe sample scanned in Figure 4 was a 219.1mm outer di- stated tolerance for all positions on the inner pipe and with
ameter, 15.9mm wall thickness pipe with various defects ma- only a slight increase in tolerance for the touching posi-
chined into it; in every scan, Discovery™ was able to provide tions on the outer pipe. This sample pipe clearly shows that
wall thickness measurements to within its stated tolerance. Discovery™ can be used to monitor pipe-in-pipe systems
Figure 5: Discovery™ CT Scan of a Pipe-in-Pipe
where inner pipe buckling could be expected to occur, in or-

der to ensure the ongoing integrity and safety of the system.
Figure 6: Discovery™ CT Scan of a Pipe-in-Pipe Showing Extreme Pipe Movement
CONCRETE WEIGHT COATED PIPE
Providing both additional weight and pro-

tection against damage, concrete weight
coatings have proven to be a popular
external coating for many subsea pipelines.
Unfortunately, for operators of unpigga-
ble concrete weight coated pipelines, the
external coating can also significantly limit
the effectiveness of any external scan of the
pipeline, as the vast majority of externally
applied inspection techniques require direct
contact with the pipeline metal. Previously,
where an Operator required an inspection
of a concrete weight coated pipe, they may
have had to resort to removal of the coating
in order to allow for an external inspection. Figure 7: Concrete Weight Coated Pipe Section and Discovery™ View
This has both safety and cost implications
for an Operator, as the coating removal pro-
cess is both time consuming and indeed not
without risk to both people and the pipeline
itself. In addition, the coating must also be
acceptably replaced following completion of
the scanning campaign if the Operator does
not wish to cause a potential future failure
by either damage or corrosion.
An example of a concrete weight coated pipe

sample, representative of those which have
previously been scanned by Discovery™,
is provided in Figure 7, with the actual wall
thickness measurements reported by ultra-
Figure 8: Wall Thickness Measurements Produced by Discovery™ Compared to UT Measurements
sonic measurements provided in Figure 8.
PIPE BUNDLES
Although the dimensions of the current Discovery™ CT es’ outer diameter (including coating), a feasibility study
scanners preclude it from scanning a majority of pipe has been performed by Tracerco which demonstrates that
bundles, Discovery™ has proven itself capable of scan- it would be possible to extend the Discovery™ system to
ning pipe bundles of a smaller diameter. In Figure 9, a a larger diameter pipe, although the increased diameter
Discovery™ CT scan of a pipe bundle shows that Discov- may also result in increased scan times.
ery™ is easily able to scan through the outer carrier pipe
and into the production and gas lift lines without any GENERAL FLOW AND PRODUCTION ASSURANCE
significant reduction in scan quality (and consequently
wall thickness analysis quality). Indeed, even the rust Due to the method by which Discovery™ operates, it is
accumulated at the bottom of this test piece was clearly possible to generate an accurate recreation of the actual
visible and its extent measurable in the scan. product flowing conditions whilst the pipeline is in opera-
tion. For an Operator, this has many
advantages as it enables them to
identify areas of concern, such as
slugging, water hold-up or erosion,
which can have a significant impact
on the operational life of the pipeline
or its components, whilst at the same
time potentially being very difficult to
identify and isolate by other monitor-
ing techniques.
An example of Discovery™ flow as-

surance capabilities at work, Figure
10 shows the hydrate formation
and dissociation loop, as seen by
Discovery™ in a series of CT scans
performed at the client’s test facility.
In the images shown in Figure 10,
the hydrate can be clearly seen to
be forming around the edges of the
pipe at various ‘seed’ positions, be-
fore progressing to a partial block-
age. In the test facility, the hydrate
blockage was removed from the
pipeline by heating, a process which
is not necessarily practical for use
in an offshore environment. In the
scans shown in Figure 10, Discov-
ery™ was later confirmed to be iden-
tifying to within 0.01g/cc changes in
density associated with the change
Figure 9: Discovery™ CT Scan of a Pipe Bundle
in fluid pressure within the pipeline.
In Figure 9, several straight lines can also be seen, inter- BUILD-UP AND BLOCKAGES
secting various pipe walls. These lines are CT detection
artefacts, caused by the reduction in beam intensity at One area where Discovery™ can be of particular assis-
positions tangential to the pipe wall. Detection arte- tance to Operators is in the diagnosis and monitoring of
facts such as these are a well known phenomenon in CT build-up and blockages within a pipeline. This production
scanning and Tracerco has several different techniques assurance assessment can be provided to an Operator
(varying for pipe setups) to minimise the effect of these for any pipeline where sufficient scan data has been
artefacts on the wall thickness analysis results. obtained and can be used to enable them to monitor for
known issues or potentially to identify unexpected ones
Although the current Discovery™ system is only available (Figure 11 and Figure 12).
to scan pipelines or bundles up to approximately 27 inch-
For Operators who are aware of blockages or flow re-

strictions in their lines then Tracerco has several com-
plementary techniques to help localize and pinpoint
the issue prior to deployment of Discovery™. Tracerco’s
GammaTrac™ is a flow monitoring technique where a
radioactive source is injected into the line; monitoring
when and how the source exits the line enables for a
diagnosis of the extent of any bore restriction. Tracerco’s
Explorer™ technology, which operates along a similar
principle to Discovery™ but without requiring the same
levels of pipeline access, can work as a localising tool,
flying along the seabed and pinpointing the location of
any bore restriction or blockage. Using either of these
inspection techniques prior to deployment of Discov-
ery™ can help ensure that the Discovery™ scan is only
Figure 10: Hydrate Formation and Dissociation, Discovery™ CT Scans
performed in the most appropriate area, minimising the
overall project cost for the Operator.
Information on combined flow/production assurance and

integrity scanning campaigns performed by Discovery
have been published by the Operators Hess [3] and Shell
[4], both operating in the Gulf of Mexico. In particular, the
Hess presentation highlights how Discovery™ was able
to identify a build-up of barium sulphate in the pipeline
which the Operator is now successfully controlling thanks
to the information provided by Discovery™ and supported
by other in-field measurements.
Just as Discovery™ is able to identify the presence of

build-up and blockages, it is also able to identify their ab-
sence. In one recent scanning campaign, after the project
had concluded the Operator stated that, based on historic
modelling data, they had been expecting build-up in their
pipeline. When the Discovery™ scans demonstrated that
there were no discernible deposits present, they modified
their inhibition strategy, reducing the need for costly dis-
posal of an environmentally unfriendly product.
Figure 11: Asphaltene Deposits Reducing Pipe Bore Cross Section (Discovery™
CT Scan) DEVELOPMENTS AND IMPROVEMENTS
SCAN SIMULATION SOFTWARE
One area that Tracerco quickly identified for improve-

ment was in determining the minimum amount of time
required for an image of sufficient quality for analysis
to be obtained. To this end, Tracerco has developed an
in-house CT scan simulation software which can be used
to plot the improvement in image quality with respect to
scan time and consequently to determine the point at
which increasing the scanning time has no significant
effect on the overall image quality (i.e. the point where
the natural electrical ‘noise’ is the main contributing
factor to any variation). With this information, Tracerco
is able to work with our clients, taking their individual
wall thickness tolerance needs and translating them into
Figure 12: Asphaltene Deposits Blocking Pipeline (Discovery™ CT Scan)
an acceptable scan time.
FAST SCANNING
One area which Discovery™ suffers in comparison to At the time of writing, Tracerco’s fast scanning tech-
existing, traditional inspection techniques is in the speed nique had been successfully applied on two projects
of inspection and consequently the cost per scan. Whilst in the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Mexico. In addition,
the inspection speed for a Discovery™ scan is not directly work is currently underway to provide additional tools
comparable with that
of traditional inspec-
tion techniques (as
traditional inspection
techniques require
additional time for
coating removal), min-
imising the scan time
helps ensure that an
Operator is able to gain
the maximum amount
of information from a
scanning campaign.
It was with this need in

mind that a new and in-
novative technique was Figure 13: Flexible Pipe with Missing Armour Wire and Discovery™ Scan View
developed by Tracer-
co for use in pipeline
inspections. This is
the ‘fast scanning’
technique, which was
unveiled in November
2017 [5] and which can
reduce overall scan
time by a factor of five.
In summary, it has
been proven that it is
possible to detect po-
tential anomalies and
defects by identifying
a key characteristic in
the scan data prior to a
Figure 14: Flexible Pipe Section with Damaged Carcass and Discovery™ Scan View
full scan being per-
formed. Once this char-
acteristic has been identified then a full scan to enable for Discovery™ scanning technicians and, eventually, full
complete characterisation of the defect can be performed automation of this process for use offshore.
whilst, if this characteristic is not present, then this scan
can be terminated and the next position scanned.
WOULD YOU LIKE TO KNOW MORE?

ANY QUESTIONS LEFT ?
THIS PAPER IT WILL BE DISCUSSED AT THE

13TH PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE
SOFTWARE IMPROVEMENTS
As CT reconstruction and analysis is heavily dependent rable to that of traditional in-line inspection, whilst at the
on computing processing power, an area identified by same time being able to reproduce the flowing conditions
Tracerco for improvement was the bespoke, in-house within the pipeline and all performed non-intrusively from
software designed specifically to analyse pipelines. Cur- the external of the pipeline.
rently, the onshore analysis phase is quoted as requiring
six weeks following receipt of the data for an analysis
to be performed and a report produce. This is based on References
analysis of a ‘standard’ number of CT scans; if an Opera- [1.] Pipeline Operators Forum, “Specifications and Requirements for Intelligent Pig Inspection of Pipe-
tor requires more scans to be performed then the analysis [2.]
lines,” Pipeline Operators Forum, Version 2009.
S. Corbineau and B. Metcalfe, “Computed Tomography for Deepwater Pipelines Integrity,” in MCE
phase can also be expected to increase. [3.]
Deepwater Development, Amsterdam, 2017.
J. Harry, “Summary of an Offshore Inspection Campaign with Subsea CT Scanning Technology,” in
Subsea Tieback 2016, Houston, 2016.
[4.] Shell Global, “From Hospital Bed to Seabed,” [Online]. Available: http://www.shell.com/inside-energy/
In July 2017, Tracerco began work on a project to reduce the [5.]
from-hospital-bed-to-sea-bed.html. [Accessed 20 11 2017].
Tracerco, “Tracerco announce new fast scanning application for Discovery™ pipeline integrity
required processing power by streamlining and improving inspections,” 28 11 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.tracerco.com/news/tracerco-announ-
ce-new-fast-scanning-application-for-discovery-pipeline-integrity-inspections. [Accessed 28 11 2017].
the analysis process. This project is now in the testing phase,
with initial results indicating the potential to reduce the anal-
ysis time for a ‘standard’ number of CT scan significantly. A
second phase of this project is scheduled to begin in 2018. Authors
INSPECTION OF FLEXIBLE PIPELINES Jennifer Briddon
Tracerco
Flexible pipelines present a unique set of challenges
to integrity monitoring for most traditional inspection Integrity Engineer
techniques but these are another area where Tracerco Jennifer.Briddon@Tracerco.com
has determined that CT scanning could successfully be
applied (Figure 13 and Figure 14).
Figure 13 and Figure 14 are of flexible pipe samples and a

scan produced by Discovery™. The scan clearly demon-
strates that Discovery™ can measure flexible pipes and
accurately identify failures; a future development identified
for flexible pipes will be to enable the Discovery™ software Ben Metcalfe
to automatically detect and size these types of defects. Tracerco
CONCLUSION Subsea Technical Manager
Ben.Metcalfe@Tracerco.com
Tracerco’s Discovery™ provides Operators with a tool to
help ensure ongoing pipeline integrity and which can be
well used as a complementary technique to the more tra-
ditional inspection methods. Working with an Operator to
ensure the best value from each scan, Discovery™ is able
to provide wall thickness measurements to a level compa-

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RISK REDUCTION OF
DROPPED OBJECTS
ON PIPELINES AROUND OFFSHORE PLATFORMS
Henning Bø > TDW Offshore Services
ABSTRACT Pipeline Technology Conference 2017, Berlin

INTRODUCTION
12th Pipeline Technology Conference
Estrel Convention Center
The risk of objects being dropped on or around offshore Stringent requirements are in place to ensure safe execu-
Berlin, Germany
installations is not as rare as is commonly perceived. Such tion of all offshore operations and activities, and operators
2-4 May 2017
events may occur during offshore construction activities as well as individuals involved in such operations are
or due to detachment of cargo (such(4) asA SmartPlug tool was obliged
containers) in deployed 700 m
to take all from a North
necessary Sea platform
precautions. to protect
Governmental
busy maritime lanes. In the worst case, the consequenc- legislations (Petroleum
the 36-inch dry gas pipeline during heavy lift from a vessel to platform. Acts and similar) require operators
es could be catastrophic, leading to functionality and to ensure the safety of all individuals directly or indirectly
containment loss. To mitigate the risks, T.D. Williamson, involved in or affected by ALL their (operator’s) operations.
1.
Inc., offers its proprietary SmartPlug® INTRODUCTION
pipeline pressure
isolation technology that allows an operating facility to be Understanding threats and possible failures to normal op-
isolated from its surrounding impact zone. Using this non-
Stringent requirements are inerations place toare vital insafe
ensure developing
executioneffective mitigations and
of all offshore
intrusive pressure isolation tool, any given pipeline section barriers. Operators are obliged to screen and risk assess
operations and activities, and operators as well as individuals involved in such
can be isolated at or close to operating pressure. to mitigate the real threats in their activities whether the
operations are obliged to take all necessary precautions . Governmental legislations
risk is prevailing in the activity itself such as construction
This paper begins by examining(Petroleum
published data Acts on and thesimilar) tasks,
require operators
operation of to ensure the
pressurized safety of
systems, and allanchoring
individuals
or
frequency and risks of impact- directly or indirectly
related incidents involved whether
offshore, in or affected
the risk byisALL their (operator’s)
in underlying threats to operations.
equipment and
followed by a discussion on measures to mitigate such systems such as corrosion, erosion, vibration, structural/
risks. The paper concludes withUnderstanding
four case studies threats and possible
where materialfailures
failures,toand normal operations are vital in
fire/explosion.
the SmartPlug technology was developing effective mitigations and barriers. Operators are obliged to screen and
used to successfully pro-
tect pipeline assets by delimiting riskthe impacttozone
assess mitigateduringthe real A natural
threats and necessary
in their activitiespart of offshore
whether operations
the risk is prevailing
heavy lift operations offshore. These applications assume is the lifting and moving of equipment, which spans a
in the activity itself such as construction tasks, operation of pressurized systems, and
great significance in light of stricter governmental and broad range of activities from the lifting of simple equip-
anchoring or whether the risk is in underlying threats to equipment and systems such
operator regulations around risk control during offshore ment such as hand tools to major non-routine, one-off
construction activities. as corrosion, erosion, vibration, structural/material
lifting of larger structures failures,
duringand fire/explosion.
offshore installation or
construction work
1. For an operation in offshore A natural
Myanmar, andthe necessary
Smart- part of offshore operations is the lifting and moving of
Plug tool was installed 500 equipment, which spans
m from the platform to a broad rangeofofthe
Examples activities from the
latter include lifting
heavy of simple
lifting of modules
protect a 36-inch pipeline equipment such as hand tools to major non-routine, one-off lifting of larger structures
during the installation of during construction, modification or removal/decommis-
two pipe spools. during offshore installation orsioning of offshore
construction workinstallations, temporary equipment like
2. A 30-inch SmartPlug tool was used to isolate and pump spreads used during pipeline commissioning activi-
protect a live gas infield flowline during installation ties, jack up rigs being positioned or floating vessels being
Figure 1: Types of lifts (Source: misc free images)
and piling works, 400 m from an offshore platform anchored close to fixed installations. The recommended
in Australia. The line
was successfully isolat-
ed for 6 months while
construction activities
were underway.
3. During the heavy lift of
a 600-ton accommo-
dation module to an
offshore platform above
a 14-inch export pipeline
offshore Australia, a 14-
inch SmartPlug tool was
used to isolate a 300 m
section of the line.
4. A SmartPlug tool was
deployed 700 m from
a North Sea platform
to protect the 36-inch
dry gas pipeline during
heavy lift from a vessel
Figure 1: Types of lifts (Source: misc free images)
to platform.
this, lifting operations are often tied to weather windows. However, as new offshore
fields are being
18 PIPELINE connected
TECHNOLOGY to existing pipeline system while mature fields and assets
JOURNAL
are changed or /decommissioned,
RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT the /
frequency of offshore construction and lifting
TECHNOLOGY
activities will increase as will their duration.
Figure 2: Types of impacts (Source: misc free images)
damage to pipelines, risers,

control umbilicals or other
elements that connect the
platform with a larger pipe-
line system. A scenario of
this scale would be consid-
ered severe, as the release
of hydrocarbons close to the
installation carries the po-
tential for putting the entire
installation at risk, including
vessels close to the instal-
lation. Even if there is no
direct consequence from the
dropped object, uncertainty
will still prevail with regard
to the consequences of the
object’s impact with the
pipeline and could demand
an emergency shut-in of
the facility until the safety
Dropping anofelement
Figure 2: Types during
impacts (Source: misclifting inboard an offshore installation should be
free images)
situation is clarified.
considered a major risk, as the platform in most cases contains pressurised pipelines
with hydrocarbon
practice documentcontent.
DNV-GLHowever,
RP F107 on dropping a load into the
Risk Assessment sea in the near
FREQUENCY AND RISKS OF IMPACT-
proximity
of pipelineofprotection
platforms[Ref.
could also cause
1] gives a briefsignificant
overview ondamage RELATED
to pipelines, risers, control
INCIDENTS OFFSHORE
general hazards to live pipelines related to impact from
different activity, and lists potential consequences. But do drop object incidents happen? Yes, dropped objects
are real threats, and a good example was in September
A natural risk following all lifting and moving of equip- 2014 when a container, which was in the process of being
ment is the risk of unplanned movement and accelera- winched onto a support vessel from the platform, fell into
tion of the masses resulting in impact with and damage the sea due to a mechanical damage and came to rest
to assets or personnel. As such lifting operations are close to the subsea pipelines. Fifty-four workers were evac-
planned with great care. The weather conditions at sea uated from the platform until the situation was resolved.
may add additional risk to lifting operations and to
mitigate this, lifting operations are often tied to weather This single case illustrates that the threat of dropped
windows. However, as new offshore fields are being con- objects extends far beyond the direct threat of person-
nected to existing pipeline
system while mature fields
and assets are changed
or decommissioned, the
frequency of offshore con-
struction and lifting activ-
ities will increase as will
their duration.
Dropping an element during

lifting inboard an offshore
installation should be
considered a major risk, as
the platform in most cas-
es contains pressurised
pipelines with hydrocarbon
content. However, dropping
a load into the sea in the
near proximity of platforms
Figure 3: Container incident at Brent Alpha (Source: BBC - left image, Offshore- mag.com - right image)
could also cause significant
nel being struck by unplanned or undesired movement and management of safety-critical systems often uses the
of a lifted object. It presents the larger consequences of term “ALARP” (“as low as reasonably practicable”) to de-
damage to the live pipeline systems in the impact zone fine a target risk level, where the cost involved in reducing
surrounding the platform that may threaten all personnel the risk further would be “grossly disproportionate to the
on the installation. benefit of risk reduction that would be achieved” [Ref. 1].
According to DNV-GL RP F107 [Ref. 1] the probability Most mitigation activities are directed towards reducing
(frequency) of a dropped object is 2.2E-5 per lift, based the impact risk by focusing on the reduction of probability
on statistics of platform crane accident data issued by or frequency of the impact, while a few mitigations are
the UK Department of Energy from the period 1980-1986. presented to reduce the consequence of an impact [Ref.
Approximately 3.7 million lifts were estimated in this 2]. However, when acknowledging the large scale conse-
period, where 70% of the dropped objects landed on deck, quences of damage to a live pipeline, the reduction of the
while 30% were dropped into sea. Probabilities of drop- potential consequences should be explored and possible
ping loads lifted to/from vessel by platform crane are in solutions should also be evaluated.
the range from 1.2E-5 (<20 tonnes) to 1.6E-5 (>20 tonnes).
Other statistics are also available on the number and In the PSA report [Ref. 3], the most common direct causes
frequency of serious dropped object incidents on offshore of incidents are equipment faults, breaches of procedures,
installations covering other and larger periods of time. or incorrect execution of work. The most frequently occur-
ring underlying causes are related to inadequate planning
According to a report by the Norwegian Petroleum Safety and deficient maintenance of equipment and lack of
Authority’s (PSA) [Ref. 2] which analysed all investigated expertise, and focus on these elements would reduce risk.
lifting incidents on the Norwegian Continental Shelf in
the period 2005 – 2010, the highest risks to all lifting REDUCTION OF CONSEQUENCE
activities were dropped objects, failing lifting equipment,
or unwanted movement of heavy objects being lifted. The One of the mitigations to reduce consequence is intro-
report focuses on the direct causes and root causes of ducing or improving the protection of the pipeline in
the incidents and covers lifts on both fixed and floating the area of potential impact, for example, via a tunnel
installations, as well as both inboard lifts and lifts be- structure. Burying or rock covering the pipeline are other
tween installation and vessels. means to reduce the impact or spread the load and
thereby reduce the consequence of a dropped object on
Resource organizations such as DROPS (Dropped Ob- the pipeline. However, it should be considered that the
jects Prevention Scheme), comprise members from both protection structure in itself may represent a risk of dam-
operators and service providers and focus their activities age to pipeline during installation. A protection structure
on dropped object prevention awareness and training pro- may also prevent the pipeline from sustaining damage
grammes, including forums to discuss and recommend but may require repair or replacement post incident to
effective barriers to such incidents. DROPS illustrates the continue offering protection.
risks with dropping objects by presenting energy calcu-
lations of typical objects falling overboard from instal- The pipeline content represents a significant reservoir
lations and vessels. It states that anything heavier than and is a potential leak point by its very nature. Subsea
a typical 9-10 inch casing has the potential of severely isolation valves may already exist as parts of a system to
damaging a pipeline at 150-m water depth, including the minimize the release of hydrocarbons from a damaged
release of hydrocarbons. [Ref 4] pipeline system. These isolation valves may in the first
place be installed to protect the platform from issues aris-
The main conclusion is evident—that the threat of a ing on the platform itself, not damages to subsea parts of
dropped object offshore is also a threat to the offshore the pipeline, but these could still offer some reduction of
installation, and depending on the size of the dropped the consequences of a damaged pipe. There is of course
object even more so due to the presence of pressurized the risk of subsea isolation valves also being subject to
hydrocarbon contained in the pipelines. the impact from the dropped object.
MITIGATIONS OF THE RISK Stopping production is another effective mitigation of

