Why does Sir Francis Bacon use the word

"Of" at the start of every essay?

In 1572, Montaigne began writing a series of essays,
or Essais, as a way to occupy his mind. This project
proved revolutionary.

Before Montaigne, writing was typically public and

purposeful. In the early modern period, it was extremely
rhetorical, or audience-oriented. Montaigne, on the other
hand, wrote these essays, or "attempts," as a way for him
to contemplate his own thoughts. Many of the topics are
read today and offer valuable insights on the human
condition; others are seemingly very trivial.

Bacon's essays engage in the same enterprise:

recreational thought designed to contemplate the mind in
action. This same metacognitive activity seems to have
influenced others, including Shakespeare in Hamlet.

This more casual or private thinking and writing is signaled

by the less serious-sounding preposition, "of." Each little
essay appears almost as many a blog post would today:
unrelated to what goes before or after, ephemeral in its
purpose, reflective rather than argumentative. This title
seems to pre-empt anyone from taking the essay too
seriously as a work of finished and fixed thought, even if
Bacon meant what he said.
VIEWS ON STUDIES:
Francis Bacon claims studies serve purposes for "delight," "ornament,"
and "ability." In his view, studies help enrich life, both for enjoyment and
practical purposes. However, key to his view, Bacon also believes that
moderation is necessary for studies to be most useful. He thinks one
shouldn't study so much that it distracts from applying one's studies and
living.

In Francis Bacon's essay "Of Studies," what

does Bacon mean by "writing makes an
exact man"?
The quotation to which you refer comes from Francis Bacon's essay "Of
Studies," and is part of a longer quote in which he says, "Reading makes
a full man; Conference a ready man; and Writing an exact man." Bacon
wrote fifty-eight essays over several years and published a complete
edition in 1625, The Essayes or Counsels Civill & Moral of Francis
Bacon. Bacon's purpose in writing essays--which discuss moral,
religious, business, and even practical subjects like gardening--is to
create a kind of road map for proper human behavior for a man in
politics or business in the important spheres of life. His essay "Of
Studies," for example, in which he discusses writing, discusses the
importance of learning:

Studies serve for Delight, for Ornament, and for Ability. Their chiefe use
for Delight is in privateness and retiring; for Ornament, is in discourse; &
for Ability, is in the judgement and disposition of Business.
In other words, Delight in studies allows a man to be happy and useful
during private time away from business or other duties--primarily
because he is learning something that will improve him; Ornament, by
which Bacon mean understanding the rhetorical arts like argument and
persuasion, allow a man to speak effectively to others; and Ability gives
the man enough practical experience to understand political and
business matters so that he can successfully manage his political and
economic affairs.
When Bacon says that "writing makes an exact man," he follows that
immediately by the warning, "if a Man write little, he hath need of a good
memory." Bacon, who wrote hundreds of pages, in a style that we now
call the "plain style," understood that writing--and this is an aspect we
recognize today--helps a person remember complex matters because
writing tends to imprint on the mind what a person writes. More
important, however, is that Bacon was aware that writing, because
writing must be precise to be understood, also forces the writer to think
clearly about the subject. An axiom (a universally understood truth) of
writing, encapsulated in Bacon's comment about writing and exactness,
is that if a person cannot write clearly about a subject, he cannot think
clearly about that subject--and that is why Bacon links writing with being
exact or precise.

An important way in which writing makes an exact man is

that a conscientious writer must always be searching his
mind, as well as his dictionary and his thesaurus, for the
exact word to express his meaning. Many famous writers
had a very hard time writing. These include Ernest
Hemingway and Honore de Balzac. Here are some
pertinent quotes:

Composition is, for the most part, an effort of slow

diligence and steady perseverance, to which the mind is
dragged by necessity or resolution, and from which the
attention is every moment starting to more delightful
amusements.
-Samuel Johnson

A writer is somebody for whom writing is more difficult

than it is for other people.
-Thomas Mann
Writing is a dog’s life, but the only life worth living.
-Gustave Flaubert
Flaubert, the great French realist novelist, best known for
his novel Madame Bovary, made a lasting impression with
many writers with his insistence on finding le mot juste, which
means the right word. One word can sometimes do more
than a hundred words. Sir Francis Bacon must have been
guided by that principle because his essays are invariably
short and even seem to compress or synthesize a great
deal of learning and wisdom in a small space.

