Definition of Thermodynamics

DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics may be defined as follows :

_ Thermodynamics is an axiomatic science which deals with the relations among
heat, work and properties of system which are in equilibrium. It describes state
and changes
Thermodynamics, basically entails four laws or axioms known as Zeroth, First,
Second and
Third law of thermodynamics.
_ The First law throws light on concept of internal energy.
_ The Zeroth law deals with thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept of
temperature.
_ The Second law indicates the limit of converting heat into work and introduces
the principle of increase of entropy.
_ The Third law defines the absolute zero of entropy.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
System, Boundary and Surroundings
Closed System
. If the boundary of the system is impervious to the flow of matter, it is called a
closed system.
Open System
An open system is one in which matter flows into or out of the system. Most of the
engineering systems are open.
Adiabatic System
An adiabatic system is one which is thermally insulated from its surroundings. It
can, however, exchange work with its surroundings. If it does not, it becomes an
isolated system. Phase. A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous
throughout in chemical composition and physical structure.
Homogeneous System
A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous system.
Examples : Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus
heptane.
Heterogeneous System
A system which consists of two or more phases is called a heterogeneous system.
Examples : Water plus steam, ice
plus water and water plus oil.
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the temperature and pressure at all
points are same.
Thus for attaining a state of thermodynamic equilibrium the following three types
of equilibrium states must be achieved :
1. Thermal equilibrium
2. Mechanical equilibrium.
3. Chemical equilibrium.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

_ ‘Zeroth law of thermodynamics’ states that if two systems are each equal in
temperature to a third, they are equal in temperature to each other.
The Thermometer And Thermometric Property

_ The zeroth law of thermodynamics provides the basis for the measurement of
temperature.
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature can be depicted as a thermal state which depends upon the internal
or molecular energy of the body.
Temperature Measuring Instruments
These instruments may be classified in two broad categories :
1. Non-electrical methods
2. Electrical method :
The thermometers may also be classified as follows :
1. Expansion thermometers
(i) Liquid-in-glass thermometers (ii) Bimetallic thermometers.
2. Pressure thermometers
(i) Vapour pressure thermometers (ii) Liquid-filled thermometers
(iii) Gas-filled thermometers.
3. Thermocouple thermometers
4. Resistance thermometers
5. Radiation pyrometers
6. Optical pyrometers.
Ideal Gas
From experimental observations it has been established that an ideal gas (to a
good approximation)
behaves according to the simple equation pV = mRT
where p, V and T are the pressure, volume and temperature of gas having mass m
and R is a constant for the gas known as its gas constant. can be written as pv =
RT
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the normal component of force per unit area. Most
thermodynamics investigations are concerned with absolute pressure. Most
pressure and vacuum gauges, however, read the difference between the absolute
pressure and the atmospheric pressure existing at the gauge. This is referred to as
gauge pressure
Unit for Pressure

The fundamental SI unit of pressure is N/m2 (sometimes called pascal, Pa) or bar.
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 Pa.
Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar = 0.76 m (or 760 mm) Hg.
Specific volume
The specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume per unit mass, and is
given the symbol v.
𝑉 𝑚3
v= [ 𝑘𝑔 ]
𝑚
The density of a substance (r) is defined as the mass per unit volume, and is
therefore the reciprocal of the specific volume.
1 𝑚3
r=𝑣 [ 𝑘𝑔 ]
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Reversible process. A reversible process (also sometimes known as quasi-static
process) is one which can be stopped at any stage and reversed so that the system
and surroundings are exactly restored to their initial states.
Irreversible process. An irreversible process is one in which heat is transferred

through a finite temperature.
Irreversibilities are of two types :
1. External irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects outside

the working fluid.
Example. Mechanical friction occurring during a process due to some external
source.
2. Internal irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects within
the working fluid.
Example. Unrestricted expansion of gas, viscosity and inertia of the gas.
ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT

Energy
One of the very important concepts in a study of thermodynamics is the concept
of energy. Energy is a fundamental concept, such as mass or force and, as is often
the case with such concepts, is very difficult to define. Energy is defined as the
capability to produce an effect. It is important to note that energy can be stored
within a system and can be transferred (as heat, for example) from one system to
another.
FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the
total energy E of a system. The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is
denoted by e and is expressed as
𝐸
e= 𝑚 kJ/kg
The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame is called kinetic energy (KE).
𝑣2
KE =m 2
Work and Heat

Definition of work
Work is defined as a force F acting through a displacement x, the displacement
being in the direction of the force.
Training Centre / Centre de formation
Thermodynamics defines work as follows: work is done by a system if the sole
effect on the surroundings (everything external to the system) could be the raising
of a weight. Work done by a system is considered positive and work done to a
system is considered negative.
Units for work
The unit for work in SI units is called the joule (J).
1J = 1 N•m
Work is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary while a change
of state is taking place within a system. Work is ‘something’ which appears at the
boundary when a system changes its state due to the movement of a part of the
boundary under the action of a force.
Definition of heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across the boundary of a
system at a given temperature to another system (or the surroundings) at a lower
temperature by virtue of the temperature difference between the two systems.
Another aspect of this definition of heat is that a body never contains heat. Rather,
heat can be identified only as it crosses the boundary. Thus, heat is a transient
phenomenon.
Sign convention :
If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to be
positive and, conversely, if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is
said to be negative. In other words :
Heat received by the system = + Q
Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.
REVERSIBLE WORK
Let us consider an ideal frictionless fluid contained in a cylinder above a piston as
shown in .Assume that the pressure and temperature of the fluid are uniform and
that there is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls.
Let A = Cross-sectional area of the piston,
p = Pressure of the fluid at any instant,
(p – dp) A = Restraining force exerted by the surroundings on the piston, and
dl = The distance moved by the piston under the action of the force exerted.
Then work done by the fluid on the piston is given by force times the distance
moved, i.e., Work done by the fluid = (pA) × dl = pdV (where dV = a small
increase in volume) Or considering unit mass Work done = pdv (where v =
specific volume) Hence when a reversible process takes place between state 1 and
2
state 2, we have Work done by the unit mass of fluid ∫1 = 𝑝𝑑𝑣
When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state points can be joined
up to form a line on a diagram of properties. The work done by the fluid during
any reversible process is therefore given by the area under the line of process
plotted on a p-v diagram i.e., Work done = Shaded area
2
∫ = 𝑝𝑑𝑣
1
When p can be expressed in terms of v then the integral

2
∫ = 𝑝𝑑𝑣
1
can be evaluated.

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DEFINITION OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics may be defined as follows :

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Thermometer And Thermometric Property

Unit for Pressure

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES

Irreversible process. An irreversible process is one in which heat is transferred

Irreversibilities are of two types :

1. External irreversibilities. These are associated with dissipating effects outside

ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT

Work and Heat

When p can be expressed in terms of v then the integral

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