ASSOCIATED WITH DROPPED OBJECTS risk. This does not protect the pipeline itself from being
damaged by a dropped object but effectively removes
Risk assessment quantifies the risk and aims at identify- the risk of release of pipeline content, by making the
ing actions to reduce the probability and/ consequence in pipeline free of pressure and hydrocarbon content. Yet, it
order to reduce the overall risk of the unwanted scenario. is acknowledged that stopping production has a cost as-
The target for an acceptable low risk for the planned oper- pect that needs to be assessed, particularly with respect
ations is normally left to the operator to define. Regulation to the ALARP principle.
A comparison can be made to standard lock-out or tag- During laying of a new 24-inch pipeline, the construction
out procedures in which the energy (pressure, poten- barge was required to initiate pipelay in the near vicinity of
tial, electric, etc.) present in the machinery or system is the Yadana platform. This introduced a risk of impact to the
secured, allowing authorized personnel to enter the work existing live gas pipeline, with the consequence of creating
area safely and execute the required intervention work. a gas blowout at the platform, with consequent effects on
Similarly, removing the energy source in the pipeline pri- the construction vessel and the overall environment.
or to significant lifting operation by means
of temporarily isolating and de-pressur-
izing a portion of the pipeline will reduce
the overall consequence of a failed lift
or dropped object. This is demonstrated
in the case studies below where inline
SmartPlug® isolation tools have been used
to remove pressure and content from pipe-
lines being close to or in the zone where
larger lifts have been performed.
USING INLINE ISOLATION

TOOLS TO MITIGATE RISK
Many lifts do not need particular mitiga-

tions to reduce the consequences of a
failed lift, but some lifts are of such nature
that even though the probability of the
failure is very small, or remote, its conse-
quences would be enormous. A pipeline
damaged by a dropped object may have to
be shut down until the damage is assessed
Figure 4: Layout of Yadana platform and pipelines (Source: TDW)
and if required, repaired. This would natu-
rally affect all other connected platforms in
the pipeline system. Should the damage cause a leak or The solution chosen to mitigate any possible large-
rupture, the consequences may extend to include other scale consequence of a damaged pipeline was to load a
possible scenarios such as the following: 36-inch SmartPlug tool into the launcher at the Yadana
• fatalities due to exposure to the leaking pipe inventory platform and pig the tool approx. 200 m into the line in
• threat to the entire installation or vessels order to establish a double barrier isolation towards the
• environmental impact of the escaping inventory. pipeline inventory. While the 200-m isolated section was
• full system shut down and depletion until the emis- bled down to ambient pressure, the construction activ-
sion is stopped and scale of damage assessed. ities were completed while mitigating the risk of a gas
• cost impact with reporting and investigation process blowout at the scene.
by relevant authorities
• penalties and emission fees
• cost of repair and recommissioning of system
• increased cost due to accelerated schedule to bring
production back on track
• loss of reputation
CASE STUDIES
The four case studies presented here highlight the key

benefits of using inline isolations as risk mitigation mea-
sures in potential dropped object scenarios.
ASSET PROTECTION DURING PIPELAY ACTIVITIES
The Yadana Platform is connected to the main land of

Thailand via a 370-km long, 36-inch gas export pipeline
Figure 5: 36-in pipeline isometric (Source: TDW)
supplying approx. 20% of the gas needs in Thailand.
An additional isolation tool was also positioned in the ASSET PROTECTION DURING HEAVY LIFT-
new 24-inch export pipeline. This pipeline was laid dry ING ABOVE A 36-INCH PIPELINE
with a requirement to perform the tie-in to the Yadana
platform without flooding the pipeline. To prevent sea- The North Rankin Alpha (NRA) platform is located off the
water ingress during the tie-in activities with an open coast of Western Australia on the North West Shelf in the
pipeline end exposed to the static head of water, a 24-in Indian Ocean.
SmartPlug tool tool was installed in the pipeline end
section as a part of the laying and served as a barrier to
protect the diving activities during the tie-in period.
Figure 6: 24-in pipeline isometric (Source: TDW) Figure 8: NRA and NRB in the North Rankin Complex (Source: Woodside Energy Ltd.)
Both tools were recovered through the receivers at the

Yadana platform, after successfully isolating the pipelines As heavy lifting and piling activities were necessary parts
for the duration of required intervention and lifting work. of planned construction and installation activities on
and around the NRB platform, a 30-inch pipeline run-
ning between the Goodwyn Alpha platform and the NRA
platform was at risk for potential damages should any of
the planned lifting and handling activities result in objects
being dropped onto the pipeline.
Figure 7: Pipelay activity near the platform (Source: TDW)

Figure 9: Overview (Source: Woodside Energy Ltd.)
To mitigate the large-scale consequences of a dam-

aged pipeline, a 30-inch SmartPlug isolation tool was
launched from the NRA platform and pigged a total
distance of approx. 700 m into the pipeline.
The tool established a double block isolation in the

horizontal section at the seabed, approx. 400 m away
from the platform and allowed depressurization of this
section to ambient pressures.
The same pipeline isolation also enabled other planned

and required activities to be completed on pipework
tying into the 30-inch pipeline, while the production at
Goodwyn continued with no shutdown.
Figure 10: Location of SmartPlug isolation (Based on image: Woodside Energy Ltd.)
Figure 11: SmartPlug® isolation tool (Source: TDW)

ASSET PROTECTION DURING HEAVY LIFTING

ABOVE A 14-INCH PIPELINE
The Yolla platform is operated by Origin Energy in the to replace the emergency shutdown valve on the plat-
Bass Gas Joint Venture for commercializing gas acquired form. During this period of planned work, a SmartPlug
from the Yolla Gas Field in the Bass Strait. It is located tool was used to isolate the 14-inch export pipeline at
offshore in 80 m water. ambient pressure—first, to enable the ESDV replacement
and second, to
provide a long-term
isolation through-
out the heavy lifting
operations.
TDW used a 14-inch

SmartPlug isolation
tool introduced
through the topside
launcher, pigged
down the riser and
approximately 300
m into the line.
The tool provid-
ed double block
isolation to safely
protect the working
area for the ESDV
Figure 12: Location of the Yolla Gas Field (Based on map: Geoscience Australia)
replacement.
Phase 1 of the Yolla Mid-Life Enhancement (MLE) project Due to adverse weather conditions, the ESDV instal-
involved upgrading Yolla to a manned platform. Several lation was delayed and a blind flange was temporarily
heavy lifting operations, including the installation of a installed. The tool remained in the pipeline for the next
600-ton accom-
modation module
on the Yolla A
platform, were to
take place above a
14-inch export pipe-
line running from
the platform to the
Lang Lang terminal
during the Yolla
MLE campaign of
2011/2012.
To mitigate risks to
platform and per-
sonnel from dropped
objects and to en-
hance overall safety,
Origin Energy chose
to isolate a section
of the pipeline with
the TDW SmartPlug
isolation tool.
The client also had

an additional scope
8 months, during which the heavy lifting operations and The isolation was established approx. 700 m into the
the new ESDV installation works were all successfully pipeline, after launching and pigging the tool to location
completed. from the platform’s launcher. After an isolation period
of 6 days, the tool were unset and retrieved and the pro-
ASSET PROTECTION DURING HEAVY duction was resumed.
LIFTING ABOVE A 36-INCH PIPELINE
CONCLUSION
In 2013, a drilling module was to be installed on a plat-
form in the North Sea, which involved a heavy lift directly The Case Studies presented here illustrate the added
above the 36-in Statpipe line. As the pipe containing benefits of a pressure-free pipeline during heavy lifts.
hydrocarbon gas was operating at approx.. 100 bar, any The removal of pipeline pressure and content are a
failures during the lift would result in catastrophic conse- preferred and effective mitigation of the consequences
quences. Hence, the client chose to involve TDW Offshore of failure during lifting, and eliminate the potential of a
Services to deploy a 36-inch SmartPlug tool to provide an large scale catastrophe due to uncontrolled leakage of
isolation, allowing the pipeline to remain at ambient pipeline inventory from pressurised pipeline. By using an
pressure during the short period of heavy lifting activities. inline isolation tool, the following benefits are accrued:
• Removes pressure and replaces content from live

pipelines during lifting activities
• Mitigates some of the consequences of a failed lift
• Short intervention period results in minimal disrup-
tion to the production
• Easy installation and removal of the isolation tool
References
[1]. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) UK http://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/theory/alarpglance.htm

[2]. DNV-RP-F107 RISK ASSESSMENT OF PIPELINE PROTECTION (2010)
[3]. Petroleum Safety Authority Norway, PSA - MT58 F12-027 / 580285.00.01 “Analyse av årsaks-
sammenhenger til uønskede løftehendelser”
[4]. DROPS (Dropped Objects Prevention Scheme) http://www.dropsonline.org/assets/docu-
ments/DROPS-SubseaDROPS.pdf
Author
Henning Bø
TDW Offshore Services
Technical Authority
henning.bo@tdwilliamson.com

VERSATILE.
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SYSTEMATIC HANDLING AND “LIVE”
REPAIR OF GAS PIPELINE LEAKS
Asle Venas > DNV GL - Pipeline Technology;
Jens P. Tronskar > DNV GL Deepwater Technology;
Lee Chon Gee > DNV GL Deepwater Technology
DP2 Vessel “Norman Baltic” at repair location.

ABSTRACT
Offshore pipelines are exposed to many treats and fails cost effective repair method can be selected. DNV GL has
from time to time. Such failures represent a major risk for prepared several codes that will be relevant with respect
offshore pipeline operators in terms of safety, pollution as to, operation, integrity management, inspection and
well as significant financial risk due to loss of production. assessment, as well as repair. The documents contain
Another major risk and challenge is the time and cost to technical requirements and guidelines, and can be down-
repair the pipeline that have failed. The time is always very loaded from the DNV GL web site (www.dnvgl.com) free of
critical and if the water depth exceeds diving depth div- charge. One of these codes is the only offshore pipeline
er-less repair systems will be required. Such systems are repair guideline DNVGL-RP-F113, Pipeline Subsea Repair.
not off the shelf systems and require a lot of tailor-made This code has recently been updated based on feedback
qualification for the pipeline and on site requirement. from many repair cases. See also Figure 1 below.
When a pipeline fails, it is very important to systematically In this paper we are presenting some recent cases of
handle the damage and repair. Proper failure, root cause pipelines that where repaired while still in operation in
analysis is very important to understand what has hap- a two step process involving installation of a leak clamp
pened. Then proper analysis of the defected pipeline, risk followed by a permanent repair by installation of a welded
assessment will also be very important before the most stand-off sleeve. The welding was depending on the water
cost effective repair method can be selected. depth executed in a hyperbaric habitat or in shallow water
using purpose built cofferdams. A concept proposed
DNVGL has been engaged in many offshore (both shallow by DNV GL has been successfully applied to repair of
water and deepwater) pipeline repair and qualification leaking submarine pipelines. This paper describes the
projects. This also involve live pipeline repairs of leaking approach including the initial assessment of the flaw
gas pipelines. DNVGL has also been working with the stability and how the repairs can be safely undertaken
leading pipeline operators to develop and qualify new to restore the pipelines to their original design condition
deep-water pipeline repair systems. without reduction of pressure or flow rate. The paper de-
scribes the method of global and local fracture mechan-
DNVGL also have issued the only offshore pipeline repair ics finite element analyses to assess the stability of the
guideline DNV-RP-F113, Pipeline Subsea Repair that can flaws causing the gas leaks and the time frame required
be downloaded from our web site without any cost. This to complete the repairs. Further, the development of the
RP has recently been updated based on feedback form welding procedure by weld thermal analyses is described
many companies. and the full-scale mock-up test with flowing water in the
pipe to simulate the forced cooling due to the gas flow.
INTRODUCTION
To ensure the safety of the repair crew the concepts
Pipelines face many different threats apart from internal involves using a gas containment barrier installed over a
and external corrosion third party threats represent major traditional mechanical leak clamp. The gas containment
hazards to submarine pipeline. Pipelines may also be barrier is either purged with inert gas or nitrogen or it
damaged during installation and there have been cases is maintained with a constant inert gas pressure that is
where several local buckles over a few kilometer of subsea monitored continuously during the repair. In the event
pipeline have only been detected by the geometry pig after of a sudden gas leak into the gas containment barrier a
installation. Buckles and dents from third party anchor pre-set pressure relief valve will open and dump the gas
impact may often contain cracks and if the pipeline is not leak outside the habitat.
leaking the damage may still require a repair involving
extremely costly cut and replace and associated pipeline The pipelines in question have all been gas transmission
shutdown, loss of gas transmission, dewatering and drying lines carrying gas to gas fired power plants for which
after the repair. For cases where the pipeline has sustained gas pressure reduction or shutdown were completely
damage and is leaking, but the nature of the damage is unacceptable. Future development is expected to involve
such that the pipe geometry is still within the original toler- development of remotely controlled repairs using similar
ances, cost optimal local repair methods can be applied. concepts at water depths where diver/welders cannot
be employed due to the various country regulations or
When a pipeline fails, it is very important to systematically simply because the water depths are such that divers
handle the damage and repair. Proper failure, root cause cannot be used. The methodology according to DNV RP-
analysis is very important to understand what has hap- A203 is described for qualification of new technology for
pened. Then proper analysis of the defected pipeline, risk underwater pipeline repairs. Further references are made
assessment will also be very important before the most to the recent updates to the DNV RP-F113 Pipeline Repair
Then a proper root cause

analysis have to be car-
ried out. Here the time line
for the event leading to
the damage, basic cause,
immediate cause, etc be
studied. Ref also Figure 2.
In order to have a better
foundation for the selec-
tion of the repair method
it will in most cases be
required to carry out global
and local analysis of the
pipeline and damage. In
some cases it may also be
necessary to carry ooy ECA
to verify if any crack like
defects may continue to
Figure 1: DNV GL pipeline codes relevant for pipeline damage and repair grow. See also Figure 3.
with regards to requirements for “live” pipeline repairs When it comes to selection of repair the information from
as part of the repair method qualification based on DNV the above will make the basis. Very often the cost and
OS-F101 Submarine Pipelines. consequence of the lost production far exceeds the cost
of the repair. Very often a temporary repair clamp will be
NOMENCLATURE preferred as the pipeline then can be put back in opera-
tion much quicker. However, very often it will be required
CTOD Applied Crack Tip Opening Displacement to make a permanent repair. Such permanent repair can
CMOD Applied Crack Mouth Opening be very time consuming, very costly and may require fur-
CTODmat Material Fracture Toughness
NDT Non Destructive Testing
SYSTEMATIC HANDLING OF PIPELINE

DAMAGE AND REPAIR
When a damage has been discovered on a

pipeline it is very important that the sit-
uation is handled systematically to avoid un-
necessary cost and loss of time, but also to
ensure the situation is handled in a way that
avoids risk to people and the environment.
Figure 2: Root cause analysis
First of all it is important to carry out a
proper pipeline failure assessment. This
will involve review of previous inspection
reports like ILI, ROV videos etc. It will also
normally require further inspections like
diver surveys, UT, profile measurements,
plastic replicas, etc. such inspections will
be very important when carrying out the
root cause analysis as well as for select-
ing the repair method. It is also important
to carry out a pipeline treat analysis in
order to understand what have happened.
To guide the treat assessment the DNV-
RP-F116 can be used. Figure 3: Defects analysis
proposed use of a welded stand-off sleeve

but to ensure the safety of the repair crew
a second barrier i.e. gas containment/purg-
ing system was proposed used to allow
removal of hydrocarbon leaks from the
repair welding areas.
The repair of the pipeline was successfully

performed following qualification of the
repair procedure, weld thermal analyses,
NDT and structural/fatigue assessment of
Figure 4: Repair method selection
the completed repair.
ther shut down of the pipeline. The fire caused by the dredging vessel subsequent to the
punching of holes in the gas pipeline is shown in Figure 5.
According to DNVGL-RP-F113 various methods for repair Figure 6 the successfully completed repair.
and all requirements to ensure a proper permanent repair
can be found.
It will also be required to carry out a comprehensive risk

assessment as well as cost benefit analysis before the
final solution is decided. See also Figure 4.
PIPELINE FAILURE CASES
Welded repairs may be required where the pipeline is sub-

ject to significant axial stress or may be subject to large
strain associated with seismic events or soil movement.
Further, axial stresses may be imposed on the pipeline
due its configuration i.e. at pipeline crossings where there
are overbend and sagbend as well as were there are free
Figure 5: Gas fire caused by gas leak on damaged 22” subsea gas pipeline
span causing pipeline sagging. To temporary stop a leak
various clamps can be installed as a temporary repair
measure but as most leak clamps uses elastomeric seals
the life span of the repair cannot be predicted with any
certainty and thus the repair can only qualify as a tempo-
rary repair as per DNV OS-F101: 2013 [1].
In the following we shall introduce some cases of sub-

sea leaks on pipelines design and certified according to
DNV OS-F101 that were repaired using welded structural
stand-off sleeves installed over leak clamps to provide a
permanent repair solution.
The first case involved two major leaks and a fire caused
by illegal dredging where the dredging vessel punched
two large holes in the pipeline. The leaks were stopped
by installing two elastomeric type leak clamps. However,
due to water ingress the pipeline the line was temporarily
shut down for dewatering and drying before resuming
Figure 6: Successfully completed and coated repair of the two adjacent leaks
operation. As the pipeline was carrying gas to gas fired seen in the cofferdam
power plants in densely populated parts of South Asia, it
was decided that no further shutdowns were acceptable For the repair DNV GL performed the structural assess-
and a repair solution was requested that would allow on- ment in Abaqus of the repair and independent weld
line or “live” repair to be executed without interruption to thermal analyses using the PRCI weld thermal analyses
the gas flow or pressure reduction. DNV GL as consultant software tool. Also note the two went holes that were
used as inlet and outlet for the nitrogen purging during GLOBAL ANALYSES OF PIPELINE CROSSING
the welding of the long seam and circumferential stand-
off sleeve welds. To estimate the axial stresses acting on the weld flaw
the measurements taken by the divers and data from
The gas pipeline permanent repair described above was side sonar was used to establish the global model of the
completed with the pipeline operating at normal operat- crossing and the leak location. Whilst the pipeline analy-
ing pressure and gas flow hence, considerable savings in ses were ongoing a temporary leak clamp type Plidco was
terms of avoidance of outage as well as loss of reputation installed to stop the leak.
for the operator where achieved.
The pipeline configuration at the leak location is shown in
The second case involves a gas leak on a Figure 8 below.
pipeline that was detected by a patrol boat.
The leak was detected at the sagbend lo-
cation of a pipeline crossing with another
gas transmission line. A photo of the gas
leak as detected, is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 8: Sketch showing the global configuration at the pipeline crossing
A finite element model was established in Abaqus version

6.8.2 to estimate the axial stresses acting on the weld
flaw the measurements. The model and the steps of the
analyses are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 7: Gas leak detected on a gas transmission pipeline at a pipeline