If a writer cannot come up with le mot juste immediately, he

can just leave a blank space and come back to it later.
Sometimes the right word is hard to find, even though we
know it must exist, and must have existed for centuries.
Often it will come to mind spontaneously out of the blue. It
is satisfying to a careful to be able to put the right word in
the right place.

What is the theme of the essay "Dream

Children" by Charles Lamb?
The theme of Lamb's essay is regret and loss: regret for
unfulfilled joy, unfulfilled love, lost hope, lost opportunity
and lost joys of life. There are three topics describing
the theme of regret and loss at work in this essay.

The first of these is the loss of past happiness as

represented by the house--with its carved mantle that a
"foolish rich person pulled ... down"--and by great-
grandmother Field and by the speaker's brother John.

Both great-grandmother Field and John died painful

deaths while Charles Lamb watched on being then left
alone without their presence, love and care: what he
missed most was their presence: "I missed him all day
long, and knew not till then how much I had loved him."

The second topic describing regret and loss is his

beloved Alice. Lamb courted her "for seven long years"
and, in the end, his suit for her love was a failure. This
explains why the dream child is named Alice and this
explains why he becomes confused about which Alice,
younger or elder, he is really looking at:

turning to Alice, the soul of the first Alice looked out at her
eyes with such a reality of re-presentment, that I became
in doubt which of them stood there before me, or whose
that bright hair was ...
This leads to the third thematic topic: the children who
never were. In a surprise ending, in a dramatic (and at
first bewildering) twist, we learn that the children he has
been telling stories to--stories of loves and life-joys he
regrets losing--are air, are a figment of a dream in a
bachelor's sleep. These are the children that would have
been, that could have been, that might have been if Alice
had granted Lamb her love and if they had wed. As it is,
they are but phantoms of a dream. All he really has is "the
faithful Bridget [representative of Lamb's sister Mary]
unchanged by my side."
What are the characteristics of
Romanticism in the essays of Charles
Lamb?
Many of Charles Lamb’s essays had Romantic elements.
He wrote using the pseudonym Elia, and one of his
collections of essays is often referred to as the "Elia
essays." One of his Elia essays, "Old China," contains two
monologues about the past between Elia and his cousin,
Bridget. Like Romantic poets, Lamb's essay concentrates
on personal experience and reflection. The characters in
the essay speak over china dishes, which is a reference to
the external world. Their talk over the china dishes shows
the tension between their external and internal worlds in a
manner that is characteristic of the Romantic writers. The
china cups they use are, like Keats's Grecian urn, a static
element in an ever-changing world. The theme of the
essay relates to the loss of youth and innocence--which is
a central theme of Romanticism.

Another example of his essays that has a Romantic

element is "Dream Children: A Reverie," which is a
discursive, dreamlike essay in which Lamb fancifully
imagines telling his children, which he does not have,
about his childhood. His essay involves his imagining that
he had married a past girlfriend, and so the essays feature
an element of the imagination that is Romantic in nature.
He does not write to prove a point or to use reason;
instead, his essays meander in a way that is dreamlike.
Like the work of Romantic poets, Lamb's essay is about
the lost dreams and innocence of childhood.

Discuss the style of Charles Lamb in his

essays.
Charles Lamb’s life was marked by tragedy. His sister, in
fit of madness, murdered their parents. Lamb himself
spent time in an asylum. Lacking in self-confidence, he
used a pseudonym “Elia” for many of his essays.

Lamb, writing in the 18th and 19th centuries, used the

character of Elia, a charming London bachelor, as
his narrator in these essays. Elia represented “every
man.” Furthermore, because Elia had once been a
commoner, he was able to bridge class obstacles.