The results of the global analyses showed that the flaw
crossing sagbend at the leak location is subject to compressive stresses.
However, if the pipeline for some reason i.e. during the
The gas leak was inspected by divers af- repair or by replacement of the pipe supports is lifted
ter removal of the field joint coating and 200 mm the stresses will become tensile as shown in
it was found that there was a 350 mm Figure 10 and 11.
slot in a double joint with
a 50 long central through
thickness area.
To assess the criticality of the

flaw and decide on the per-
manent repair solution global
finite element analyses was
performed of the crossing. The
stresses from the global anal-
yses was used as input to the
local fracture mechanics finite
element analyses to estimate
the crack driving force and to
assess the stability of the flaw.
The global and local analyses
performed are described in the
following two sections.
Figure 9: Global analyses model and loading steps
LOCAL FLAW STABILITY ANALYSES
The global analyses provided input to de-

tailed analyses of the girth weld flaw with
and without the Plidco leak clamp installed.
The flaw was modeled as shown in Figure 12.
To assess the impact of the leak clamp

on the flaw and crack driving forces (in
terms of applied crack tip opening dis-
Figure 10: Axial stress results of global analyses. The blue vertical line indicates the leak location
placement- CTOD). The pipe was modeled
as shown in Figure 13 with the Plidco leak
clamp installed.
The boundary conditions and loading of

the 3D model is illustrated in Figure 10.
The objective of the local fracture mechan-

ics FE was to establish the crack driving
force CTOD and crack mouth opening
displacement CMOD. In Figure 15 the CTOD
(and CMOD) are plotted for the different
applied pressure levels. It is seen that for
Figure 11: Axial stress pipe lifted 200 mm
low pressures the crack closes (negative
CTOD) as a result of the sagging config-
uration of the pipeline at
the point of leakage (i.e.
compressive stresses at 12
o’clock). First at pressures
above 4.7 MPa (681 psi) the
crack tends to open as the
CTOD’s becomes positive.
Hence, for this case with
the maximum pressure that
has been recorded 4.63 MPa
(670.8 psi), the CTOD at
upper and lower crack front
is still negative and no crack
initiation is expected.
Figure 12: Model of girth weld flaw with a leaking area of 50 mm
Figure 13: Geometrical model of pipe girth weld with circumferential through
thickness flaw and Plidco leak clamp installed Figure 14. Boundary conditions and pressures applied to the FE model
Nevertheless, the crack might still grow at low pressures In Figure 17 it is clearly seen that the pre-tension of the re-
due to pressure fluctuations, and from Figure 17 it is seen pair clamp onto the pipeline has a beneficial effect on the
that with a max pressure fluctuation of 1.31 MPa (~190 psi) CTOD and the CMOD. First at pressures above 5.0 MPa
a ΔCTOD of about 0.011 mm is obtained and for a typical (725 psi) the crack tends to open as the CTODs becomes
pressure fluctuation of 0.6 MPa (87.5 psi) the ΔCTOD is positive. Hence, for this case with the maximum pressure
about 0.005mm. It should be noted that the pressure that has been recorded i.e. 4.63 MPa (670.8 psi). Here the
fluctuations are rather limited in number (said to be upper and lower crack front CTODs have negative values
once a day), and with a ΔCTOD of about 0.005mm and of 0.009mm and no crack extension would occur.
0.011mm, it is found that the crack growth will be limited.
Figure 18: Applied CTOD compared to minimum weld metal and base metal
Figure 15: CMOD and CTOD derived from FEA with different internal pressure CTOD values
The local finite element model (FEM) has been generated

and analysed, to simulate the part of the pipeline at the
leakage together the repair clamp and where the pipeline
is subjected to external and internal loads. A detailed 3D
FE model with fine mesh with the crack is developed and
where the pipeline and repair clamp are modelled as sep-
arate bodies that interact through contact surface. Repre-
sentative material properties were defined for each part of
the assembly, including non-linear behaviour of steel.
The preliminary results of the nonlinear finite element

analyses reveal that the crack is located in sag bend for
the global model where you will find compressive stress-
Figure 16: Axial stresses and stresses at the crack tip with the Plidco clamp
es in the pipe wall at 1 o’clock position of the pipe (at the
installed crack). The analyses also show that with the repair split-
sleeve higher compressive stresses are obtained on the
outside of the wall, whereas on the inside the compres-
sive stresses are reduced. For this global analyses case
the structural integrity of the pipeline with the installed
repair clamp is believed to acceptable as the CTOD (Crack
Tip Opening Displacement) values are much less than the
fracture toughness value CTODmat of 0.15mm of the weld
metal, giving a very comfortable safety margin of 16 times.
However, for global the height of support no.6 has been

increased by 0.2 m, the stresses at 12o’clock position are
tensile and a CTOD value of 0.111 mm is obtained at the
maximum operating pressure of 670 psi and the safety
margin for crack propagation is significantly reduced.
Nevertheless, the local finite element analyses still
Figure 17: Axial stresses and stresses at the crack tip with the Plidco reveals that the CTOD value is less than the assumed
clamp installed
material toughness value CTODmat of 0.15 mm, giving a
safety margin of 1.35. If one assumes that the crack may hydrogen induced weld cracking and risk related to safety
propagate into the base material for the same pressure in the hyperbaric chamber including potential gas leak
level the safety margin is about 2.36. With a target maxi- from the Plidco clamp seals during welding.
mum operating pressure of 700 psi and pressure range of
290 psi, an applied CTOD value of 0.115 mm is obtained The qualification of the hyperbaric weld and associat-
which gives to a corresponding safety margin of 1.3, and a ed testing, full scale mock-up as well as the hyperbaric
crack growth rate at 1.40 mm/year is expected. spread is on the critical path. The concept that was cho-
sen for the permanent repair is shown in Figure 21.
REPAIR SOLUTION
The Plidco leak clamp is considered a temporary repair.

For permanent repair, this leak clamp needs to be replaced
or modified by encapsulation to provide a permanent re-
pair with respect to leak. Further, structural reinforcement
is considered required to mitigate potential crack growth
or unstable fracture of considered damage (i.e. depending
on confidence in measured pipeline configuration).
Among the local repair options, the method of welded

stand-off split sleeve over existing installed leak clamp
on “live” pipeline is considered feasible to achieve the key
criteria especially the completion date as compared to the Figure 19: Gas containment barrier installed over Plidco leak clamp and instal-
option including hot-tap bypass. lation of stand-off sleeve with inert gas (Ar) purging hoses
Welding can be performed on “live” pipeline without inter- WELDING PROCEDURE AND WELD
ruption. With customized design based on required load THERMAL ANALYSES
and pressure loading capacity, the welded stand-off split
sleeve clamp can achieve the required structural integrity The installation of the stand-off sleeve requires welding
and can be engineered and qualified to prove that the onto an in-service pipeline. To facilitate a repair or to install
repaired location has sufficient capacity to sustain full a branch connection using the “hot tapping” technique is
design pressure and operational axial loads. used. There are three risks that need to be considered. The
first is the risk of burnthrough, where the welding arc caus-
The risk associated with the offshore support vessel, de- es the pipe wall to be penetrated allowing the contents to
ployment of supports/alignment frames and material han- escape. The second is the risk of hydrogen cracking that
dling/lifting for clamp installation needs to be identified arises from the fast cooling rates that tend to be produced
and mitigated through a structured risk assessment exer- by the ability of the flowing contents to remove heat from
cise including development of mitigation measures during the pipe wall. The third risk is the risk of gas leak during
the execution to minimize the potential of compromising the repair into the hyperbaric welding habitat.
the integrity of the crossing pipeline. Typically, a localized
repair will require relatively smaller operation compared to Various methods exist for predicting safe welding param-
replacement of the pipe section by a hot-tap and bypass eters for welding onto in-service pipelines with regard to
operation. This inherently reduces the risk of causing dam- the risk of both burnthrough and hydrogen cracking.
age to the PHE pipeline during the repair operation.
The PRCI Thermal Analysis Model for Hot Tap Welding [3]
Welding of stand-off split sleeve over the installed leak was used to predict safe parameters for welding a full-en-
clamp will not specifically be limited by the current pipe- circlement stand-off sleeve (33.0 mm thick at fillet weld
line configuration at the crossing. Hyperbaric chamber location) onto a 32 inch diameter by 15.9 mm thick API
can be customized to fit with the local profile at the leak 5L Grade X65 natural gas pipeline operating over a range
location though and excavation of the seabed is required of flow conditions. The PRCI model was used to predict
to accommodate the habitat safe parameters for welding a full-encirclement stand-off
sleeve (33 mm thick at the fillet weld location) onto a 32
The risk associated with the welding of the stand-off inch diameter by 15.9 mm thick API 5L Grade X65 natural
split sleeve over the installed clamp is generally associ- gas pipeline operating over a range of flow conditions.
ated with offshore vessel deployment, material handling,
installation related risk and diving related risk as well as A total of six separate cases were modeled so that the
the risks of welding on the “live” pipeline i.e. burn through, effect of temperature, pressure, and flow rate could be
assessed. Assumptions that were made included an ECA as per DNV OS-F101 Appendix A requirements [4]
ambient temperature of 60°F, a sleeve temperature of and BS7910:2005 [5]. An example of macro section and
70°F, and no effect of preheat temperature. Although the hardness records is shown in Figure 27.
actual installation will take place underwater in a hyper-
baric chamber (approximately 25 meter water depth),
this aspect is beyond the capabilities of the PRCI model
however, additional analyses was performed to account
for the habitat atmosphere and the effect of thev habitat
atmosphere on the heat convection.
The flow, temperature and pressure for the reiar condition

cases are shown in Table 1. Table 2 shows the results of
Case 2, the most critical for burntrough. It is seen that the
maximum inner wall temperature is far below 982oC the
Figure 20: Circumferential fiullet weld deposition sequence
critical burn through temperature. All cases were mod-
elled using the chemical composition of the pipe at the
leak conditions. All of the flow conditions that were mod- Case Temperature, °C Pressure, psig Flow Rate,
eled have produced nearly identical weld cooling times No. mmscfd
and HAZ hardness levels. 1 27.7 694.32 569.61
2 24.6 400.53 246.37
The conditions for Case 1 (highest volumetric flow rate) 3 26.9 640 391.03
produced the shortest weld cooling times and highest 4 32.6 709.2 529.41
HAZ hardness levels and Case 2 (lowest volumetric flow 5 25.6 402.16 316.94
rate) produced longest weld cooling times and lowest 6 27 579.43 425.48
HAZ hardness levels. The difference in HAZ hardness
between the highest and lowest for the highest heat input Table 1: Flow conditions during the repair
level is less than 1 HV. The maximum HAZ hardness for
the lowest heat input was estimated at 327.5 HV10.
Case Heat input Maximum inner
Hence, there is negligible risk og hydrogen induced HAZ No. kJ/mm ∆t8/5 (sec) wall temp oC
cracking. Depending on the level of diffusible hydrogen 1 0.6 0.85 25
during welding preheating is recommeded applied in par- 2 0.8 1.15 25
ticular for 4 ml/100g of diffusible hydrogen. 3 1 1.46 25
4 1.2 1.83 208
The weld buttering and the circumferential fillet weld for 5 1.4 2.21 227
attaching the stand-off sleeve to the run pipe is shown 6 1.6 2.61 245
schematically in Figure 20.
Table 2: Results of PRCI thermal analyses for flow Case 2
FULL SCALE MOCK-UP QUALIFIATION
As part of the terms of reference the hyperbaric welding

contractor was required to perform hyperbaric welding
of a full scale mock-up trial welding the stand-off sleeve
onto a sample pipe specifically selected to have chem-
istry and mechanical properties almost identical to the
two abutting pipes at the leak location, Figure 22, 23. The
objective of the full scale mock up trial was apart from
checking the HAZ hardness also to perform hydrotest at
above 100 bar, Figure 24 and to test the TOFD equipment
and NDT contractor for inspection of the long seam and
circumferential weld joints, Figure 25.
Further, the objective was to compare the measured flaw

sizes in the 29 macro sections (Figure 26) taken of the
circumferential fillet welds and in particular the weld root Figure 21: HAZ hardness of untempered buttering bead estimated for various
repair flow conditions
flaw heights to the flaw acceptance criteria derived by
Figure 22: Full scale water cooled mock-up test sample inside hyperbaric test
chamber
Figure 26: 29 macro sections extracted from circumferential fillet welds
Figure 23: Welding of circumferential weld butter layers inside hyperbaric

welding chamber
Figure 24: Hydrotesting of completed full scale mock-up repair
Figure 25: Completed seam welds being inspected by TOFD Figure 27: Typical circumferential weld macro section and hardness records
OFFSHORE REPAIR EXECUTION
Following the successful welder, hyperbaric welding pro- release pressure was installed on the outlet hose to
cedure qualification and the full scale mock-up including dump the gas outside the habitat. Figure 30 shows the
hydrostatic testing of the stand-off sleeve pipe sample at ongoing welding in the habitat.
100 bar. The hyperbaric welding habitat and saturation
chamber were shipped and loaded on to the DP2 vessel
for the offshore repair campaign. Introduction picture
shows the DP2 vessel at the repair location.
Figure 29: Hyperbaric welding habitat installed on four suction piles
Figure 28: Hyperbaric welding habitat and “safe haven’
Prior to the installation of the habitat 5 suction piles

were installed. The first was used as a test pile to check
the soil penetration. Figure 28 shows the hyperbaric Figure 30: Hyperbaric welding ongoing inside habitat
welding habitat.
The whole offshore welding operation was completed
The test pile was successfully installed after which the without any pressure reduction or interruption of the gas
four piles that would support the hyperbaric welding hab- flow, a head of schedule and the welds were accepted
itat where installed. The habitat was installed on the four according to the DNV OS-F101 “Golden Weld principle” [4]
suction piles, as seen in Figure 29 and the habitat door based on 100% GVI, MPI and 100% TOFD/MUT using ECA
seals where installed and waterproofed before dewatering. based flaw acceptance criteria.
Prior to the installation of the habitat divers had re- CONCLUSIONS

moved the anodes on Plidco clamp leak and trimmed the
bolts to maximize the space for installation of the two This paper has presented the approach applied for two
gas containment barrier half shells. The bolts on the gas cases of successful “live” welded repairs of leaking subsea
containment barrier were tightened using the prescribed pipelines using leak clamps and gas containment barriers
torqueing sequence and the gas containment barrier prior to installation of stand-off sleeves specially designed
including the hoses was pressurized to 20 bar using Ar to fit onto the pipe and the leak clamp. The methodology
gas. The pressure was thereafter maintained constant was successfully applied to repair two pipelines carrying
at 10 bar during the welding of the stand-off sleeve half natural gas to gas fired power plants in densely populated
shells. In case of sudden gas leak a PRV set at 20 bar cities without pressure reduction or interruption of gas flow.
References Authors
[1.] DNV-RP-A203 Technology Qualification, July 2013
[2.] DNV-RP-F113 Pipeline Subsea Repair, October 2007 Jens P. Tronskar
[3.] Bruce, W. A., Li, V., Citterberg, R., Wang, Y.-Y., and Chen, Y., “Improved
Cooling Rate Model for Welding on In-Service Pipelines,” PRCI Con- DNV GL Deepwater Technology
tract No. PR-185-9633, EWI Project No. 42508CAP, Edison Welding
Institute, Columbus, OH. Centre
[4.] DNV Offshore Standard DNV-OS-F101: “Submarine Pipeline Sys-
tems”, Det Norske Veritas, October 2013. Senior Vice President & Chief
[5.] British Standards, BS 7910: 2005, “Guide on methods of assessing
the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures”, July 2005. Technology Officer
Jens.P.Tronskar@dnvgl.com
Author
Asle Venas Lee Chon Gee
DNV GL - Pipeline Technology DNV GL Deepwater Technology
Global Director Pipelines Centre
Asle.Venas@dnvgl.com Senior Principal Consultant

Chon.Gee.Lee@dnvgl.com
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors greatly acknowledge the permission given by DCN’s, PGN’s and DNV GL’s management to publish this paper.
SIPIPE©
Integrated solutions
for oil & gas pipelines
siemens.com/oilandgas
Chinese Gas Market on the Rise
– Impact on the Pipeline and Pipe Industry
(Preliminary Understanding)
© Petrochina
Regional Report
1. BACKGROUND
Since Deng Xiaoping’s market reform was initiated in This map provides near real-time information on particu-
1978, China has shifted from a centrally-planned to a mar- late matter air pollution less than 2.5 microns in diameter
ket-based economy and has experienced rapid economic (PM2.5). Under typical conditions, PM2.5 is the most dam-
and social development. With a averaged nearly 10% aging form of air pollution likely to be present, contrib-
GDP growth a year - the fastest sustained expansion by uting to heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, respiratory
a major economy in history - China has lifted more than infections, and other diseases.
800 million people out of poverty. The country is now the
world’s second largest economy. After Xi Jinping became President and Li Keqiang as-
sumed premiership in March 2013. The new administra-
Yet China remains a developing country, its per capita tion has been keen to continue economic and financial
income is still a fraction of that in advanced countries and reforms in China in the interest of greater long-term and
its market reforms are incomplete. Rapid economic as- sustainable growth.
cendance has brought on many challenges and problems
as well, including high inequality; rapid urbanization; chal- Especially when air pollution is now so prominent and is
lenges to environmental sustainability and air pollution. affecting people’s choice whether or not to keep living
and doing business in these heavily polluted cities and
regions. Therefore the reform in energy sector is in
fact one of the more important topics Beijing needs to
consider. The mindset for China’s energy development
is changing from “quantity first” to “quality first,” with
top priority given to clean, low-carbon, safe and highly
efficient new energy, instead of just ensuring energy
supply. During China’s energy transformation process,
the share of non-fossil fuel grew to 13.5% in 2016, up
Beijing without smog vs. with heavy smog
By Bobak (Own work) [CC BY-SA 2.5 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ 1.4% percentage points from 2015, while the share of
by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons coal dropped by 1.7%.
Air Quality Real-time Map on May 06, 2017 Source: http://berkeleyearth.org/air-quality-real-time-map/

REGIONAL REPORT
Although natural gas production and use is rapidly tinues operations in the entire oil and gas industry value
increasing in China, the fuel comprised only 5.9% of the chain. CNPC had total assets of 585,619($M), a revenue
country’s total primary energy consumption compared of 262,573($M) and 1,512,048 employees in 2016. Sino-
to the world average 23.7% in 2015 according to data pec comes in second with a total assets of 310,726($M),
released by Oil and Gas Department, National Energy 267,518($M) in revenue and 713,288 employees in 2016.
Administration. Heavy investments in upstream devel- CNOOC as the smallest company of the three, had a
opment and greater import opportunities are supporting total assets of 166,595($M), 65,892($M) in revenue and
significant growth in China’s natural gas sector. Moreover, 100,821 employees in 2016.
natural gas as clean energy also meets the requirement
of energy structure transformation in China.
2. THE CHINESE GAS INDUSTRY
2.1. MAJOR PLAYERS
In the 1980s, China established three ma-

jor state-owned enterprises (SOE) - China
National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC),
China Petroleum and Chemical Corpora-
tion (Sinopec), and China National Off-
shore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) - to serve
in various areas of the oil & gas sector.
CNPC was put in charge of most of the
country’s onshore upstream assets, and
Sinopec was given responsibility for the China’s major gas industry players (2016)
downstream activities such as refining,
distribution, and petrochemicals. China gave CNOOC These state-owned enterprises (SOE) lead the natural
responsibility to explore and develop oil and gas assets gas development of China. Similar to oil exploration and
in the offshore areas of China. In the late 1990s, the Chi- production, these companies partner with internation-
nese government reorganized most state-owned oil and al companies to develop natural gas projects requiring
gas assets and created separate operating companies or more technical expertise. China’s natural gas supply
publicly-listed arms of each of the SOEs. These sepa- sources are shifting towards greater imports and the
rate companies are majority-owned by each of the SOE need to bolster investment.
holding companies.
2.2. PRIVATE COMPANIES
In 1998, the government restructured CNPC and Sinopec
into two vertically integrated firms that own both up- Urban gas supply is dominated by two companies, which
stream and downstream assets, with CNPC taking some hold stakes in the majority of municipal gas suppliers.
downstream assets and Sinopec acquiring some fields for
exploration and production (E&P). 2.2.1 TOWNGAS
CNOOC, which is responsible for offshore oil and gas The Hong Kong and China Gas Company Limited, com-
E&P, has seen its role expand as a result of this industry monly known as Towngas, is the sole provider of towngas
reconstruction and growing attention to offshore zones in Hong Kong. Founded in 1862, it is one of the oldest
and overseas assets. Also, the company has proven to be listed companies in the territory.
a growing competitor to CNPC and Sinopec by not only
increasing its E&P expenditures in the South China Sea, In 2006, Hong Kong and China Gas acquired 44% of
but also by extending its reach into the downstream sec- shares of Panva Gas and became the largest shareholder
tor, particularly in the southern Guangdong Province. of Panva Gas.In 2007, the company was renamed, becom-
ing Towngas China Company Limited.
CNPC is the largest integrated energy company in China.
The corporation integrates the business portfolios of an Towngas China Company Limited, formerly Panva Gas
oil company and oilfield service provider, but also con- Holdings Limited, is a leading market player in natural
Regional Report
gas businesses in China. It principally engaged in the It has over 200 projects in mainland China including city-
sales and distribution of piped gas in the People’s Repub- gas, water supply, emerging environmentally-friendly en-
lic of China including the provision of piped gas, construc- ergy and telecommunications. It also engages in property
tion of Gas pipelines, the operation of city-gas pipeline development projects, namely International Finance Cen-
networks, the operation of gas fuel automobile refilling tre (15% share), Grand Promenade (50% share) and Grand
station, and the sale of gas household appliance. Waterfront, in Hong Kong with its largest shareholder.
206
238 239 Heilongjiang
Based in Hong Kong, our portfolio
119
currently includes 241 projects in

26 provinces, autonomous regions
38 Jilin
and municipalities in mainland China, 203
30
105
205 204
as well as one in Thailand. 86
190
201 Liaoning
87 199 191 192 125
202 188
89 189 196
90 198 193
88 37 Hebei 200 129
194 195
91 120
Beijing 207 117 118
110 197
Inner Mongolia 121
31
94 84
85
212
93 92 213
63 209
50 173 176
96 208
52 66
210 185 181
95 97 57 32
180114
Shanxi 211 73
184
175
67 169
75 76 77 171 172 179
98 99 178 174 29 170
112 113 Shandong
Ningxia 64 182 183 Yellow Sea
79 69 177 237 186
107 68
104
81 72 70 71
74 108
62 80 15 116
65 106 16 100 Jiangsu
115
83 146 13 14
61 60 8 145
39 151
56 54 78 10
53 33 27
58 126 36 Anhui
59 Henan 41 17 109
82 22
240152 18 21 11
Shaanxi 40
55 101 147 144 9 127 43 20
45 138
46 148 128 48 4212
221 218 149 47 44 159
158
226 150
229
Hubei 153 154 19
Sichuan 228
223
216 156 160
220 7 28
222 Chongqing 164102 236 157
219 227 241 224 217 155
165
225 214
231 162 Zhejiang
166
230 167
215
187 25 23 49 163
161
East China Sea
26 51
Hunan 24
Jiangxi Fujian
Guizhou 168
Thailand 140
232
111
94 Phetchabun 235 234 Guangdong
141 135 5
103
Guangxi 132 143 6
3 136 130
139 1
Yunnan 137 131 133
123 122
233 242 4
124 35
2
134
142
Hong Kong
34
Hainan
Towngas Group Hong Kong headquarters
Piped city-gas projects (Towngas)
Liquefied natural gas receiving station
Piped city-gas projects (Towngas China)
CNG / LNG refilling stations (Towngas) Provincial natural gas pipeline network Coal-based chemical processing
City high pressure pipeline network /
CNG refilling station (Towngas China) Water / Waste treatment projects Upstream projects
Underground gas storage (Towngas)
Other projects (Towngas) Telecommunication projects Coal logistic project
City high pressure pipeline network
(Towngas China) Other projects (Towngas China) Coal mining Oilfield project
Towngas portfolio 2016 (Source: Towngas Annual Report 2016)