Lamb’s essays focus on the theme of temperament and

consciousness of man. Employing personal
experience in his writing, Elia [Lamb] uses simple
language that is effectual and that the ordinary man can
easily understand and apply to his life.

To add dimension to his character, Elia faces life’s

experiences and handles them as Lamb thought man
should act. His humorous and leisurely approach to his
writing make the reader want more. Lamb’s intention was
to enable the average person to internalize his concept
and thus make the essay universal.
Widespread truths represent the greater portion of
Lamb’s work, yet these truths are not lofty sentiments.
Elia prefers the past to the present. The sensory
memories usually speak to the heart of any man who
remembers a smell from the kitchen of his mother:

...the odour of that spicy cake came back upon my

recollection, and the pleasure. It is in human nature to long
for the past. Irrespective of how content a man must be at
the present, the past seems more serene.
Lamb’s descriptions subscribe to sensory pleasures. His
description of a pork roast brings the reader to the dining
table:

...crisp, tawny, well-watched, not over-roasted, crackling,

the aroma that ‘assailed his nostrils’…all stimulate the
tongue, nose and eyes.
Other references are to nature and man connection to it.
Holding to the idea that man should be at one with nature,
Lamb’s simplistic approach to the natural world both
entertains and sends the reader to another place and time.
Easily readable, his essays span the test of time.

Comment on Lamb's prose style as seen in

his essay 'Dream Children: A Reverie'.
All of Lamb's major trademarks as an essayist are to be
found in this work: overall, a relaxed and colloquial voice
and a genteel sensibility incorporating elements of
humour, whimsy, strong personal recollection and touches
of pathos. All these mark him out as one of the great
exponents of the familiar essay in English in the
nineteenth century, along with Thomas de Quincey and
William Hazlitt. This was a type of writing characterized by
a strong personal element and an informal tone, on almost
any subject of interest to the writer. Although he also tried
his hand at many other literary forms, it is fair to say that
Lamb really found his distinctive and most enduring voice
in his essays, which he first contributed to the London
Magazine under the pseudonym of 'Elia'.

As already stated, 'Dream Children: A Reverie' exhibits all

Lamb's strengths as an essayist. It is short but effective in
encompassing a range of moods. It starts out on a
convivial and realistic note with the picture of a cosy
domestic setting in which the writer regales his two
children with stories of the family past; yet by the end this
picture has dissolved into nothingness, is revealed to be a
mere dream, or ‘reverie’ on part of the writer. It is, in fact,
the picture of the family that Lamb longed for but never
actually had, as he never married, instead devoting a
lifetime to caring for his sister Mary (who appears as
Bridget in his essays) who was afflicted with periodical
insanity.

The real achievement of this piece lies in the compact

evocation both of the solid realism of family life and
nostalgia for a family past, incorporating the memory of a
lost love, Alice, and also of Lamb’s older brother, before
merging into the air of dream. Lamb manages the
transition from one mood to another seamlessly,
conveying an ultimate sense of loss without descending to
sentimentalilty. More, he also skilfully conjures a genuine
sense of eeriness when the two children reveal
themselves to be mere dream, the products of wishful
thinking, before the dreamer wakes up:

...while I stood gazing, both the children gradually grew

fainter to my view, receding, and still receding till nothing
at last but two mournful features were seen in the
uttermost distance, which, without speech, strangely
impressed upon me the effects of speech: “We are not of
Alice, nor of thee, nor are we children at all …. We are
nothing; less than nothing, and dreams. We are only what
might have been ….
The realistic and intimate picture thus dissolves, recedes,
giving way to ghosts. The style is entirely suited to the
subject-matter at this point, slow-paced, languorous, and
markedly different from the earlier parts of the
essay. This dissolution of realism into dream is a stylistic
trick more effective than any self- indulgent musings on
the past and its lost possibilities could have been.