5
REGIONAL REPORT
2.2.2 ENN ENERGY GROUP 2.3. PIPELINE IMPORTS
Established in 1989 as a natural gas distributor and The imported pipeline gas was 33.6 Bcm in 2015, mainly
retailer its strategy today is to grow internationally into a from Turkmenistan, Myanmar, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
vertically integrated international energy company able to
generate returns across the entire natural gas value chain.
Phase I of its new Zhoushan LNG Receiving Terminal is
expected to be commissioned in mid-2018 with 3 million
ton annual capacity and further expansion planned. It
already has signed long term gas supply deals with Chev-
ron, Total, and Origin to supply half that volume. ENN is
also involved in solar energy, clean coal chemical technol-
ogy, intelligent and integrated energy systems as well as
real estate, culture, health and marine tourism.
It has a fast growing natural gas business that supplies

city gas to more than 152 cities in China, operates the
country’s largest private liquefied natural gas (LNG) and
compressed natural gas (CNG) refueling station network
and is building the country’s first private LNG receiving Pipeline Import in 2015 (Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2016)
terminal in Zhejiang Province. Its gas sales in 2015 were

11.3 Bcm (Billion qubicmeter)
10 11
OPERATIONAL
LOCATIONS IN
CHINA
Inner Mongolia (1 project) Shandong (17 projects)
Tongliao 855,000 Binzhou Zhanhua Economic
Development Zone –
Changle County 240,000
Inner Mongolia Jiangsu (13 projects) Changqing Zone,
Jinan City 564,000
Gaoyou 288,000 Chengyang 780,000
Guannan Development Huangdao 720,000
Anhui (14 projects) Guangxi (5 projects) Jiaonan 605,000
West-to-East Pipeline I Liaoning Zone 158,000 Jiaozhou 594,000
Bengbu 1,050,000 Beihai Tieshangang Haian 320,000 Laiyang 318,000
P
Province Liaocheng 750,000
Bozhou 455,000 Industrial Park – Hongze 385,000
Chaohu 488,000 Guigang 576,000 Huaian 1,850,000 Qingdao Sino-German
West-to-East Pipeline II Ecopark –
Chuzhou 902,000 Guilin 1,065,000 Beijing
eiji Lianyungang 1,055,000
Dingyuan County 11,000 Guiping Industrial Park, Rizhao 763,000
Municipal
Municipality
pa
a Lianyungang Xuyu Rizhao Haiyou Economic
Fengyang 115,000 Guigang City – New Zone – Development Zone –
West-to-East Pipeline III Guzhen 94,000 Wuzhou Imported Renewable Caofeidian Suining Suburb – Xintai City
Jieshou Industrial Zone – Resources Processing Park – Dalian Development Zone –
Laian 151,000 Taixing 335,000 Yantai 1,980,000
Shaanxi-Beijing Pipeline I Luan 686,000 Tianjin Floating Terminal Wujin 1,164,000 Yantai
Quanjiao 196,000 Hebei (20 projects) Xinghua 614,000 Development Zone –
Suchu Modern Tianjin Binhai Yancheng 1,090,000 Zhucheng 545,000
Industry Park – Baoding 1,360,000 (under construction) Zouping 241,000
Shaanxi-Beijing Pipeline II Dingzhou 360,000 Yancheng Environmental
Suzhou Economic Gaocheng 193,000 Protection Industrial
Development Zone 130,000 Jingxing 335,000 Park –
Yingshang Industrial Park – Langfang 814,000 Hebei Qingdao Sichuan (1 project)
Shaanxi-Beijing Pipeline III
Lingshou 96,000 Province
e
Luanxian 90,500 Liangshan
Beijing Municipality (1 project) Liaoning (5 projects)
Luquan 190,000 Prefecture 660,000
Shaanxi-Beijing Pipeline IV Luquan Green Island Shandong
ong
(under construction) Pinggu 130,000 Dayou Linhai Economic
Development Zone – Province Zone, Linghai City 58,000
Luquan Yian Town 10,000 Yunnan (2 projects)
Hebei-Nanjing Pipeline Qingyuan County Western Huludao 1,042,000
Fujian (12 projects) Industrial Zone B – Panjing Chemical Kunming City
Rongcheng 75,000 Enterprises Zone – Hi-tech Zone 49,000
Anxi 125,000 Shenze 46,000 Jiangsu
Jia gsu
Zhong-Wu Pipeline Dehua 105,000 Xingcheng 137,000 Wenshan 448,000
Shijiazhuang 3,250,000 Province
ovi ce
e
Huian 149,000 Wangdu Economic Henan Rudong
Yingkou Industrial Park –
Jinjiang 650,000 Development Zone – Province Zhejiang (16 projects)
Yong-Tang-Qin Pipeline Longyan Development Wenan Industrial Park –
Zone 185,000 Wuji 86,500 Hainan (3 projects)
Haining 292,000
Nanan 390,500 Xingtang Development Zone – Haiyan 111,000
Xinji 225,000 Changjiang County 136,000
Qin-Shen Pipeline Ningde 1,060,000 Huangyan 636,000
Zhengding New Zone, Dingan County 108,000
Ningde Xiapu Shijiazhuang City 50,000 Huzhou 521,000
Yacheng Dongyang Anhui Shanghaii Ledong County 145,000
Jinhua 255,000
Sichuan-East Pipeline Industrial Park – Province Lanxi 155,000
Henan (11 projects) Zhoushan
Zhooush
Zh han (under
ushan (und
(und
(un er construction)
der cconst
nstruc
nstructi
uctio
uctio
on
n))
Quangang 320,500 Ningbo Longwan 361,000
Quanzhou 1,355,000 Gongyi Private Technology Longyou 130,500
Tai-Qing-Wei Pipeline Shishi 130,000 and Innovation Park – Zhejiang
Yongchun 161,500 Kaifeng 965,000 Nanxun 494,000
Luoyang 2,060,000 Province Ningbo (Yinzhou) 625,000
Ruyang County 135,000 Sichuan Ningbo Daxie
Hangzhou-Jiaxing Pipeline Ruzhou 330,000
Guangdong (24 projects) Province Development Zone –
Shangqiu 2,452,000 Hunan
Weihui City (Tangzhuang Quzhou 380,000
Dongguan 7,420,000 Town) Industrial Province Wenzhou 550,000
Hu-Hang-Yong Pipeline Dongguan Agglomeration Zone 30,000 Jiangxi Wenzhou Wanquan
Dongkeng Town 100,000 Xinan 125,000
Dongyuan 105,000 Xinan Wanshan Lake Province Light Industrial Base –
Yong-Tai-Wen Pipeline Fengkai 89,000 Industrial Park – Fujian Xiaoshan 765,000
Guangning 83,500 Xinxiang 1,245,000 Yongkang 242,000
(under construction)
Yichuan 112,000 Province
Heyuan 325,000
China-Myanmar Pipeline Huadu 690,000
Huaiji 133,000 Hunan (14 projects) Putian
Jiangmen
Hecheng Town Zone – Changsha 5,090,000
China-Russia East Pipeline Leizhou 354,000 Changsha County 368,000
(under construction) Chenzhou Suxian
Lianjiang 323,000
Lianzhou 165,000 Industrial Zone – Guangdong
angdong
Xinjiang-Guangdong-Zhejiang Luoding 301,000 Huaihua 488,000 Province
Coal to Gas Pipeline
Panyu Zone, Liling 230,800 Guangxi
(under construction) Liuyang Industrial Park –
Guangzhou City 1,795,000 Yunnan Province
Shantou 1,630,000 Ningxiang 445,000 Dongguan Yuedong
North–western Liuyang108,000 Province Jiufeng (under construction)
Shenzhen Bao’an Wangcheng 168,000
(Longchuan) Dapeng
Xiangtan 990,000
Gas Project Managed Industrial Park – Yanling County 80,000
by ENN Sihui 483,000 Zhuhai Shenzheng
Yongzhou 725,000 Beihai Tieshan Port (under construction)
Wuchuan 300,000 Zhuzhou 1,620,000
Xinyi 305,000 Zhuzhou County 277,000
LNG Import Terminal Yangxi County 116,000
Yunan 77,000
Zhanjiang 1,050,000 Jiangxi (1 project) Total Connectable Population
Tota : 77,420,000
Zhaoqing 928,000
Zhaoqing Shangrao Economic
Development Zone 76,500 Development Zone 151,200 Total Number of projects
Tota : 160
Hainan
Province
(Source: ENN Energy Annual Report 2016)

Regional Report
2.4. LNG IMPORTS
The imported LNG was 25.8 Bcm, with long-term import According to an incidents report from incomplete statis-
contracts from Qatar, Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, tics released by www.gasshow.com, there were 658 gas
Papua New Guinea and spot imports mainly from explosions in China in 2015, more than 1000 people
Yemen, Algeria, etc. were injured and 116 killed.
LNG Import in 2015 Place of incidents in 2015 Source: http://safety.gasshow.com/

(Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2016 News_20160104/373489.html
2.5. GAS UTILIZATION
In 2015, China’s natural gas consumption was 193.1 Bcm.

From the consumption structure aspect, the industrial
fuel consumption was accounting for 38.2% at a volume
of 73.7 Bcm; the urban gas consumption was 62.8 Bcm,
accounting for 32.5%; for power generation was 28.4 Bcm,
accounting for 14.7%,; while for chemical industry was 28.2
Bcm, accounting for 14.6%.
Number of deaths in 2015 Source: http://safety.gasshow.com/

News_20160104/373489.html
3. SOURCES OF GAS
In 2015, China’s domestic natural gas production was 135

Bcm. In the same year China has imported pipeline gas
China’s Gas Consumption Structure in 2015 (Source:China Gas Development and LNG from more than 10 importing countries. The total
Report 2016) imported natural gas was 61.4 Bcm.
2.6. URBAN GAS INCIDENTS 3.1. GAS RESOURCES IN CHINA
Annual urban gas consumption in China has been grow- China’s primary onshore natural gas-producing regions
ing for over two decades. However, due to the fact that are Sichuan Province in the Southwest (Sichuan Basin);
majority of local governments pay more attention to build the Xinjiang and Qinghai Provinces in the Northwest
more infrastructure as quick as possible and lack of at- (Tarim, Junggar, and Qaidam Basins); and Shanxi Province
tention to maintenance in day-to-day operation, there has in the North (Ordos Basin). China has delved into several
been more and more gas related incidents over the years. offshore natural gas fields located in the Bohai Basin and
the Panyu complex of the Pearl River Mouth Basin (South
REGIONAL REPORT
China Sea) and also is exploring more technically chal-

lenging areas such as deepwater, coalbed methane, and
shale gas reserves with foreign companies.
China has found 505 sedimentary basins of different

types. Till now the government has approved 1746 leases
with the total area of 435.4 million km2. According to the
results of new-round evaluation on the nationwide oil
and gas resources carried out in 2005, the recoverable
resources of conventional oil and gas in China are 25.5
billion ton for oil and 27 Tcm for natural gas. China is also
abundant with unconventional oil and gas resources.
Results of preliminary evaluation revealed that unconven- existing pipelines
tional oil and gas resources are basically equal to con- planned pipelines
pipelines in evaluation
ventional oil and gas resources in China. As exploration is

intensified, there is still room for the increase of uncon- China’s Major Pipeline Infrastructure Network
ventional oil and gas resources in China.
3.2.1. Development of West-East Gas Pipeline
Road map of all three West-East Gas Pipelines
Geographic location of 51 proved large gas fields in China (Source: Natural Gas Originally known as the First West-East Gas Pipeline which
Industry B, Volume 2, Issue 1, January 2015, Research Institute of Petroleum
Exploration and Development, CNPC) became operational in 2004, the West-East Gas Pipeline
Project is now a natural gas supply system stretching from
across China from east to west, all three West-East Gas
3.2. PIPELINES Pipeline projects are in operation now. Consisting of trunk
and branch pipelines and gas storages, the project delivers
As of end of 2015, China has built Shanxi-to-Beijing, natural gas from Western China and Central Asia to the
West-to-East, Sichuan-to-East, Central Asia and Si- major target consumer markets in Southeast China, as well
no-Myanmar pipelines. A total length of about 64 thou- as users along the lines. It has a total length of more than
sand kilometers. China has constructed 12 LNG terminals 20,000 km, with an annual delivery capacity of 77 Bcm.
with an annual receiving capacity of 43.8 million tons
(18.2mcm), built 18 underground gas storages with 5.5 The First West-East Gas Pipeline is mainly supplied by the
Bcm annual effective working gas capacity, built 6500 Tarim gas province in Xinjiang. It runs from Lunnan Oil and
CNG/LNG stations and 13 marine LNG stations. A multi- Gas Field in the Tarim Basin to Baihe Town in Shanghai,
source natural gas supply pattern of “West-to-East, with a total length of 4,380 km. Consisting of one trunk,
North-to-South, Offshore Gas Going Onshore, Sup- three branches and other support pipelines, it can trans-
ply-from-Nearby” has been formed. mit 17 billion cubic meters of natural gas each year. The
pipeline passes through 10 provinces (municipalities and
Regional Report
autonomous regions), i.e., Xinjiang, Gansu,

Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Henan, Anhui, Ji-
angsu, Shanghai, and Zhejiang. The pipeline
was kicked off on July 4, 2002, completed
and put into trial operation on October 1,
2004, and became commercial operational
on December 30, 2004.
The Second West-East Gas Pipeline is

mainly supplied by gas from Central Asia.
The 8,819km-long pipeline, consisting of
one trunk and eight branches, runs from
Horgos in Xinjiang, where it is connected
with the Central Asia-China Gas Pipeline,
to Shanghai and Hong Kong. This pipeline
is capable of delivering 30 billion cubic
meters annually for over 30 years. It passes
through 14 provinces, municipalities and
autonomous regions including Xinjiang,
Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Henan, Hubei,
Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Zhejiang,
Construction Site (Source: 2013 CNPC Corporate Social Responsibility Report)
Shanghai, Jiangsu, Hunan, and Shandong,
as well as Hong Kong SAR. Construction of
the second pipeline was started in February 3.2.2. THE MYANMAR-CHINA OIL & GAS PIPELINES
2008, and it was completed and put into
operation in December 2012.
The Third West-East Gas Pipeline is mainly

supplied by gas from Central Asia, with
SNG in Xinjiang as the supplementary, It
runs from Horgos in Xinjiang to Fuzhou in
Fujian, crossing Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia,
Shaanxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi,
Fujian, and Guangdong. Consisting of one
trunk and five branches, it stretches a total
length of 6,840km with a designed annual
delivery capacity of 30 billion cubic meters.
Construction of the third pipeline was
started on October 16, 2012, and completed
and put into operation in October, 2016.
The First, Second and Third West-East

Gas Pipelines are interconnected and can
be controlled in an integrated manner
through the hubs in Zhongwei, Jingbian,
Zaoyang and Ji’an. The four major gas
provinces including Tarim, Changqing,
Sichuan - Chongqing and Qinghai are Road-Map of Myanmar-China Oil & Gas Pipeline Source: https://www.shwe.org
connected through the Ji-Ning, Zhong-
wei-Jingbian, Huai-Wu cross-link lines, and
Zhongxian- Wuhan and Sebei-Xining-Lanzhou pipelines, The Myanmar-China Pipeline Project consists of a crude
laying a solid foundation for the forming of a nationwide oil pipeline and a natural gas pipeline. The oil pipeline
gas pipeline network. is jointly invested and built by CNPC and Myanmar Oil
REGIONAL REPORT
and Gas Enterprise (MOGE). The gas pipeline is jointly the sales and purchase agreement for gas to be sup-
invested and built by CNPC, MOGE, Daewoo International, plied via the eastern route (Power of Siberia gas pipe-
KOGAS, IndianOil and GAIL. line). The 30-year agreement provides for Russian gas
deliveries to China in the amount of 38 Bcm per year.
The Myanmar-China Gas Pipeline starts at Ramree Island Gas supplies will start in December 2019 through a
on the western coast of Myanmar and ends at Ruili in Chi- 3,000 kilometers pipeline.
na’s Yunnan Province. Running in parallel with the Myan-
mar-China Crude Oil Pipeline, the crude pipeline is 1,016 In September 2016, Gazprom and CNPC signed the EPC
mm in diameter with a distance of 793 km in Myanmar. contract to construct a crossing under the Amur River
It can deliver 5.2 Bcm/a upon completion of the Phase within the trans-border section of the Power of Siberia
I project, and 12 Bcm/a upon completion of the Phase II pipeline. Construction in the Chinese territory started in
project. Pursuant to the cooperation agreement, four gas April 2017. In May 2017, a temporary two-way checkpoint
off-take stations (Kyaukphyu, Yenangyaung, Taungtha was opened on the Russian-Chinese border to provide
and Mandalay) were established to unload less than 20% unfettered access to the border area for construction
of the pipeline’s total delivery in Myanmar. equipment and personnel.
On April 10, 2017, the Myanmar-China Oil & Gas Pipelines 4. POLICY FRAMEWORK
project was officially put into operation on the Maday Island
in Myanmar as an oil tanker started offloading 140,000
tons of crude oil from Azerbaijan at the Bay of Bengal. 4.1. THE 13TH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
On 4 July 2017, the National Development and Reform

Commission (NDRC) published a “Notice on Opinion of
Accelerating and Advancing the Utilization of Natural
Gas” (Circular 1217) on its website. This policy, jointly
promulgated by NDRC and twelve other governmental
agencies, had been under discussion for over a year
before its final release.
For this purpose, the NDRC has set forth the ground
rules for this initiative, namely, (a) guidance for plans and
Maday Island Port Source: http://www.cnpc.com.cn/en/nr2015/201502/2cea-
policies, (b) reform and innovation through market open-
6be48e4e43e7a4bcfa77080d8314.shtml ness, (c) advancement of the entire industry while focus-
ing on key areas, and (d) cooperation between industries
Maday Island is located at the southeastern part of to promote healthy development. The target is that the
Kyaukpyu. The Port of Maday Island consists of a 300Kt consumption percentage of natural gas will constitute 10%
crude oil terminal, a workship dock, a 650,000 cubic in 2020 and 15% in 2030, while the underground effective
meter water tank, a 38km-long channel, and a 1.2 Mcm oil work volume of natural gas will be 14.8 billion cubic meters
tank farm. A 300Kt oil tanker has moored at the port and in 2020 and 35 billion cubic meters in 2030. Circular 1217
began to unload crude from the Middle East. also encourages participation of various entities through
multiple ways such as pipeline gas, CNG, LNG, LPG, etc.
3.2.3. POWER OF SIBERIA
The Power of Siberia gas

trunkline will transport gas
from the Irkutsk and Yakutia
gas production centers to con-
sumers in Russia’s Far East
and China (eastern route).
In May 2014, Gazprom and

China National Petroleum
Corporation (CNPC) signed China’s Energy Consumption Targets (Source: Natural Gas Industry B, 2017, CNPC )
Regional Report
NDRC also provided an outline of key policies, including Energy cooperation plays a big role in this initiative. On
but not limited to: May 12, 2017, Chinese NDRC and NEA have published a
white paper on this sector of the BRI.
• The encouragement of the exploitation of domestic
conventional gas, deepwater and unconventional The Belt and Road Initiative seeks to foster energy coop-
gas. Participation by private companies in overseas eration in order to jointly build up an open, inclusive, and
natural gas exploitation, LNG procurement, and the beneficial community of shared interests, responsibility
construction and development of LNG receiving ter- and destiny. The Initiative also aims to improve regional
minals and pipelines will also be encouraged. energy safety and to optimize the distribution of energy
• The pricing mechanism for industrial gas and resi- resources. It will integrate regional energy markets and
dential gas will become more market-oriented and push forward the green and low-carbon development
improved to remove intermediate links and any of regional energy. By doing so, the scheme will meet
unreasonable allocation of price on power transporta- increasing demand for energy and advance economic
tion and distribution. development in countries involved in the Initiative.
• The establishment of a mechanism to provide free-
dom to select source and means of supply. The white paper also emphasized on openness and
• The provision of local government financial support to inclusiveness of this cooperation, importance of policy
projects promoting pipeline construction, LNG filling coordination within projects and further cooperation with
stations, and increased capacity of existing LNG re- all related international organizations such as UN, G20,
ceiving terminals. BRICS and IEA etc.
In addition, NDRC and NEA also released in this May “Me- 5.2. MARKET-ORIENTED REFORM
dium - and Long-term Oil and Gas Pipeline Planning”. The
Planning points out that China will take into full account China’s rapidly growing natural gas demand over the past
natural gas and LNG markets, domestic and internation- few years has opened up opportunities for independent
al resources, pipeline and sea transportation ways, and Chinese energy companies to operate in the LNG space
will accelerate the construction of natural gas pipeline and in unconventional gas production.
network, adhering to the principles of “to transport the
natural gas from the West to the East, to transmit natu- In 2013, JOVO Group became the first private Chinese
ral gas from the North to the South, and to land offshore company to own a majority stake in a regasification
natural gas”. By 2025, a national fundamental network of terminal, and the company signed a long-term contract
“major interconnection and local network” for natural gas with Malaysia’s Petronas, marking the first private com-
will be gradually formed. pany to hold a long term LNG purchase agreement. The
government initiated a new
policy in early 2014 to allow
access rights to third party
companies for supplying
natural gas to LNG termi-
nals, providing more supply
opportunities from firms
involved along the entire
5. OUTLOOK LNG value chain, from the upstream gas procurement to
the downstream distribution.
5.1. BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI) In recent years, Sinopec has established such companies
as Sichuan Natural Gas Investment Co., Ltd., Sichuan Nat-
Simply explained, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is China’s ural Gas Chuandong Energy Co., Ltd. and Sinopec Chongq-
top-down plan to build new ports, roads, railways, oil and ing Natural Gas Pipeline Co., Ltd. through cooperation with
gas pipelines, power plants, and special economic zones main local gas companies, local governments and other
across Asia and Africa in an attempt to integrate the en- relevant enterprises in the energy industry in Sichuan and
tire region into a massive market spanning 60 countries Chongqing. On March 1, 2016, PetroChina and Chongq-
and a third of the world’s GDP. ing Gas Group established a joint venture – Chongqing
REGIONAL REPORT
Natural Gas Pipeline Co.,

Ltd., which is the first joint
venture about natural gas
pipelines established by Pet-
roChina nationwide together
with a local gas company.
Overall, opening of national

oil and gas pipelines will be
inevitable, and natural gas
pipeline networks of diversi-
fied investment subjects will
increase.
5.3. OPPORTUNITIES
AND CHALLENGES
The U.S. Energy Information

Administration (EIA) esti-
mates from its most recent Shale Gas Reserve Holders
report on shale oil and
gas resources that China’s
technically recoverable
shale gas reserves are 31.6
Tcm, the largest shale gas
reserves in the world.
The technology required for

an efficient and safe E&P
out of these reserves in
China is however not quite
there yet, there is still a long
way to go before China can
take full advantages of its
gas reserves.
5.4. TERRITORIAL
DISPUTE IN THE
SOUTH CHINA SEA
Asia’s robust economic

growth boosts demand for
energy in the region. EIA
projects total liquid fu-
els consumption in Asian
countries outside the
Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Develop-
ment (OECD) to rise at an
annual growth rate of 2.6%,
growing from around 20% of
world consumption in 2008
to over 30% of world con-
sumption by 2035. Similarly, Territorial Dispute in the South China Sea
Regional Report
non-OECD Asia natural gas consumption grows by 3.9%

annually, from 10% of world gas consumption in 2008 Authors
to 19% by 2035. EIA expects China to account for 43% of
that growth. Dr. Klaus Ritter
EITEP Institute
With Southeast Asian domestic oil production projected
to stay flat or decline as consumption rises, the region’s President
countries will look to new sources of energy to meet
Ritter@Eitep.de
domestic demand. China in particular promotes the use
of natural gas as a preferred energy source and set an
ambitious target of increasing the share of natural gas
in its energy mix from 3% to 10% by 2020. The South
China Sea offers the potential for significant natural gas
discoveries, creating an incentive to secure larger parts
of the area for domestic production.
Jing Yuan Gao
Continued territorial disagreements by countries bor- EITEP Institute
dering the South China Sea, including ownership of the
Spratly and Paracel Islands, have hindered efforts for Freelancer
joint exploration of hydrocarbon resources in the area. Gao@Eitep.de
It is very clear that the chinese government is willing to
further develop its natural gas industry. Not only does
it fits into their energy structure reform, it also helps
reduce air pollution.
Despite the slowdown due to consistent low oil price,

Beijing is determined to develop country’s natural gas
industry. If what happened in the past 30 years in China
in terms of reform and development is any indication,
we should expect a dynamic and fast growing natural
gas industry.
References
• China overview:
http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/china/overview
Euro Institute for Information
• The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA): https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/
analysis.cfm?iso=CHN
and Technology Transfer
• Real-time air quality map:
http://berkeleyearth.org/air-quality-real-time-map/
• Exploration and development of large gas fields in China since 2000: The Euro Institute for Information and Technology Transfer in
• NDRC article:
http://www.bakerbotts.com/ideas/publications/2017/07/ndrc-new-policy Environmental Protection, EITEP, was originally founded by
http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbghwb/201707/t20170712_854432.html
• White Paper China NEA: the German technical and scientific associations on energy
http://www.nea.gov.cn/2017-05/12/c_136277478.htm
• Sinopec: and water. The main objective of the EITEP Institute is to
http://www.sinopec.com/listco/en/investor_centre/reports/2016/
http://www.sinopecgroup.com/group/en/companyprofile/Companyreportsandpublications/ foster the international information and technology transfer
• CNPC:
http://www.cnpc.com.cn/en/2015AnnualReportonline/2015_Annual_Report_online.shtml in the water, energy, environment and infrastructure sector.
http://csr.cnpc.com.cn/csr/xhtml/PageAssets/CSRReport2012.pdf
• Natural Gas Industry B
• CNOOC:
http://www.cnooc.com.cn/col/col7151/index.html Through a network in Europe, Asia, Middle East and Africa,
• Power of Siberia:
http://www.gazprom.com/about/production/projects/pipelines/built/ykv/ the EITEP Institute develops and organizes international
• Oilsns
ENN Energy: http://ir.ennenergy.com/en/ir/financial_results.php conferences and exhibitions, seminars, electronic journals
http://www.enn.cn/wps/portal/ennen/profile/!ut/p/b1/04_SjzQzMTA3MjG2NNWP0I_KSyzL-
TE8syczPS8wB8aPM4s2CnNwdnQwdDdxdfJ0MHIPd3cwtg5wMjUyN9HOjHBUBRE1f7w!!/?pa- and newsletter.
geid=profile
• Towngas: https://www.towngas.com/en/Investor-Relations/Financial-Information/Annual-Re-
port/2017/Annual-Report-2016
http://www.sohu.com/a/112371546_225752 www.pipeline-conference.com
www.pipelinepipesewer.com
ASSURING THE INTEGRITY OF SUBSEA
PIPELINE BUTT WELDS THROUGH DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIONAL LIFE
Harry Cotton > Wood plc.; Istvan Bartha > Wood plc.
ABSTRACT
Subsea pipelines may be designed, using strain based The most severe stresses were predicted for the in-place
approaches, to operate under thermal longitudinal cases due to thermal loading limited by controlled lateral
tensile stress levels approaching and exceeding the buckling. The cyclic loading due to shut downs was signif-
pipe material yield strength. A particular concern is the icant and there were tensile stress levels approaching and
integrity of the butt welds made using the mechanised exceeding the yield strength. These were justified using
methods required for economic pipe lay from a barge strain based design approaches based on DNV-OS-F101
offshore. Weld flaws such as lack of fusion or penetra- (Ref 01) and SAFEBUCK (Ref 03). This includes ECA to
tion are unavoidable which presents a concern that they confirm the integrity of the welds with quality levels (max-
may propagate by fatigue and fracture, under operation- imum allowable flaw size, Toughness) which are practical
al stresses, to cause hydrocarbon release. to achieve and agree with the welding contractor.
The weld integrity is confirmed by fracture mechanics According to DNV-OS-F101, such confirmation of integrity
analysis, called engineering critical assessment (ECA), by ECA is mandatory for nominal tensile strain levels ex-
which predicts a maximum allowable flaw size for the ceeding 0.4% strain in operating pipelines and regardless
automatic ultrasonic testing (AUT) conducted on the pipe of strain level if the specified workmanship acceptance
lay vessel (barge). An important input to the ECA is the criteria, for non-destructive testing (NDT), are to be relaxed.
weld toughness (fracture initiation resistance) determined
by fracture mechanics tests on welds at minimum design The ECA is a fracture mechanics based calculation proce-
temperature. For pipelines conveying sour hydrocar- dure relating the three main variables controlling failure
bon additional fracture mechanics testing in simulated through fatigue, fracture/plastic collapse from planar flaws:
internal H2S environment was required which recorded 1. Stress (cyclic and static)
significant reduction in toughness through the effects 2. Material Properties (Toughness /fracture resistance
of corrosion. The toughness levels were in some cases determined in tests)
insufficient for the ECA to confirm weld integrity using the 3. Flaw size.
published equations (BS7910, DNV-OS-F101). The problem
was resolved by detailed 3D finite element analysis (FEA) If two of these variables are known a safe limit for the
of flaws assumed in the butt welds to improve accuracy of third can be estimated for avoidance of such failure.
analysis and reduce excess conservatism. The general approach is as follows:
1. Assume initial flaw (Maximum acceptable by NDT)
The management of ECA and associated design and con- 2. Predict growth of the flaw under cyclic loading during
struction activities (e.g. WPQT, AUT) to minimise the risk installation and over the operating life.
to project schedule is discussed. Published documents 3. Predict if the grown flaw will initiate fracture under
(e.g. DNV-OS-F101, EPRG) provide weld maximum allow- the maximum tensile stress (strain).
able flaw sizes based on previous ECA and/or large scale
tests as an alternative to ECA but they have not yet been The latter step involves predicting a minimum toughness
widely adopted for subsea design/construction projects. requirement to be achieved in fracture mechanics testing
of trial welds.
Finally the paper reviews how the integrity of the butt
welds in the operating pipelines is managed by external FLAW SIZE
survey, monitoring of operating conditions and in-line
inspection. GENERAL
INTRODUCTION The welding on the lay vessels is conducted using mech-

anised gas metal arc welding (GMAW bug and band). The
This paper is based on experiences in application of ECA, procedures are developed for high speed (productivity) to
of butt welds, in the design and construction of carbon minimise costly barge time. Welding is typically conduct-
steel (X65/X70) subsea pipelines/flowlines for the pro- ed with the torch restricted to the joint outside using a
duction of hydrocarbons. narrow weld groove (narrow gap) to minimise the amount
of filling required. Precise control of the initial joint fit up
Installation was from lay vessels using S lay or J lay, and electrode tip position by the operator through each
rather than reeling, so that the installation tensile stress weld pass is essential to avoid defects. Some incidence
levels were maintained below the yield strength. of planar flaws such as lack penetration or fusion are
unavoidable with the currently available technology.
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
For many years, the empirical workmanship of the pipe-

line welding standard API 1104 (Ref 02) have allowed
such flaws for inspection by radiography with maximum
length of 25mm (1 inch) surface breaking and 50mm
embedded (2 inch).
Inspection by radiography using photographic film has

largely been replaced by AUT for welding pipelines on a
lay vessel. Nevertheless, the API 1104 criteria remain an
industry recognised acceptable quality level for pipeline
welding and similar criteria have been adopted by other
codes (Ref 01,04) such as those of DNV-OS-F101 (Ref 01)
specifically for AUT (See Table 1 below). Figure 1: Example of maximum allowable flaw size locus based on ECA. It is
consistent with the AUT workmanship criteria of DNV-OS-F101 2013 (Table
Flaw Height mm Length mm 1 above) for 4mm flaw height but defines longer lengths for smaller heights
(<4mm) and gives lengths for larger heights (>4mm). (Flaws exceeding 4mm
External Surface Breaking 4 25 height only acceptable if they actually comprise a number of flaws above each
Embedded 4 50 other and interacting (i.e stacked).) Flaw sizes presented do not include any
deduction for AUT sizing tolerance
Internal Surface Breaking (Root) 4 25
ECA, reliability of the welding and AUT, consequences of
Table 1: Maximum allowable flaw Sizes (AUT workmanship criteria) DNV- failure, operational inspectability and economic consider-
OS-F101 2013 (> 25mm thickness example). Flaw sizes presented do not ations. However, according to DNV–OS-F101 relaxation of
include any deduction for AUT sizing tolerance. Those presented in DNV-
OS-F101 have 1mm deducted for AUT sizing accuracy the workmanship criteria is not appropriate if the nominal
strain level exceeds 0.4%.
Any restriction to the above workmanship criteria can be
difficult to agree with installation contractors. It pres- FATIGUE
ents concerns of excessive stringency resulting in high
weld repair rates slowing production. Repairing of welds The ECA includes assessment to account for possi-
requires halting the pipe lay vessel and excavation of the ble crack extension due to fatigue crack growth under
defect by arc air gouging and/or grinding then re-welding longitudinal cyclic loading in installation and in-place
using manual welding processes (e.g. GSFCAW, SMAW). (operation). The cyclic loading is predicted to occur during
The final inspection is by manual ultrasonic testing (MUT) installation under the effect of waves causing vessel
which is less reliable than the AUT applied to the original motion and in operation, at lateral buckles, due to shut
production weld. Furthermore, the mechanical properties downs (thermal/pressure cycles). Another source of in-
of the repair weld tend to be inferior to the original weld. place fatigue is vortex induced vibration (VIV) at spans
but on the projects experienced this was prevented by
Considering the above, an objective of the ECA at the intervention where necessary to limit span lengths below
design stage is to justify flaw sizes at least equal to the the critical length at which the vibration occurs.
workmanship criteria by refinement of design, stress anal-
ysis and ECA methodology. The prediction of fatigue crack growth is based on a nu-
merical integration of the Paris Law and detailed equa-
In addition, there are potential advantages in using ECA tions are given in BS7910 (Ref 06).
to relax the workmanship. However, limits are typically
placed on the relaxation due to concerns that otherwise The fatigue loading during installation was typically pre-
the contractor will have reduced incentive to maximise dicted to only cause a small amount of crack extension
quality and the frequency of flaws could rise. (e.g. <0.7mm) but that in operational growth was more
severe (e.g. 1.4 mm) (Table 2).
One approach is to define an allowable flaw size locus
(Fig 1) which complies with the workmanship criteria
Flaw Dimensions, mm
lengths restriction at 4mm height (Table 1) but allows lon- Stage
ger lengths for smaller heights. The allowable flaw sizes Height Length
(Fig 1) are of equivalent severity to the stated workman- Initial AUT 4.0 25
ship criteria dimensions (Table 1) in terms of toughness After Installation with maximum
4.7 27
requirement predicted in ECA. vessel hold time.
25 years Operational shut downs 6.1 30
Some projects have allowed significant relaxations to the
actual workmanship criteria sizes (Table 1) based on ECA.
Table 2: Example of internal (root) surface breaking flaw fatigue growth
The level of relaxation varies between projects depending through installation and operation exposed to wet hydrocarbon including H2S.
16 inch OD, 25mm thickness
on the perceived conservatism (safety margins) of the
The predicted crack growth rate depends on the materi- steel (Ref 08). Therefore, the published FCGL for marine
al type and the environment defined by a fatigue crack environments (Ref 06) are potentially non-conservative
growth laws (FCGL) based on upper bound fits to results since they are valid for higher frequencies representative
of fracture mechanics fatigue tests in relevant environ- of wave loading (0.2Hz). A FCGL based on fatigue tests in
ments (Fig 2). There are published FCGL in BS7910 for simulated sea water CP environment, with low frequency,
steels in air (non-corrosive) but none strictly applicable should be considered for assessment of external flaws
to the corrosive environments to which surface breaking unless there is confidence in the reliability of the field
flaws in pipelines are subjected. joint coating to protect much of the external surfaces.
It should be noted that in addition to fatigue crack growth

assessment the design check based on S-N curves is
mandatory (Ref 01). These typically predict longer fatigue
lives, even including the required safety factor cycles (e.g.
design factor=3), compared to the fatigue crack growth
assessment. The S-N curves , like FCGL as discussed
above, must take account of the effects of the environ-
ments in reducing fatigue life through the effects of
corrosion. For this purpose , WGK projects engaged TWI
to conduct project specific fatigue tests on as-welded
specimens (without introduced notches or cracks) to fa-
tigue testing at low frequency (<0.01Hz) in simulated H2S
environment (Ref 08).
TOUGHNESS
TOUGHNESS REQUIREMENT
Figure 2: Example of fatigue crack growth rate data
The ECA predicts the toughness test result requirement

The internal hydrocarbon environment includes water and for the assumed flaw (Section 2.0) after fatigue crack
CO2 which is corrosive to carbon steel so that corrosion growth (Section 3.0) not to initiate fracture under the
inhibitor is normally injected but it is not fully effective. maximum in-place tensile stress.
Furthermore, in some cases H2S is present which assists
crack growth by causing hydrogen, generated by corro- The methodology follows DNV-OS-F101 (Ref 01) which
sion reactions, to be absorbed by the steel. refers to BS7910 failure assessment diagram (FAD)
approaches (Ref 06) for the detailed equations. Howev-
To address these concerns WGK design/construction er, the level of conservatism of these methods for strain
projects have engaged TWI to conduct fracture mechan- (stress) levels much in excess of elastic design limits, in
ics fatigue testing, in simulated internal environments, operating pipelines, is not trusted.
on representative test welds to generate FCGL for ECA.
The main environmental variables are pH, the partial Fortunately, there have been considerable advances in
pressures of H2S and CO2, temperature and the concen- methods of detailed 3D FEA of flaws to predict crack
tration of corrosion inhibitor. The effects of the internal driving force and confirm ECA, of operating pipelines,
environment can more than double the crack growth for strain levels up to at least 0.8 % strain. This allows
compared to that predicted in air. designs with strain levels exceeding 0.4% to be justified
potentially removing the need for expensive interven-
A further consideration is that a pipeline shut down, tion (e.g. sleeper, planned buckle) to maintain strains
causing a stress cycle, can take 12 or more hours. This below this limit.
potentially gives more time for detrimental effects of
corrosion and hydrogen to increase the incremental crack According to DNV-OS-F101 such 3D FEA is required, for
growth. Therefore, the testing frequency is much slower operating pipelines, if the strain levels exceed 0.4% when
(e.g. <0.01Hz) than normally applied (Ref 08) for fatigue the single edged notch bend (SENB) test is used and
testing (e.g. wave loading , 0.2Hz) requiring long testing regardless of strain level for the less conservative single
programmes which need to be started at a sufficiently edged notch tension (SENT) test.
early stage in the project schedule (Section 6).
An example of the relationship between ECA predicted
It should be noted that the above frequency effect also toughness requirements and applied true strain is shown
applies to flaws breaking the external surfaces exposed in Fig 4 comparing BS7910 FAD and 3D FEA crack mod-
to the marine environment with cathodic protection (CP) elling. The internal weld root flaw of 4mm x 25mm initial
which can also cause hydrogen to be absorbed into the size grown by fatigue (Table 2) was assumed.
The minimum specified tensile properties of the seamless In the case presented the BS7910 FAD 2B (Note 1) ap-
pipe were assumed (X65, 450 MPa SMYS, Temperature proach (Fig 4, Plot A) appears to over predict toughness
de-rating at 80°C) represented by a stress/strain curve requirement , according to FEA (Fig 4 Plot B) below about
showing typical Luder behaviour (Fig 3). This was consis- 0.6% strain (i.e. over conservative) but under predicts at
tent with the original FEA based stress analysis of lateral higher strains (i.e. non-conservative above 0.6% strain).
buckling which predicted the stress (strain) levels assumed
in ECA. The weld metal strength was specified to exceed TOUGHNESS TESTING (MECHANICAL PROPERTIES)
the pipe maximum strength but this was not accounted for
in the ECA following the BS7910 guidance that in general GENERAL
the minimum tensile properties of the parent material, weld
and heat affected zone (HAZ) should be assumed. The main toughness testing method to support ECA of
subsea pipelines, for at least the past 25 years, has been
SENB crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) tests on
specimens of full pipe thickness (Ref 10). A set of three
tests are notched in the weld metal centre line and at
three to six in the fusion line (HAZ) and tested at the min-
imum design temperature (MDT). Toughness is typically
recorded as single CTOD (Note 1) values at maximum
load with fracture mode being ductile tearing. The level of
toughness achieved varied widely between the different
projects with it being difficult to always guarantee a mini-
mum CTOD toughness much in excess of 0.3 mm.
The previous plots of J-Integral toughness requirement

verses applied strain are presented again in Fig 5 in terms
of CTOD toughness. This indicates (Fig 5 , Plot A) that
using the BS7910 FAD approach above a strain of only
about 0.25% the 0.3mm minimum CTOD result is not al-
Figure 3: Luder stress/strain curve assumed for seamless pipe
ways sufficient to justify workmanship criteria flaws size
after fatigue crack growth (Table 2). In such cases the re-
The effects of weld residual stress on toughness require- finement of the analysis using FEA crack modelling may
ment is included in both curves (Fig 4) using the BS7910 be used, to remove excess conservatism and help justify
methodology in which it is assumed equal to the yield acceptability of the test result (Fig 5, Plot B).
strength but with some relaxation under the applied
stress. There is no widely accepted approach for including
residual stress directly into the FEA models.
Figure 5: Example of the relationship between CTOD toughness and true