This essay exhibits two major concerns of the Romantic

age: a fascination with the past and also with the
supernatural. Lamb was certainly keenly interested in the
past, but although not generally given to dreams or visions
– unlike, for instance, his fellow-essayist de Quincey – he
mingles realism, memory and dream in a memorable and
concise manner in this essay.
 Critically comment on Sir Francis Bacon's
use of persuasive techniques and figurative
language to support his views in his essay
"Of Travaile."
In his essay “Of Travaille” [that is, concerning travel],
Sir Francis Bacon uses a variety of persuasive techniques
and some notable instances of figurative language in order
to support his argument. Among his persuasive
techniques are the following:

 In his opening sentence, he mentions two potential

audiences – young people and older people. Although
later he mainly focuses on the young, his essay might also
profitably be read by their parents.
 His tone is that of an experienced person who knows what
he is talking about, probably from his own travels. After all,
he cites no learned authorities but gives his own advice.
 He shows the breadth of his experience and advice by
frequently using lists, so that he seems to know a lot and
seems to be comprehensive in his counsel.
 He is willing to criticize common practice (such as that
involving the keeping of diaries), thus showing his
independence of mind and his confidence in his own
advice.
 He offers very practical advice – advice that would truly be
useful to an inexperienced traveller. He thereby implies
that he has that traveller’s best interests at heart.
 Consider, for instance, the following quotation, in which
Bacon, speaking of the young traveller, says
Let him carry with him also, some card or book, describing
the country where he travelleth; which will be a good key
to his inquiry.
 He focuses on the matter at hand rather than on himself;
his advice seems rooted in personal experience, but he
does not make himself the true topic of the essay.
 His advice is efficiently presented (the essay is brief; the
lists make it highly economical).
 He is methodical, seeming to have thought of (and already
answered) many potential questions, and moving through
his ideas in a very logical manner.
 His style is accessible; almost anyone can read this essay,
understand it, and profit from it.
 Near the end of the essay, Bacon shows a practical
concern for how the young traveller should present himself
to his countrymen when he returns from abroad. Once
again, Bacon seems to have anticipated a question and
seems to have the young traveller’s best interests and
reputation at heart in highly prudent ways.
Figurative language does not seem to be especially
strongly used in this essay, perhaps because the focus of
the essay is so plainly practical. Bacon here seems more
interested in offering a “how-to” manual than in exploring
the riches of language and style. Nevertheless, a few
figures of speech are used. In particular, Bacon uses
metaphors, as when he says that if a traveller visits a
foreign country
before he hath some entrance into the language,
[he] goeth to school, and not to travel.
Another metaphor appears when Bacon says that if young
men travel without knowing what to visit and observe they
“go hooded.” Other metaphors appear in the references to
a “little room,” an “entrance,” and, especially to a great
“adamant,” or magnet. Finally, one last memorable
metaphor occurs when Bacon compares travel to
“prick[ing] in some flowers.”

Thematic Analysis
Sir Roger de Coverley, a member of the Spectator Club, is a character
made up by Richard Steele. Even though de Coverley's a fictional
character, he represents a certain class of English gentleman.
Richard de Coverley is just one of a group of characters that make up
the club, and Steele depicts them all in order to comment on English
society as a whole—or at least its upper class. It's one example of
how Augustan writers used fiction to make political and social
statements about what was going on around them.

The Spectator Club Character Analysis

Who were the members of The Spectator club?
The Spectator (1711-1712 and 1714) was a weekly
magazine written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele
which followed an earlier weekly magazine, also written by
Addison and Steele, called “The Tatler” While The
Tatler was designed, chiefly by Steele, to discuss moral
issues in light, somewhat gentle and humorous
essays, The Spectator focused more consistently on
political, philosophical, religious and literary issues, for the
most part from what we would now call a liberal
perspective (in the 18thC., the Whigs) as opposed to the
more conservative political party, the Tories. Despite the
political focus, however, the characters who form the
Spectator Club are not viciously satirized--rather, like the
essays in The Tatler, the satire is relatively mild but, from
a political perspective, pointed enough so that readers
understood that Tories should not be running the
government.

The most memorable member of the club is Sir Roger de

Coverley, a confused member of the landed gentry whose
political, philosophical and religious ideas are about a
hundered years behind the times. He represents Addison
and Steele's version of the typical Tory of the mid-18thC.--
too conservative, old-fashioned, clinging to outmoded
moral beliefs, unsympathetic to the plight of the comman
man, blissfully unaware of economic and social changes in
society.