strain. BS7910 FAD approach (Plot A) is compared to FEA based methods
(Plot B). In BS7910 assessment the uniaxial stress/strain has been elevated
to take account of operating hoop stress (Von Mises effect, Equation A.8, Ref
01). Weld axial misalignment and toe stress concentration effects excluded for
comparative purposes
Figure 4: Example of the relationship between toughness as J Integral and The CTOD parameter has now been replaced by the J inte-
true strain. BS7910 FAD approach (Plot A) is compared against FEA based
methods (Plot B). In BS7910 assessment the uniaxial stress/strain has been gral according to DNV-OS-F101 (Ref 01) and BS7910 (Ref
elevated to take account of operating hoop stress (Von Mises effect, Equation
A.8, Ref 01). Weld axial misalignment and toe stress concentration effects 06). Testing laboratories now adopt standardised practice
excluded for comparative purposes (Ref 10) to determine both measures of toughness in the
same SENB test. The parallel sets of results indicate that SSC tends to initiate from zones of susceptible micro
the previous conversion factor of BS7910 2005 ,used to structure such as hard weld HAZ, under the influence of
estimate CTOD requirement from J integral in ECA, were stress, even in the absence of pre-existing weld flaws. The
somewhat over conservative (Fig 5 , Plot C) compared to severity of environment depends on the H2S concentra-
those in BS7910 2013 (Fig 5 Plot A) which were shown to tion and the pH as defined in NACE MR 0175/ISO 15156
be more accurate but still conservative. (Ref 09, Fig 6 below).
Furthermore, in general higher toughness levels may be In order to ensure resistance to SSC the pipe welds must
demonstrated by the SENT test, loaded primarily in ten- be specified with some restriction on hardness (250
sion, compared to the SENB test which is loaded in bend- Hv10 in weld root) and chemical (Ref 09). However, these
ing to cause a more severe condition in terms of crack tip precautions do not ensure that the H2S will not reduce
constraint. It can be argued that the tension loading of the resistance to crack propagation from pre-existing weld
SENT test is more representative of pipeline butt welds flaws (i.e. reduce toughness).
which are subjected to mainly membrane stress (axial)
through the wall thickness even if subjected to bending In order to address these concerns some projects required
across the pipe sections. fracture mechanics tests in simulated internal H2S environ-
ments to support ECA of the pipelines. They were predicted
The SENT test has been widely applied for ECA of high to be subjected to nominal tensile strains below 0.3%.
strains occurring in pipe reeling for a number years (Ref
07). It has also replaced SENB test as the primary frac- The effects of hydrogen in reducing toughness tend to
ture mechanics specimen geometry in DNV-OS-F101 (Ref increase with reduction in the strain rate (loading rate,
01) for ECA of installation and operating cases and been Ref 13,18). Therefore, to represent pipeline welds conser-
recently standardised (Ref 11). vatively the loading rate must be much slower than a
conventional fracture mechanics test sometimes re-
Nevertheless, the SENB retains popularity for ECA of op- quiring a number of days to complete the loading cycle.
erating pipelines. It is sometimes preferred as providing Alternatively, tests may be conducted under a constant
an additional margin of conservatism against the uncer- load, corresponding to a given applied toughness level,
tainties in testing and ECA (e.g. Table 7, Item 14). for longer periods (e.g. 30 days).
SENB also has the advantage, compared to SENT, that The WGK projects assessed pipelines which could be sub-
it can be used for ECA of operating pipelines up to 0.4% jected to the maximum stress for a month or more so a
nominal strain without the need for FEA crack modelling 30 day constant load SENB test was selected. The loss of
(Ref 01) which requires specialised software and resourc- load within the 30 day period test is indicative of signifi-
es not yet widely available. Of course this advantage is cant crack propagation assisted by the H2S environment.
lost in the unlucky event that the SENB toughness results In this event the test is classed as a failure and the actual
are insufficient so that the FEA modelling is required in toughness is somewhat lower than that corresponding to
an attempt to reduce excess conservatism of the ECA. the test load. On the other hand, tests which last 30 days
with no detectable load drop indicate that the increase in
Advances in software, hardware and more harmonisation specimen crack size, during the test period, was insignif-
of FEA modelling procedures will hopefully help to pop- icant and that the test applied toughness level is conser-
ularise this powerful method for ECA of operating pipe- vative (See Table 7, Items 16 and 17).
lines.These developments should also assist the populari-
sation of the SENT test. Using the above approach, the degree of weld metal
toughness degradation through the effects of H2S has
H2S EFFECTS varied between different projects. In one case when test-
ing in a relatively severe environment (Case 1, Fig 6) the
In the case of some pipelines the hydrocarbon conveyed toughness was completely diminished from about 0.4mm
was predicted to possibly become contaminated by H2S CTOD recorded in air to <0.04mm in the H2S environment.
after some years of operation. It is widely recognised that The level of toughness corresponded to flaw sizes well
in the presence of wet H2S carbon steels are susceptible below the workmanship criteria. Other projects testing
to sulphide stress cracking (SSC) due to hydrogen gener- in less severe environments (Case 2, Fig 6 below) , with
ated by corrosion reactions being absorbed by the steel different welding procedures and specimen dimensions,
to embrittle it (Ref 09). indicated that the air toughness (0.7mm) reduced signifi-
cantly (<0.4mm) in the H2S environment yet it equated to
the workmanship criteria in ECA modified by 3D FEA.
a few welds in the pipeline. An example is the case of a

pipeline in which the tensile strains were below 0.15 % ex-
cept in the event of formation of an unplanned buckle in
which they could be significantly elevated (0.26% nominal
strain). However, only 2 welds could be subjected to the
Page 25 of 25 Pipeline Technology Conference 2016
elevated strain (Fig 07) and it would be restricted to only
about a third of their circumferences (Fig 08). Further-
more, probabilistic buckling analysis following SAFE-
Figure
BUCK7 Stress
(RefDistribution along that
03) indicated Flowline
theLateral
buckle Buckling (2 welds
had less thancorrespond
a to
25m (0.025 km)) exceeding about 0.15% strain
6% probability of forming.
Figure 6: Diagram indicating relative severity of environments (NACE MR0175/

ISO 15156, Ref 09)
There is no standardisation of toughness testing pro-

cedures for H2S environments. This is an area of active
research by TWI and DNV (Ref 12,14). Factors to consider
are as follows:
• Loading rate.
• Specimen geometry (SENT or SENB).
• Increasing load or constant load test.
• Determination of R curve or single value toughness.
• Environmental conditions (pH, H2S, inhibitor). Figure 7: Stress Distribution along Flowline Lateral Buckling (2 welds corre-
Figure 8 Stress
spond to 25mDistribution around Circumference
(0.025 km)) exceeding at the Crown of Lateral Buckle (60
about 0.15% strain
• Definition of test failure degrees corresponds to <0.15% strain).
• Measurement of active propagation in the test.
3,5E-03
Furthermore, there is a need for research (Ref 12,14) to Inner Circumference
clarify how the toughness in H2S environment is 3,0E-03 Mid-Wall
related to hardness, micro-structure, steel composition 2,5E-03

Outer Circumference
and toughness in air.

True Axial Strain
2,0E-03
CONSERVATISM OF ECA 1,5E-03
1,0E-03
In applying ECA, prior to construction, the approach is to
5,0E-04
hypothesise a weld flaw assuming that the relevant vari-
ables (Table 7) happen to coincide at worst case levels. 0,0E+00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
This intuitively appears to be excessively pessimistic and Angle Around Circumference (Degrees) - 0 at Highest Strain Position
potentially over conservative but it is otherwise difficult to
justify the assessment. There is still insufficient published
guidance to use probabilistic fracture mechanics ap- Figure 8: Stress Distribution around Circumference at the Crown of Lateral
Buckle (60 degrees corresponds to <0.15% strain)
proaches on design projects.
Possible refinements to reduce conservatism, which have As explained above, repair welds have presented concern
been reviewed on WGK projects, are as follows: since they have tended to have inferior toughness and ten-
1. Take account of weld metal over matching (Item 8, sile properties to the production welds and are inspected
Table 7) the pipe strength, by FEA crack modelling in- by MUT which is less reliable than the original AUT.
cluding the different tensile properties of the pipe and
weld. The separate cases of pipe with lower bound However, this must be considered against the unlikely
and upper bound tensile properties were assessed. event of a repair weld , which are typically required for less
2. Take account of through life reduction in tensile than 2% of the production welds, occurring in the localised
stress (Item 12, Table 7) with repeated cycles. high stress zone with a “new” significant flaw reintroduced.
A further conservatism of the operational ECA is that the A methodology to estimate probability of failure from in-
assumed worst case cyclic and maximum tensile stress formation of the type described above would be beneficial.
are associated with lateral buckles and localised to only
DELIVERABLE CONTENT RESPONSIBILITY between the different parties including

Product composition H2S level Owner/Operator
owner/operator, design contractor and
Design or stress Stress input data for ECA. Pipe Design
installation contractor (welding contrac-
analysis reports dimensions and grade Contractor
tor). It is important that these activities be
Design Max flaw size and toughness re- Design
co-ordinated between the different parties
Operational ECA quirement under operational stress Contractor
and the departments within them.
Linepipe specification/ Linepipe tensile properties. Weld- Owner (or Design Contrac-
procurement ability. Achievable HAZ CTOD tor or Installation Contractor)
Welding specification Weld toughness and strength test- Design The schedule risks in ECA and their mitiga-
ing requirement. Misalignment level Contractor tions are summarised in Table 4.
Installation Final Installation stress levels Installation
analysis report contractor Previous projects, limiting nominal ten-
Installation ECA Max flaw size and toughness re- Installation sile strains below 0.4%, have relied on
quirement under installation stress contractor the installation contractor to complete
Welding procedure Toughness levels and weld metal Installation the final ECA of installation and in-place
qualification strength levels contractor (Operational) cases even when the in-
Final ECA Max flaw size and toughness Design Contractor (or place design was the responsibility of a
requirements under all stress (In- Installation contractor) separate design contractor. In this case
stallation and operation) the ECA is not reported until the in-place
AUT qualification AUT sizing accuracy and confirma- Installation detailed design is largely complete. This
tion of probability of detection contractor presents the risk that if the ECA does not
AUT acceptance criteria Max allowable flaw size for AUT Installation
conclude achievable criteria (AUT, tough-
interpreter contractor
ness) it is difficult and costly to revise the
original design analysis in an attempt to
Table 3: Project activities related to ECA and division of responsibility reduce stress levels assumed. At the later
stages of a project, approaching installa-
RISK CAUSE CONSEQUENCE MITIGATION

MANAGEMENT OF
ECA IN DESIGN AND Ensure design stress analysis
CONSTRUCTION Pipeline failure and ECA is conducted by

Monitor pipeline operation
ECA is not Reduced life competent consultants and
Integrity against design assump-
The ECA is effectively part conservative Restricted operation verified
tions
of the design process to Sub-sea repair Ensure material/weld testing
confirm integrity of the is sufficient and verified
welds. It is also concludes Ensure ECA assumed
ECA method Ensure ECA is conducted by
the maximum allowable flaw size and mechanical
is excessively competent consultants and
flaw size of the AUT accep- properties are conservative
conservative verified
tance criteria for sentenc- but practical to achieve
ing the welds on the pipe Specify minimum toughness
Welding proce-
lay vessel. Therefore, pipe requirement prior to Enquire achievable
dure qualification AUT criteria too
lay cannot begin until the contract award toughness (CTOD) prior to
test results in air stringent
ECA is completed and Ensure pipe (free issued) contract award (Request
are lower than
agreed with all parties so has required weldability and historical data)
expected Slow welding speed/
it presents a schedule risk Schedule risk/ toughness levels
high repair rate.
which must be managed. Installation cost Predicted Stress
Include ECA in design stage Do not leave ECA (installa-
level is too high
Delay to to confirm acceptability of tion and operation) just to
The ECA is related to and equates to
installation start stress levels installation contractor!
various activities including stringent flaw size
design analysis, pipe and Welding proce- Ensure suitable test method Only specify H2S tough-
weld specification, test- dure qualification and interpretation of results ness testing if there
ing and AUT qualification test results in Early testing on representa- is a credible risk of
which provide input data H2S environment tive test welds prior to welding significant H2S
to ECA and/or depend on are lower than procedure qualification Do not specify as a “nice to
its conclusion. The Table expected may be needed have” H2S rating
3 summarizes how the
responsibility for these
Table 4: Risks in ECA and mitigation
activities may be divided
Flaw Dimensions ,mm Item Variable

Height , Length 1 The flaw sizes assumed in ECA correspond to the maxima accepted
3 90 by AUT but increased by the maximum predicted under-sizing
4 35 tolerance. The AUT is proven by qualification to confirm the sizing
5 25 tolerance and that there is at least a 90% probability of detecting the

ECA maximum allowable flaw sizes with 95% confidence (Ref 01).
2 Flaw are assumed to be sharp and crack-like.
Table 5: DNV-OS-F101 Generic ECA Allowable flaw sizes (>16 inch OD), 25mm
thickness, 0.4% applied strain maximum. Fracture mechanics toughness 3 Maximum weld axial weld misalignment causing SCF.
requirement J 0.5=400 N/mm, J1.0 = 600 N/mm. X65 pipe
4 Fatigue is assumed to occur at maximum rates (Upper bound FCGL).
5 The very maximum number of stress /cycles (operational shut
downs) anticipated is assumed.
Flaw Dimensions ,mm
6 Wall thickness assumed is reduced below the nominal to account
Height Length , t Length ( t= 25mm), mm
for manufacturing tolerance and corrosion.
3 7t 175
7 Lower bound tensile properties and sometimes also upper bound.
4 5t 125
8 Typically the weld metal is assumed to match the pipe in strength
5 3t 75
and over matching is not considered
9 Weld residual stress equal to the yield strength after welding.
Table 6: Allowable flaw sizes by EPRG Tier 2, 25mm thickness, 0.5% applied 10 The stresses (strains) assumed are derived with conservative
strain maximum. No fracture mechanics test results requirement. X65 pipe
assumptions.
tion start, the projects become more schedule driven and 11 The worst case flaw is assumed to occur at a position, along the
there may not be the time and resources available for pipeline, of maximum cyclic and static stress such as the crown
the detailed analysis needed to conclude ECA to the full (extrados) of a lateral buckle.
satisfaction of all parties. 12 The maximum lateral buckling tensile stress is assumed at the end
of life when the flaw has grown to its maximum size by fatigue.
The above risks may be mitigated by the design con- 13 The toughness levels are the minimum recorded in tests sometimes
tractor conducting a fully detailed ECA , including 3D using a conservative loading mode (SENB).
FEA if necessary, as part of the design process even 14 Specimens are deep notched in the mid thickness zone which is
when the maximum nominal tensile strain has been conservative in terms of constraint for shallow surface breaking
agreed as less than 0.4%. flaws. However, possible differences in micro structure through the
thickness are not normally evaluated.
The schedule risks are further aggravated if the project 15 The accuracy and conservatism of the numerical models is uncertain.
requires fatigue and/or fracture testing in the H2S en- 16 The test conditions for environmental fatigue and fracture testing
vironment (Section 3.0, 4.2.2). This is due to the uncer- (H2S, pH, temperature) are selected to be worst case but this can be
tainty in methods and results which will be obtained difficult to judge considering the different environmental cases.
and the long test durations required (Section 3.0, 4.2.2).
17 The environmental fatigue and fracture testing tests have to be
This can be mitigated by conducting early testing at the
restricted to practical durations.
design stage, on representative test welds, prior to the
main welding procedure qualification test (WPQT) by the
The fatigue test frequency is more rapid than actual shut downs but
appointed installation contractor.
tests indicate that 0.01Hz is sufficiently slow to be conservative in
some cases(Ref 08).
ALTERNATIVE TO ECA
The toughness tests, in H2S environment, are not normally loaded
As discussed above, ECA may require significant re-
for more than 30 days which is regarded as sufficient for SSC tests
sources on a project for analysis, management and even
(Ref 09). However, very slow active crack propagation, which could
negotiation. It presents uncertainty in results of analysis
become significant after a number of years of operation, may not be
and testing to present a schedule risk.
detectable through the test period or unambiguously discerned in
post test examination of the crack tip region.
It is interesting to question if there are cases where the
integrity of pipeline butt welds, subject to inspection by
AUT, can be assured without ECA provided the internal Table 7: Conservatism of Assumptions in ECA
environment is not sour.
According to DNV-OS-F101, the ECA is not strictly re- The DNV-OS-F101 generic criteria give allowable flaw siz-
quired for strain levels below 0.4%. It is sufficient to es, based on DNV previous ECA, subject to achievement
assure resistance to fracture/fatigue by charpy impact of specified toughness levels defined as a J integral R
testing, fatigue assessment using S-N curves and AUT curve. They are a welcome development and could avoid
meeting the applicable workmanship criteria (Table 1 be- the need for full ECA analysis in future projects.
low) for non-sour environments.
An extract from the criteria is given in Table 5. However, ASSURING INTEGRITY THROUGH OPERATION
they have not been accepted on previous WGK projects in
favour of full ECA for the below possible reasons: The above discussion relates to the measures taken, in
pipeline design and construction, to assure resistance to
1. The pipelines were subjected to significant fatigue failure from the weld flaws in operation. This section dis-
loading so that fatigue crack growth prediction would cusses how the risk of such failure is managed through the
be still be required. pipeline operating life. Failures of subsea pipelines initiat-
2. The tabulated allowable flaw heights, including an ed by weld flaws are rare and no reports were available to
allowance for the fatigue crack growth, were regarded the authors. Nevertheless, the risk cannot be dismissed as
as too restrictive. insignificant and needs to be managed through operation.
3. The toughness requirements, in terms of J integral R
curve, exceeded what the contractor was confident to Following completion of pipelay the installation con-
achieve based on previous experience mainly using tractor is required to submit copies of relevant as built
single value SENB CTOD testing. records including the identity of pipes laid at successive
4. The criteria were not valid for some pipelines since locations along the pipeline, AUT reports and records of
the product contained significant H2S. repair welding. This information may be included in asset
5. In one case the pipeline was subjected to longitudinal integrity management database/ software with design
strain levels above 0.4% strain with tensile operating and as-built data being fully searchable , interrelated and
hoop stress. According to DNV-OS-F101, the tabu- corresponded to the GPS positions along the pipeline.
lated flaw sizes are not valid, for such a stress state,
without verification by FEA crack modelling. The displacement of the pipelines, particularly at buck-
les, is monitored following pipelay, hydro-test and after
Full ECA also allows the project specific parameters operation start. This includes sonar (acoustic) technology
(dimensions, material properties) to be assessed to allow and contact methods using remotely operated vehicle
the margins of acceptability to be transparently clarified. (ROV) to quite accurately measure the out of straightness
(OOS), displacements and actual bend radius of the buck-
The EPRG criteria (Ref 15) give allowable flaw sizes (Table les. This geometric information may be used to adjust
6 below), for nominal strains up to 0.5%, which are much the FEA model to re-estimate strain (stress) levels more
larger than the workmanship criteria (Table 1). These are
based on large scale tests on butt welded pipes, with
introduced flaws, correlated with charpy test results. Inspection Solutions
The previous revision of the EPRG criteria are now stated for Non-Piggable Pipelines
World Wide
in onshore pipeline welding standards (Ref 16) and there is
reported (Ref 15) to be at least one case of their application
to a subsea pipeline but this unusual in WGK experience.
These criteria offer potential advantages in avoiding the

need for ECA and fracture mechanics testing to justify
acceptance criteria much in excess of the workmanship
criteria. However, like the DNV-OS-F101 generic crite-
ria the stated flaw sizes would typically require some
reduction to account for fatigue crack growth and are
apparently not valid for pipelines conveying products
containing significant H2S. Self propelled BiDi Tethered Inspection Tool Technology
is a cost efficient approach.
The criteria depend on pipe and weld metal tensile test
requirements which are slightly more onerous than the
DNV-OS-F101 requirements but typically achievable. There www.ktn.no
is no requirement to conduct facture mechanics tests with O ffic e Lo c atio ns:
confirmation of toughness relying on Charpy impact testing. Norway • Germany • France • Spain • Scotland
The EPRG criteria are a departure from offshore pipe-
line industry practice where project specific fracture
mechanics testing and ECA are required to relax the
KTN NORWAY
workmanship criteria (Ref 01). It appears that for such a Postbox 109
change in approach to be widely accepted there would Ytre Laksevåg
need to be further alignment of opinion between the 5848 Bergen
technical authorities, operators and authors of applica- NORWAY
ble standards (Ref 01,15,16).
accurately. In the event that the strain levels, significantly Managing Director Technical Services at Germany’s
exceed that in the original design, it should be possible to biggest pipeline operator, Open Grid Europe, and Dirk
identify welds in the section of concern and the presence Strack, Technical Director at TAL Group.
of weld flaws from the AUT records. 2. The use of 3D FEA crack modelling allows improve-
ment of accuracy of ECA , based on BS7910 FAD
Management of integrity of strain based design pipelines, approach, with the below benefits:
through operation, has been previously reviewed (Ref 17). a. The 3D FEA modified ECA can be used to help
In summary the below relevant information is recorded justify weld integrity with tensile strain levels
though pipeline operation and may be added to the asset exceeding 0.4%. to potentially remove the need
integrity management software/database: for expensive intervention (e.g sleeper, planned
1. Monitoring of the operating conditions as follows: buckle) to maintain strains below this limit.
a. Temperatures and pressures b. For strain levels below about 0.4% the over
b. Number and magnitude of operational shut downs. conservatism of ECA, based on BS7910, may be
c. Product water analysis including, pH,CO2, salts, reduced by the 3D FEA to justify relaxation in the
acetic acid, inhibitor concentration and H2S levels. concluded acceptance criteria for WPQT tough-
2. Periodic external survey of the pipeline by ROV (GVI) ness test and/or AUT. This reduces the likely
and acoustic methods (SSS). In this way the OOS can hood of contractor quality problems in WPQT
be assessed and bend radius of the buckles related (Toughness test failure) or production welding
to the strain levels is recorded. (e.g. high weld repair rate, low production rates).
3. In line inspection (ILI) using UT and magnetic flux c. The 3D FEA justifies use of SENT test rather than
leakage (MFL) pigs. These can assess the extent of SENB test to further avoid over conservatism
metal loss , due to corrosion/erosion, in the buckle in testing to potentially enhance the benefits
area. Furthermore, certain ILI technologies such as described above (a, b).
UT pigs with angle probes, orientated in axial direc- 3. The ECA requires to take account of the effects of H2S
tions, are quite reliable to assess circumferential weld in the product conveyed, in reducing weld toughness,
flaws and their possible operational growth. if its concentration is predicted to become significant.
There is a need for further research to develop suit-
Based on the above, the validity of original assumptions able testing methods and understand the sensitivity
in the ECA regarding cyclic and static stress levels, flaw of measured toughness to environmental conditions,
sizes, wall thickness and environmental conditions may specimen geometry, loading mode and metallurgy.
be re-evaluated. 4. The ECA requires to take account of possible exten-
sion of flaws, in operation, by fatigue crack growth
A numerical model of the pipeline, with special attention including the effects of the internal corrosive environ-
to sections subject to lateral buckling, may be maintained ment in accelerating the growth rate. The latter has
throughout the operational life, periodically updated with been achieved by project specific fatigue crack growth
the results from survey and monitoring (1,2 above) to con- testing in simulated internal operating environment.
firm that the applied strains are aligned with the original 5. The design contractor should conduct a fully detailed
design and ECA and allow the remaining fatigue life to be ECA , even when the agreed maximum strain is less
re-estimated. Inclusion of weld flaw assessment (ECA) in than 0.4%, rather than relying on the installation con-
this process may be appropriate in cases where they are tractor at a later stage in the project if their contract
considered to present a significant risk. An example of excludes in place design and the installation stresses,
this is the coincidence of significant weld flaws, detected by S lay or J lay, are less severe than predicted in oper-
by the original AUT, in high strain locations particularly if ation (e.g. lateral buckling). This approach minimises
ILI results provide evidence of them propagating. the schedule risk in the event of WPQT results which
are unacceptable according to the contractor ECA ne-
The steps to be taken in the event that the above, routine cessitating further advanced ECA and /or design work
measures, indicate that the tensile strain levels exceed (stress analysis to reduce in-place stresses) at a late
that predicted in the original design have been previously stage in the project when design is largely complete.
reviewed (Ref 17). 6. There is a need for development of probabilistic ECA
procedures, for use on design projects, to enable the
CONCLUSIONS level of conservatism in ECA to be better quantified.
7. The generic criteria of DNV-OS-F101 presents al-
1. all presentations held during our conferences and all lowable flaw sizes , relaxed from the workmanship
publications released by EITEP are checked by the criteria, as an alternative to full project specific ECA.
AdCo before cleared for publication. The Advisory These have not been applied to WGK projects to
Committee is currently led by Heinz Watzka, former date considering lack of confidence in achievability
in the toughness levels required, possible stringency 9. Following completion of design and pipeline installa-
in flaw heights including fatigue crack growth and tion there is a need to assure continued integrity of
restriction to non sour service. the butt welds, with flaws, through pipeline operation.
8. The EPRG Tier 2 criteria presents allowable flaw sizes This is achieved by collation of design and as-built
, relaxed from the workmanship criteria, as an alter- data (e.g. AUT reports) and by periodic survey (ROV
native to ECA and fracture mechanics testing based GVI, SSS, OOS) through operation together with
on previous large scale tests correlated with charpy monitoring of operational parameters (e.g. pressure,
results. There applicability would be restricted in the temperature shut downs).The data collected can be
event of predicted significant fatigue crack growth used to update a numerical model of the pipeline to
or sour conditions as explained above (7.). Moreover, re-estimate the static and cyclic stress levels to com-
to be widely accepted on subsea pipeline projects, pare with those of the original design and re-estimate
without project specific fracture mechanics testing, remaining fatigue life. Inclusion of ECA in this pro-
there would need to be further alignment of opinion cess may be appropriate depending on the location
between the technical authorities, operators and au- and size of weld flaws as indicated by the original
thors of applicable standards (Ref 01,15,16). AUT reports and subsequent ILI.
Nomenclature References
API American Petroleum Institute MUT Manual ultrasonic testing 1. DNV-OS-F101 (2013), Det Norske Veritas, Offshore Standard DNV-OS-F101, Submarine Pipeline
Systems, October 2013
AUT Automatic Ultrasonic Testing MFL Magnetic flux leakage 2. API Standard 1104 (21th Edition: 2013), Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities.
BS British Standard NDT Non destructive testing 3. SAFEBUCK III, Safe Design of Pipelines with lateral buckling. Design Guideline.
4. BS 4515-1:2009, Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore. Carbon and
CP Cathodic protection OOS Out of straightness carbon manganese steel pipelines
5. BS EN ISO 15653: 2010, Metallic materials - Method of test for the determination of quasi-static
CTOD Crack tip opening displace- ROV Remotely operated vehicle fracture toughness of welds.
6. BS 7910 (2013)Guide on Methods for Assessing the Acceptability of Flaws in Metallic Structures
ment 7. DNV-RP-F108 (2006) Fracture Control for Pipeline Installation Methods Introducing Cyclic Plastic
Strain, January 2006
DNV Det Norske Veritas SENB Single edged notch bend 8. Design of pipelines subject to lateral buckling to resist corrosion fatigue, R J Pargeter and D P
Baxter ,TWI Ltd ,Paper presented at Corrosion 2009, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 22-26 March 2009.
ECA Engineering Critical Assess- SENT Single edge notch tension Paper # 09090.
ment 9. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries Materials for Use In H2S Cont-
aining Environments in Oil and Gas Production
EPRG European Pipeline Research SMYS Specified minimum yield 10. ISO 15653:2010 Metallic materials -- Method of test for the determination of quasistatic fracture
Group strength toughness of welds
11. BS 8571:2014: Method of test for determination of fracture toughness in metallic materials using
FAD Failure assessment diagram SMAW Shielded metal arc welding single edge notched tension (SENT) specimens
12. Fracture Toughness Testing of Steels Subject to Sour Service, NA00533, 22/03/2012, http://
FEA Finite Element Analysis SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking www.twi-global.com.
13. Proceedings of the ASME 2010 29th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic
FCGL Fatigue crack growth law SSS Side scan sonar Engineering, OMAE 2010 ,June 6-11, 2010, Shanghai, China , Effects of strain rate on fracture
toughness in sour environment , Yuan Wen Guo ,Xu Da Qin , Wu You You , Jens P. Tronskar
GMAW Gas metal arc welding GVI General visual inspection 14. DNV GL forms new JIP , DNV GL JIP investigates evaluation methodology for fractures and cracks
in sour service environments , Oil Online Press - February 25th, 2015
GPS Global Positioning System TWI The Welding Institute 15. EPRG guidelines on the assessment of flaws in transmission pipeline girth welds _Revision 2014,
R Andrews, Prof Rudi Denys, Dr Gerhard Knuaf, Dr Mures Zarea, Journal of Pipeline Engineering,
GSFCAW Gas shielded flux cored arc UT Ultrasonic testing Vol 14, No 1, March 2015.
welding 16. BS EN 12732:2013 +A1 2014, Gas Infrastructure-Welding steel pipework-Functional requirements.
17. Integrity management of Pipelines Subject to High Strain, Colin McKinnon, Emil Maschner, Harry
HAZ Heat affected zone VIV Vortex induced vibration Cotton, Carlos Herraez, Mike Cook, Justin Crapps, PRCI, 20th JT<, 3-8 May, 2015, Paris France.
18. Fracture Mechanics Techniques for Assessing the Effects of Hydrogen on Steel Properties , Mo-
ILI In line inspection WPQT Welding Procedure Quali- hamad J Cheaitani and Richard J Pargeter, TWI Ltd, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge, CB21
(e.g.Intelligent pig inspection) fication 6AL, Paper presented at the International Steel and Hydrogen Conference, 28 September 2011.
MDT Minimum design temperature WGK Wood Group Kenny
Authors
Harry Cotton Istvan Bartha
Wood plc. Wood plc.
Senior Materials Consultant Senior Integrity Engineer
harry.cotton@woodplc.com
AN INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY OF
NON –CONTACT MAGNETIC TOMOGRAPHY
METHOD FOR SUBSEA PIPELINE
Norhaziyah Afiqah Ahmad > Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd; Raja Zahirudin Bin Raja Ismail > Petroliam Nasional Berhad,
PETRONAS; Muhamad Paizal Othman > Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd; Igor Kolesnikov > Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd
ABSTRACT BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC

TOMOGRAPHY METHOD (MTM)
In-Line Inspection (ILI) tools are most widely used to
inspect pipeline structures and employ standard pro-
cedures of pipeline inspection even today. The major THEORY
challenge of operator companies is to inspect non-pig-
gable pipelines, due to their limited access. Most In-Line The Magnetic Tomography Method is the non-destructive
Inspection (ILI) methods, such as pigging, require a testing and technical diagnostic of extended ferromag-
launcher/receiver and require operations to stop for the netic structures using the magnitude of mechanical stress
inspection procedure to take place. combined with metal defects based on the Villari effect.
The change of ferro-magnet magnetization under the
In recent years, a non-contact Magnetic Tomography influence of mechanical deformations, such as stretching,
Method (MTM) has been introduced as a non-intrusive twisting and bending, is known as the Villari effect [2].
method, which is able to inspect ferrous magnetic pipe- AQUA MTM technology evaluates local changes of the
lines without contact. magnetic field of mechanical stresses and defects to give
the degree of danger of anomalies based on the Integral
MTM technology was originally used as a conventional Risk Factor [F]. The Integral Risk Factor [F] can be defined
onshore pipeline inspection tool. After several years, an as the degree of concentration of the complex (longitudi-
innovative research and development program on the nal, hoop, shear, etc.) stresses in an anomaly [3]. From the
technology, by PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd and LLC inspection’s results, the Integral Risk Factor [F] is used for
R&DC Transkor-K, introduced the AQUA MTM Technol- further pipeline integrity management assessment.
ogy; which is capable of inspecting subsea pipelines
without contact. Now, this technology is commercially The aim of AQUA MTM technology is to locate the dan-
available for the oil and gas industry. This paper briefly ger and assess how critical it is. MTM and AQUA MTM
discusses the application of the non-contact magnetic inspections are convenient and reliable tools for estimat-
tomography method for subsea pipelines. ing pipeline burst strengths in both onshore and offshore
conditions. By using these technologies, clients are able
INTRODUCTION to determine the condition of their pipelines.
As the drop in oil prices eventually affects economic TECHNICAL REQUIREMENT OF AQUA MTM
conditions, the world faces extraordinary challenges;
especially for exporter countries. Aging and deteriorating AQUA MTM indicates the essential parameters of
pipelines can cause catastrophes if pipeline conditions quality as follows:
remain unknown.
• Probability of Detection (POD)
Pipeline Integrity Management issues are intrinsically • Probability of Identification (POI)
associated with pipeline safety to avert adverse predic- • Confidence Level (CL)
aments and mishaps. At the same time, most operators
are looking into cost planning in order to carry out inspec- Technical requirement above are intrinsically associated
tion and maintenance activities for their pipelines. In-line with high quality of data collection and analysis purpose.
inspection tools are a common method used for pipeline Probability of Detection is the probability associated with
inspections; particularly for piggable pipelines. anomaly that under the influence of stresses that differ
from the minimum ones more than for 0.005 SMYS will
The purpose of an in-line inspection is to detect size and be detected. Whilst Probability of Identification (POI)
locate flaws and defects within pipe walls [2]. Problems is determination of anomalies danger by the degree of
arise when they are unable to inspect non-piggable pipe- concentration of mechanical stresses. Confidence Level
lines due to limited access. MTM technology is a holistic is statistical expression to describe the accuracy in which
solution method to inspect the technical condition of a with the set level of confidence. AQUA MTM Technology
pipeline by scanning and detecting magnetic field chang- is applicable and designed to inspect horizontal pipeline
es reflected from a combination of stress and defects for underwater. AQUA MTM Technology can detect the
without contact. Adopted from land applications, AQUA stresses within the range of mechanical stresses on de-
MTM technology is used for subsea pipeline applications fective sections of 30-80% of SMYS. The high POD great-
with Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV) support. er than 85% would be achieved at the level of stresses on
defective sections of 55-65 % of SMYS.
OVERALL PROCESS OF AQUA MTM INSPECTION
Figure 1: Probability of Detection of Magnetic Anomalies at various Mechanical

Stresses in defects Area
MAGNETIC FIELD PROPERTIES
AQUA MTM technology depicts two different magnetic

properties of the ferrous magnetic pipe during scanning:
Figure 2: Magnetic Properties of ferrous magnetic pipe- without stress
Figure 4: flow process of AQUA MTM Technology inspection
AQUA MTM Technology inspection only require the sup-

port from remote operated vehicle (ROV) to do underwa-
ter pipeline inspection. During the inspection, AQUA MTM
data would be collected and recorded.
In order to ensure high quality of the data collection, the

equipment needs to comply according the AQUA SKIF
scanning procedure. After all data is collected, the data
will then be analyzed and processed.
Figure 3: Magnetic Properties of ferrous magnetic pipe- with stresses
Data analyzing process involves the process of the
The change of local mechanical stress modifies magneti- magnetic field analysis, stress analysis and danger of
zation of the pipeline, which is reflected in the magnetic degree calculation. Results will then be presented in
field would be detected by AQUA MTM. the final report.
AQUA MTM OPERATIONAL
Pipeline Magnetic Field Calibration: AQUA SKIF needs to

calibrate the magnetic field at the location of the pipeline.
At this stage the ROV needs to move to an area with no
pipeline or any other metal objects to identify the natural
magnetic field of the inspection location. This step en-
sures that all the collected magnetic field signals reflect-
ed would be detected by the AQUA SKIF.
AQUA MTM Inspection: At this stage, an engineer needs

to monitor the output signal collected from AQUA MTM
monitoring software and a second engineer will kay in
all remarks and events during inspection for the data
Figure 5: flow process of AQUA MTM operation analyzing purposes.
Pipeline Data Gathering: AQUA MTM inspection requires AQUA MTM OPERATIONAL
the gathering of technical information of the pipeline
such as length of the pipe, nominal diameter, Specific Parameter Value
minimum yield strength (SMYS), operating pressure and Magnetic field strength, Tesla 10-9
etc. The information gathered will be used for further
Range of measurement, µT ±100
calculation. The calculation to be used is ASME B31G for
determining the remaining strength of the corroded pipe-
Range of nominal wall thickness of Starting with 2.8
object mm (max. 50mm)
lines and Russian standard RD 102-008-2002.
External diameter of inspected pipelines 4’’ ≤ D ≤ 48’’
Equipment Inspection: Before inspection, the used Admissible deviation from axis of OC:
equipment needs to be inspected and tested to ensure vertically ≤ 15 D
the equipment is in a good condition and ready for horizontally ≤3D
the operation. Speed range, m/s <1.8
Dimension of Underwater Unit, mm 662X282X128
AQUA MTM Equipment Setup: AQUA MTM Equipment Weight of Underwater Unit, kg 8.95
is also known as the “AQUA SKIF”. This device would
Length of inspected section, 100
be installed on the ROV and integrated for the inspec-
Minimum, m
tion process. During setup, AQUA SKIF will be attached
Completeness of registration along 100 %
in best way to ensure minimum disturbance that could
the pipe
interfere with the input signal.
Step of scanning, max., m 0,02
Interfacing: At this stage, AQUA SKIF would be inter- Threshold of detection 0,001F
faced and checked again on the equipment condition. Error of odometer distance ≤ 1,5 %
Interfacing process involves visual inspection, power measurement
supply testing, communication testing and functionality Current from any direction relative to 0.78 m/sec
testing. All tests need to be passed to ensure the equip- ROV heading
ment is fully ready before undergo dry and wet tests. Maximum Length inspected the site No limitation
Minimum distance from inspected 1D of the biggest
Dry Test: Dry Test is testing of the equipment in the
pipeline to a parallel pipe or steel neighboring
connection with ROV in dry condition. At this stage,
The intersection with pipeline cables, or no limitations
input and output signal would be checked. The quality of
communications
the signal during dry test must be good.
Residual magnetization pipeline should not exceed
Wet Test: Wet test is testing of the equipment in the con- (post-production or ILI) 50% of the thresh-
old measurements
nection with ROV in wet condition. Equipment attached
to the ROV is immersed into the water. The overall data
acquisition capability is checked to ensure smooth signal Table 1: AQUA MTM specification
from input and output.
AQUA MTM DATA ANALYZING
mines which are more danger ones and

where the danger is located. Anomalies
were classified as following:
State of Metal: State of Metal determines

the physical condition of the pipe. This
describes the stress detected due to
metal condition without the application of
external loading.
State of
Range of F Meaning Recommendation
Metal
1 0... 0.2 INADMISSIBLE urgent repair
scheduler repair,
2 0.2... 0.55 ADMISSIBLE
monitoring
no repair,
3 0.55... 1 GOOD
monitoring
Figure 8: Different States of Metal
Stress Deformed State: Stress Deformed

Figure 6: AQUA MTM Raw Data
State describes the stress detected with
the effect of the external forces and inter-
nal loading.
From the inspection results, AQUA MTM

is also able to determine the safe operat-
ing pressure for the pipeline.
This results help to determine if the pipe-

line operates within the safe pressure
level or not.
Results revealed the predicted features

of the defect would be detected such as
crack-like defect, weld defects, general
corrosion and etc.
PRINCIPLE BENEFIT OF AQUA MTM
AQUA MTM Technology gives benefits

to pipeline operators regarding technical
and operational aspects.
Figure 9 shows the advantages of this

Figure 7: AQUA MTM analyzing process. technology which is more economic
and reliable.
AQUA MTM RESULTS AND EVALUATION AQUA MTM TECHNOLOGY LIMITATION
The main purpose of this technology is to determine the Every technology has their own limitations. AQUA MTM
technical condition of the subsea pipeline. This technol- technology is limited only to inspect ferrous magnetic
ogy is able to classify the anomalies whereby it deter- materials pipeline. This technology is even able to inspect
measure stress caused by the defect and identifies their

type, location and orientation of the stress area. In addi-
tion, this technology also can determine the critical defect
that contributed to the dangerous conditions.
Presence of magnetic mass between AQUA ASKIF and

pipeline will affect the input signal and will eventually lead
to low quality of data.
CONCLUSION
AQUA MTM technology presents an alternative to the In-

Line Inspection method to determine the integrity of the
pipeline management. An advantage utilizing this tech-
nology is the cost factor.
References
[1.] Alfred Barbian, Michael Beller; In-Line Inspection of High Pressure Transmission Pipeline:
State-of-the Art and Future Trends; 18th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, 16-20
April 2012, Durban South Africa.
Figure 9: advantages of this technology which is more economic [2.] Victor Makhov, Linar Khusnutdinov; Report of AQUA MTM Inspection SKOPL 239 6” FL-454-
ICCP, 2013.
and reliable [3.] Vadim Belotelov, Igor Kolesnikov, Svetlana Kamaeva; Report of SKGPL 400 (Silk 329) B12 to
B11DRA ; AQUA MTM Inspection Work For Subsea Pipeline ;2016
[4.] NySearch; Testing Program for Remote Inspection using magnetic Tomography
various sizes of pipeline diameter, but the equipments [5.] Website ; oos.my/our technology; oilfield Offshore Services Sdn Bhd.
[6.] KeXi liao, Quaanke Yao, Chun Zhang; Principle and Technical Characteristics of Non-Contact
distance to the pipeline must not be more than 15 times the Magnetic Tomography Method Inspection For Oil and Gad Pipeline; 2011.
[7.] Website http:// transkorgroup.com; magnetic Tomography Method
pipeline diameter. [8.] Vladimir Mokshanov, Rezayat Pipelines Company Ltd. The Alternative to the In-Line Inspection
Exists.
[9.] KeXi Liao and Chun Zhang. Standard and Application by Using Non- Magnetic Tomography
Method for Pipeline Technical Conditions Diagnosis. 2011
AQUA MTM is unable to measure the geometry of the [10.] Website http:// www.petronesia.co.id; Non Contact magnetic Tomography
defect that gives the specific dimension, it is capable to
Author
Norhaziyah Afiqah Ahmad Muhamad Paizal Othman
Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd
Pipeline Integrity Engineer Executive Director
afiqah@transkor.my paizal@transkor.my
Raja Zahirudin Bin Raja Ismail Igor Kolesnikov

Petroliam Nasional Berhad, Transkor (M) Sdn Bhd
PETRONAS Technical Director of Traskor-K
Principal Engineer (Pipeline igor@transkor.my
Integrity)
zahir@petronas.com.my
ULTRA-DEEP WATER
GA S PIP ELI NE S
Collapse and Conseq uences
Hossein Pirzad > The School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society (EGIS);
Leif Collberg > DNV GL ; Samaneh Etemadi > Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
Ultra-deep water gas pipelines will be playing a major Viability of natural gas projects is strongly dependent
role in tomorrow’s energy supply. Diminishing onshore on gas supply security in comparison with oil develop-
and shallow water gas resources together with geo-po- ment projects which appear to be solely dependent on
litical and energy security concerns will be leaving no al- per barrel price. Natural gas being a cleaner fossil fuel
ternative but to accelerate the development of ultra-deep and a traditional source for producing electricity will be
water reserves. Thick wall pipeline requirement to resist remaining a major slice of world’s energy demand in the
the collapse pressure is one of the most challenging near and far future. European gas grid robustness has
aspects of such fields in terms of pipe design. In addition been the topic of some researches (ARXIV, 2016). The
to direct costs of installing tremendous amounts of extra main motivation behind this paper had been the Eastern
steel, there would also be a substantial carbon footprint Mediterranean gas prospects (European Commission,
in the global atmosphere. 2016). Some of the proposed subsea pipeline routes
meant to fuel Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean
DNV-OS-F101 is the most popular design code address- reserves shall be installed in Ca. 3000m of ultra-deep
ing the failure modes of offshore pipelines including sys- water depths (EMODNET, 2016). However, the finding is
tem collapse. The standard and its partial safety factors basically applicable to any ultra-deep water pipeline.
are based on reliability analyses. There have been some Very high external pressure exerted by water column
efforts to improve the characteristic capacity of pipes on a subsea pipeline laid on deep oceans floor requires
towards more economic but still safe structures. Among heavy wall cross section pipe in order to be able to resist
them, there is a recent work to improve the pipe fabrica- system collapse as the governing failure mode. Thick line
tion factor (α fab) of heat treated UOE line pipes. pipe is not only difficult to be sourced out of pipe mills
but also expensive to transport, weld and install, hence is
This paper will discuss the consequences of system often a showstopper for large diameter trunk lines to be
collapse of gas pipelines in ultra-deep waters at de- installed at ultra-deep waters.
pressurized shutdown condition. DNV-OS-F101 requires
‘’Medium’’ or ‘’High’’ safety classes for such a failure DNV-OS-F101 suggest below chain of formulas for pipe-
regardless of its spatial or temporal extents. Zero hydro- line collapse:
carbon release policies of oil companies and regulators
are presumably the most important factor implying such (1)
a requirement.
(2)
Hydrate formation phenomenon will occur in case of
any puncture in the pipe wall where the (LTHP) water (3)
enters the pipeline at a temporary shut-down condition
due to the external over-pressure. As a result of water (4)
ingress, hydrates will form and partially or even com-
pletely block the collapsed pipeline. This will result in (5)
preventing further release of gas to ocean, hence ‘’Low’’
safety class would be allowed in that particular load Where pe, pmin, pc (t), γm, γSC, pel(t), E, η, pp(t), fo, D, t, fy, αfab,
scenario which is likely to be the governing one in terms Dmax and Dmin are external pressure, minimum internal
of wall thickness calculations. pressure, collapse capacity, material safety factor, safety
class factor, elastic collapse capacity, Young modulus,
ABBREVIATIONS usage factor, plastic collapse capacity, out-of-roundness,
pipe diameter, pipe wall thickness, minimum specified
CAPEX = Capital Expenditure yield strength, pipe fabrication factor, maximum pipe
CFD = Computational Fluid Dynamics diameter and minimum pipe diameter respectively (DNV-
FEA = Finite Element Analysis OS-F101, 2013).
GHGE = Green House Gas Emissions
LTHP = Low Temperature High Pressure Code calibration procedure of today’s modern design
SRA = Structural Reliability Analysis codes including DNV-OS-F101 are based on partial safety
SURF = Subsea, Umbilical, Riser and Flowline factors derived from probabilistic analyses. In other
UOE = U-Shape, O-Shape and Expanded (a line words, partial safety factors allow covering the implicit
pipe manufacturing method) uncertainties in material properties, manufacturing
“
Thick wall pipeline requirement to resist
the collapse pressure is one of the most chal-
lenging aspects of such fields in terms of pipe
design. Hossein Pirzad
methods, installation condition, etc. in nominal target fail- More recent collapse pressure test data are then used
ure probability, whilst the expected reliability of system to update the random model uncertainty and eventually
including gross errors is aimed to be within an acceptable presenting a new code calibration.
target frame. DNV allow any deviation from its require-
ments provided a documented proof that the risk associ- In this paper the focus will be on the environmental con-
ated with the particular failure mode as well as the overall sequences when an ultra-deep water gas pipeline fails in
risk of system failure remain within targeted frame (DNV- a particular load scenario.
OS-F101, Sec.1 A401). A recent development has aimed
to replace DNV recommended αfab=0.85 for UOE pipes Such consequences, along with the other safety and
with αfab=1.0 with the condition of conducting some heat economic ones, are represented in formula (1) by γ SC
treatments after the cold expansion process, similar to
what happens to line pipes during anti-corrosion coating SAFETY CLASSES
process (Liessem et. al., 2007).
‘’Safety Class’’ of any segment of pipeline represents the
Marley et. al. (2012), as another work focused on SRA safety, environmental and economic consequences of its
side, have summarised various collapse design equations failure, hence, it dependents on the contents of pipe-
including Haagsma’s which is also recommended by line, its location and the operational phase whether it is
DNV-OS-F101. temporary or not. Table 1 (DNV-OS-F101) summarises the
definitions of ‘’Low’’, ‘’Medium’’ and ‘’High’’ safety classes.
Table 1: Safety Classification (DNV-OS-F101)

γSC in formula (1) is the direct representative of safety will not lead to a considerable gas leakage. This argu-
class in calculating nominal wall thickness to resist sys- ment is based on water ingress phenomenon into the
tem collapse as a limit state. pipeline and hydrate formation that will lead to blockage
of pipeline so that further gas release will be halted.
The standard, per note 3 of Table 1 (DNV-OS-F101), re- Hence, Low safety class can be considered valid in this
quires special consequence evaluation to justify a safety particular scenario.
class “Low” during any temporary phases after commis-
sioning including depressurised pipelines in shut-down There is a tendency to assume that the pipeline installa-
state. When comparing all possible consequences of tion is the governing case in terms of wall thickness cal-
any potential failure during pre-commissioning (a before culations even though it is categorised under Low safety
commissioning phase) with the consequences of a failure class due to the bending moment within sagbend region.
during shutdown (an after commissioning phase), both
events will cause similar repair costs and the same delay However, such an assumption cannot be generalised
in the start-up date. for all possible pipe sizes, material grades, water
depths and installation fleet.
Safety concerns cannot be very different too. Therefore,
the assumed environmental consequences caused by GAS HYDRATE FORMATION
leakages and massive hydrocarbon release is understood
to be the only reason behind such a requirement, while Gas hydrate formation has always been a flow as-
as argued in this paper, such a major gas release will not surance challenge for relatively long gas pipelines.
occur in the very particular case of an ultra-deep water Seawater cools down the gas inside the pipeline to
gas pipeline in shut-down state. the hydrate formation temperature where crystalized
natural gas blocks the
flow and creates a lot of
operational and main-
tenance issues for the
operator of pipelines.
Figure 1 (Heriot Watt

University, 2016) illus-
trates a typical appear-
ance of gas hydrate.
S.Mokhatab et. al. (2007)

have summarised the most
popular strategies to cope
hydrate formation issues
Table 2: Safety Class Resistance Factor (DNV-OS-F101) in subsea pipelines. The
suggestions are mainly
Each category has a defined safety class factor based on preventive and categorised under water removal, thermal
Table 2 (DNV-OS-F101). The
factor associated with safe-
ty class Medium is approxi-
mately 10% higher than the
one with Low safety class.
The resulting required wall

thickness will then ap-
proximately be 5% to 10%
higher for Medium safety
class compared to Low
safety class.
Collapse of ultra-deep
water gas pipeline under
depressurised shut-down
condition, as one of the
likely governing load cases, Figure 1: Gas Hydrate in Pipelines (Heriot Watt University, 2016).
Figure 2: Phase envelope, hydrate formation (HF) and water dew point (WD) for natural gas (Petroskills, 2016)
solutions, chemical inhibitors and thermodynamic inhibitor The study consists three main parts for both ingress
where the main aim is to keep the state of natural gas flow and egress phenomena.
outside of hydrate formation envelope presented in Figure
2 (Petroskills, 2016). Firstly, pipeline thermo-hydraulic behaviour under vari-
ous sizes of leakage are assessed.
While hydrate formation inside an operating gas pipe-
line is a problem, it can be beneficial when it comes to The second part consists of a detailed CFD model in
the safety class selection of collapsed pipelines at de- order to simulate the flow regime in the vicinity of the
pressurised shut-down state. In fact, there would be no leak and the last section is shaped around hydrate for-
major gas release to the sea in case an ultra-deep water mation, transportation and blockage.
gas pipeline collapses.
The last chapter is focused on hydrate formation and
Water ingress, in case of a wet buckle, will pull the state relevant risks of blockage in gas pipelines due to the
of the gas content well into quite stable hydrate forma- transportation and accumulation of hydrates after they
tion zone of the envelope, the left hand side of the solid are formed in the case of water ingress.
red and green curves of Figure 2 (Petroskills, 2016).
Consequently, gas hydrate would block the pipeline Figure 3 (S.Zhai. et. al., 2015) illustrates a schematic of
and further hydrocarbon release will be limited or fully how hydrates form, travel along the pipeline and accu-
stopped. mulate in a gas-dominated pipeline.
S.Zhai et. al. (2015) have

studied deepwater pipe-
lines leakage using FEA
both on water ingress
when external hydrostatic
pressure is higher than
pipeline internal pressure
Figure 3: Hydrate Plug Formation in a Gas Dominated System (S.Zhai. et. al., 2015)
and gas egress otherwise.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
AND THE BIGGER PICTURE
Quantifying the amount of hydrocarbon release on every producing one ton of steel (Global CCS Institute, 2013),
subsea pipelines project and each failure scenario would we are now given Ca. 22,000 tons of CO2 certain
be a time consuming and expensive engineering pro- release to the atmosphere in order to avoid releasing
cess. Therefore, DNV-OS-F101 has defined three Low, a fraction of Ca. 25000 tonnes natural gas to the sea
Medium and High safety classes based on the content with very low probability.
fluid, location of installation and the relevant phase of
the life cycle. Massive oil-spill or gas release is presum- The carbon footprint of extra steel used in the pipeline
ably the backbone of such a procedure. will be way higher than 22,000 tons in case the trans-
portation, installation and decommissioning footprints
In other words, DNV have assumed that any hole or are taken into account.
rupture in the pipe wall, even in the depressurised
shut-down condition will lead to a massive discharge GHGE and global warming is now another important as-
of hydrocarbon to the sea. Such an approach is under- pect of environmental concerns that countries are com-
standable as the standard, like all other design codes, mitted to take into equation when setting up regulations
has started to develop from shallow waters where any within their territories (Paris Agreement, 2015).
pipe failure is equivalent to gas release.
Regulators are now legally committed to take the global
This is however not the case for ultra-deep water gas impacts of their policies into consideration instead of
pipelines at shutdown condition as argued in this paper over-conservatism in caring local environments only.
where water ingress and hydrate formation would limit
the gas release to a very small amount. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Table 3 outlines some realistic examples. DNV-OS-F101 has normalised the consequences of
various pipeline failure modes in three safety class cat-
The different wall thickness requirements vary between egories. The selection of ‘’Safety Class’’ is a crucial step
safety class Low and safety class Medium. The esti- during pipe design having a direct impact on the select-
mated wall thicknesses are based on DNV-OS-F101. All ed pipe wall thickness. Hydrocarbon content, location
other input data remain unchanged for the sensitivity and the phase of operation are the three main parame-
study purpose at
3000m of water
depth. Safety Class Safety Class
Pipe Data
Low Medium
A simple calcu-
lation based on NPS (Nominal Pipe Size) 30’’ 28’’ 30’’ 28’’
average numbers
between 28” and OD (Outer Diameter, mm) 762.0 711.2 762.0 711.2
30” pipes reveals
that there would Material Grade X80 X80 X80 X80
be around 11,000
tons of extra W.T. (Wall Thickness, mm) 39.3 36.9 40.9 38.4
steel production
by switching the
Ovality (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
requirement from
‘Low’ to ‘Medium’
Content density (kg/cum) 150 150 150 150
safety class for
a 500km long
Steel mass(kg/m) 700.439 613.619 721.341 637.143
subsea pipeline
according to
Content mass(kg/m) 55.02 47.86 54.51 47.41
Table 3.
By assuming Ca.
two tons of CO2
Table 3: Safety Class Low and Medium Comparison
footprint only for
ters in selecting a safety class for a particular pipeline in

a particular load scenario as per Table 1. References
It is understood that the basis of the categorisation is • ARXIV.ORG, 2016. arXiv [online]. Ithaca: Cornell University Library. Available from:
http://arxiv.org/pdf/0903.0195v3.pdf [Accessed 01 Jul 2016].
gas release and its economic, fatal and/or environmental • EMODNET, 2016. Emodnet Bathymetry [online]. Europe: European Marine Obser-
vation and Data Network. Available from: http://portal.emodnet-bathymetry.eu/
consequences. However, in a very particular case where a mean-depth-full-coverage [Accessed 01 Jul 2016].
depressurized pipeline collapses there would be no major • European Commission, 2016. Innovation and Networks Executive Agency [online].
European Union: European Commission. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/
gas release. Instead seawater will enter the pipeline and inea/en/connecting-europe-facility/cef-energy/projects-by-country/multi-coun-
try/7.3.1-0025-elcy-s-m-15 [Accessed 01 Jul 2016].
will form gas hydrates leading to a partial or full blockage. • DNV-OS-F101
• Andreas Liessem., Johannes Groß-Weege., Gerhard Knauf and Steffen Zimmer-
mann., UOE Pipes For Ultra Deep Water Application – Analytical and FE Collapse
It is hard to conclude whether the system collapse Strength Prediction vs. Full-Scale Tests of Thermally Treated Line Pipe. The Seven-
teenth International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, ISOPE-I-07-499.
during installation or during the temporary shut-down • Erica Marley., Olav Aamlid. and Leif Collberg., Assessment of Recent Experimental
state be the governing load scenario. The latter, in case Data on Collapse Capacity of UOE Pipeline. The 2012 9th International Pipeline
Conference IPC2012, IPC2012-90698.
of the Medium safety class requirement, would require • Heriot Watt University, 2016. [online]. Edinburgh: Institute of Petroleum Enginee-
ring. Available from http://www.pet.hw.ac.uk/research/hydrate/hydrates_why.cfm
about 5% thicker wall leading to a demand for thousands [Accessed 03 Jul 2016].
of tons of extra high quality steel. Therefore, using the • S.Mokhatab., Robert J. Wilkens. and K.J.Leontaritis., 2007. A Review of Strate-
gies for Solving Gas-Hydrate Problems in Subsea Pipelines. Energy Sources
‘’Low’’ safety class instead of ‘’Medium’’ or ‘’High’’ will be Part A Recovery Utilization and Environmental Effects Part A(1), 39-45, DOI:
10.1080/009083190933988.
a significant CAPEX saving. • Petroskills, 2016. Tip of The Month: Gas Hydration and Water Dew Point [online].
Available from: http://www.jmcampbell.com/tip-of-the-month/wp-content/
uploads/2011/03/312.png [Accessed 04 Jul 2016].
A further study by DNV GL can help to include the re- • S.Zhai, C.Chauvet, R.Azarinezhad, J.Zeng. and A.Priyadarshi., 2015. Discussion of
Pipeline Leakage and Hydrate Formation Risks Associated in Deepwater Natural
wards of hydrate formation during water ingress into the Gas Pipelines. 17th International Conference on Multiphase Production Technology,
depressurized gas pipelines at ultra-deep waters. BHR-2015-H3.
• Global CCS Institute, 2013. CCS for Iron and Steel Production [online]. IPCC. Availa-
ble from: https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/insights/authors/dennisvanpuyvel-
de/2013/08/23/ccs-iron-and-steel-production [Accessed 11 Jul 2016].
FUNDING • Paris Agreement, 2015. COP21 [online]. Paris Climate Conference. Available from:
http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/international/negotiations/paris/index_en.htm
[Accessed 11 Jul 2016].
This research has not received funding supports from
any corporation or commercial entity.
Authors
Hossein Pirzad Leif Collberg
The School of Energy, Geoscience, DNV GL
Infrastructure and Society (EGIS) Vice President
Pipeline Engineer leif.collberg@dnvgl.com
hp6@hw.ac.uk
Samaneh Etemadi
Department of Chemistry,
University of Oslo
Materials Engineer / Chemist
12-14 MARCH 2018, BERLIN, GERMANY
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Director Exhibitions Director Publications
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As of 01.12.2017
The EITEP Institute is providing Know-How and Technology-Transfer through international Conferences, Semi-
nars and Publications. Our primary objective is to foster the international exchange of state-of-the-art-technolo-
gies, in order to provide the latest products and services where they are needed.
EITEP is organized in two departments, guided an overseen by the company’s president, Dr. Klaus Ritter, who
worked as general manager for professional, technical and scientific associations of the German energy and
water supply sector before becoming the founder and president of EITEP.
Conferences & Exhibitions Marketing & Communication

The department Conferences & Exhibitions is The department Marketing & Communication planes
responsible for the organization of EITEP events, and executes all activities related to the promotion of EI-
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is led by Mr. Dennis Fandrich, who is your contact for regarding marketing, sales, seminars and special projects.
all matters regarding the Conferences. The exhibitions Responsible for our publications is Mr. Admir Celovic. He
are organized by Mr. Marian Ritter, he will assist you will assist you with questions regarding the journals edito-
with all questions regarding the fairs. rial content and advertisement opportunities.
EITEP is supported by the advisory committee AdCo, which consists of 44 senior pipeline professionals from all
over the world. They bring in the necessary connection to the profession and valuable technical expertise. To fur-
ther support our efforts. All presentations held during our conferences and all publications re-
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Additional senior consultants have been recruited as advisors for special issues.
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In the next Edition of ptj:
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From 12-14 March 2018 Europe’s leading conference and exhibition on high-pres-
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13 PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE
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13th Pipeline Technology Conference / 2nd Pipe and Sewer Conference
for details,
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12-14 March 2018
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for details, see
www.pipeline-conference.com / www.pipeandsewer.com 7
#ptcBerlin

Conference Lounge by TDW Poster Session
Conference lounge with cozy armchairs and Latest updates on present and upcoming research activ-
tables. This is the spot where the delegates ities from universities and research institutes around the
could get a fresh coffee all day long. world.
Live Stream ptj job & career market

It’s no trouble that you were caught up in your conver- Support to existing recruitment processes in the pipeline
sation - the presentations from a conference room are industry - dedicated to recruiting and career planning:
streamed into the exhibition as live video. job wall, career check and interview arrangements.
Social Program
Monday, 12 March 2018 (16:30) Tuesday, 13 March 2018, (18:30)
6

an event
>> The Pipeline Technology Conference is truly international and brings Euro
EuroInstitute
and
Institutefor
andTechnology
Technology
forInformation
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Transfer
Transfer
together pipeline operators, technology and service providers, research

institutes, associations
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and we will include your company in all our ptc marketing
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PROFESSIONALS AND HIGH POTENTIALS
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The international pipeline community is in need of additional personnel.
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fessionals, but we also need young
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Questions? You get:
Please contact Mr. Admir Celovic The most cost-effective support to your recruitment
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COMPANY DIRECTORY
Automation Construction Machinery

Siemens Maats
Germany Netherlands
www.siemens.com www.maats.com
Yokogawa Worldwide Group

Japan Germany
www.yokogawa.com www.worldwidemachinery.com
Certification Corrosion Protection

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Coating Engineering
Denso ILF Consulting Engineers
Germany Germany
www.denso.de www.ilf.com
Kebulin-gesellschaft Kettler
Germany Inline Inspection
www.kebu.de
A.Hak Industrial Services
Polyguard Products Netherlands
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www.polyguard.com
KTN AS
TDC International Norway
Switzerland www.ktn.no
www.tdc-int.com
NDT Global
TIB Chemicals Germany
Germany www.ndt-global.com
www.tib-chemicals.com
Pipesurvey International
Netherlands
Construction www.pipesurveyinternational.com
Herrenknecht PPSA - Pigging Products and Services Association

Germany United Kingdom
www.herrenknecht.com www.ppsa-online.com
Petro IT Romstar
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www.petroit.com www.romstargroup.com
VACUWORX Rosen
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COMPANY
CONFERENCES / SEMINARS DIRECTORY
/ EXHIBITIONS
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www.creaform3d.com www.cittech.com
Applus RTD RAM-100

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Asel-Tech
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United Kingdom Russia
www.atmosi.com www.en.niitn.transneft.ru
Entegra
United States Safety
www.entegrasolutions.com
DEHN & SÖHNE
GOTTSBERG Leak Detection Germany
Germany www.dehn-international.com/en
www.leak-detection.de
HIMA
OptaSense Germany
United Kingdom www.hima.de
www.optasense.com
TÜV SÜD Indutrie Service
Pergam Suisse Germany
Switzerland www.tuev-sued.de/is
www.pergam-suisse.ch
PSI Software Surface Preparation

Germany
www.psioilandgas.com MONTI - Werkzeuge GmbH
Germany
www.monti.de
Materials
egeplast international Valves & Fittings
Germany
www.egeplast.de AUMA
Germany
www.auma.com
Monitoring
IMI Precision Engineering
Krohne Messtechnik Germany
Germany www.imi-precision.com
www.krohne.com
Zwick Armaturen
Germany
www.zwick-armaturen.de
13TH PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE 2ND PIPE AND SEWER CONFERENCE

12-14 MARCH 2018, ESTREL CONVENTION CENTER, BERLIN, GERMANY 12-14 MARCH 2018, ESTREL CONVENTION CENTER, BERLIN, GERMANY
Europe’s Leading Pipeline Conference and Exhibition, International Conference and Exhibition on Pipe and Sew-
taking place at the Estrel Berlin, er Technologies, taking place at the Estrel Berlin,
In conjunction
Berlin, Germany Berlin, Germany
www.pipeline-conference.com www.pipeandsewer.com
Next Issue: February 2018

In the next Edition of ptj:

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28 - 29 March 2018 Abu Dhabi, UAE
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Pipeline Technology Seminar: Life-Cycle Extension 28 - 29 March 2018 Abu Dhabi, UAE
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What is the article mainly discussing?

What is the article mainly discussing?

What developments have led to pipelines becoming safer?

What developments have led to pipelines becoming safer?

e Journal

Pipeline Technology Journal

www.pipeline-journal.net ISSN 2196-4300

> Dr. Klaus Ritter, President EITEP Institut

DECEMBER 2017 / ISSUE 6

THIS ISSUE’S COMPLETE CONTENT

Inspecting Pipelines With Discovery™, The World’s Only Subsea CT Scanner

Risk Reduction of Dropped Objects on Pipelines around Offshore Platforms

Systematic Handling and “Live” Repair of Gas Pipeline Leaks

Innovative Technology of Non–Contact Magnetic Tomography for Subsea Pipeline

Ultra-deep Water Gas Pipelines Collapse and Consequences

Chinese Gas Market on the Rise

 www.linkedin.com/groups/4740567 ptc 2018 Preview 78

Iraq / Iran Sign APGA releases new Code

President: Dr. Klaus Ritter

e Journal Value Added Tax Identification Number: DE 182833034

Pipeline Technology Journal E-Mail:

As an increasingly large number of ‘unpiggable’ pipe systems approach the end of

RESEARCH / DEVELOPMENT / TECHNOLOGY

RESEARCH / DEVELOPMENT / TECHNOLOGY

The basic principle behind CT scanning (and, of course,

CT scanning has several advantages over traditional radi-

Discovery™ is the world’s only subsea computed to-

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through denser materials such as steel.

Figure 3: Wall Thickness Colour Map Produced by Discovery™

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PIGGYBACK PIPE SYSTEMS PIPE-IN-PIPE SYSTEMS

The Discovery™ scan image produced in

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Figure 5: Discovery™ CT Scan of a Pipe-in-Pipe

where inner pipe buckling could be expected to occur, in or-

CONCRETE WEIGHT COATED PIPE

Providing both additional weight and pro-

An example of a concrete weight coated pipe

RESEARCH / DEVELOPMENT / TECHNOLOGY

An example of Discovery™ flow as-

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For Operators who are aware of blockages or flow re-

Information on combined flow/production assurance and

Just as Discovery™ is able to identify the presence of

SCAN SIMULATION SOFTWARE

One area that Tracerco quickly identified for improve-

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It was with this need in

WOULD YOU LIKE TO KNOW MORE?

THIS PAPER IT WILL BE DISCUSSED AT THE

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Figure 13 and Figure 14 are of flexible pipe samples and a

13TH PIPELINE TECHNOLOGY CONFERENCE

ONLY 3 MONTHS LEFT UNTIL PTC

RESEARCH / DEVELOPMENT / TECHNOLOGY

ABSTRACT Pipeline Technology Conference 2017, Berlin

Figure 2: Types of impacts (Source: misc free images)

damage to pipelines, risers,

Dropping an element during