The remainder of the club members included Mr.

Spectator, who gave opinions on many issues (for
example, politics, education, morality, literature); the
Templar--all things related to education, legal matters and
literature; Will Honeycomb--social life, including
fashion; the Clergyman--religion and moral issues; Sir
Andrew Freeport--business and economic matters (he was
the opposite of Sir Roger); and Captain Sentry--military
matters. In short, some member of the club could and
would discuss virtually every meaningful aspect of 18thC.
British society.

From a literary perspective, the significance of The

Spectator is that Addison, who wrote most of the essays,
perfected the essay as a way to discuss important social,
political, and religious issues in what Dr. Johnson called
the "middle style," aimed at an educated but not scholarly
readership.

SUMMARY

The styles of Addison and Steele were actuated, to a great

extent, by the temper of the times. After 1688 the middle class
in England rose to positions of power in the state and made
its influence felt among all classes, Merchants, financiers, and
statesmen became -more cultured and had much time for
leisure. The new era aimed at compromise between the
aristocratic temper of moral freedom of the Restoration period
and the Puritan spirit, which the excesses of the
commonwealth had brought into repute; it was the task of
Addison and Steele to reconcile the opposite tendencies. This
task was effected psychologically through the stylistic genius
of the competent essayists, who through their personal
distinction and delicate tact were able to bring about
synthesis.
Middle class patrons frequented the coffeehouses with other
members of London society, and it was there that public
opinion was formed and to the coffee house group that
successful writer must make his appeal. Early eighteenth
century literature, to certain extent, was reactionary to the
coarse, licentious literature, of the preceding period; the works
were extra ordinarily chaste in expression and highly polished;
the classical school demanded restraint and correctness and
was generally inspired by Latin review of the writings of the
period shows fondness for moralism and an undisguised
didactic trend. In the main, the styles utilized by Addison and
Steele were in accord with literary trends. Various classes
found equal enjoyment in the Spectator, for there is the
polished speech, conventional restraint, philosophic
reasoning, and classical influence of Addison that appealed to
the refined classic taste of all England; there is the sentiment,
family affection, and homely expression of Steele that brought
the simple joys of sadness, regret, and memory to people that
for generations had known only empty chivalry, cynicism, and
libertinage.

What is the significance of the opening

scene of Macbeth?
In the opening scene of the play, the Three Witches
discuss where and when they will meet again. They
decide to meet in an open field after a certain battle takes
place, where they plan on meeting Macbeth. In the last
lines of the scene, The Witches recite the saying, "Fair is
foul, and foul is fair Hover through the fog and filthy air"
(Shakespeare, 1.1.12-13). The opening scene not only
sets the tone of the play but also characterizes the witches
and introduces a recurring motif. The audience
immediately realizes that the Three Witches have a
capacity for evil and will possibly
manipulate Macbeth following an unspecified battle. Their
statement that "Fair is foul, and foul is fair" indicates that
appearances will be deceiving throughout the play. This
motif will be repeated and remind the audience that
characters, situations, and prophecies are often
misleading. Also, the stormy weather creates an ominous,
foreboding Atmosphere, which again associates the
witches with evil deeds. By the end of the opening scene,
the audience is conditioned to expect the unexpected and
to view the witches with suspicion.

What is the significance of the porter's

scene of Act 2 Scene 3 in Macbeth?
The porter keeps talking about Hell and Beelzebub and
things like that. He talks about the kinds of people who
might knock for admittance into Hell and compares himself
to the gatekeeper of Hell.

This implies that the castle (Inverness) is Hell and that

really bad things happen there. Of course, he is right --
Duncan has already been killed here (although he does
not know it yet).

In addition, this implies that MAcbeth is the ruler of Hell. It

implies that Macbeth's rule will turn Scotland into a hell as
well.

Discuss the dramatic significance of Act 2,

Scene 3 ("the porter scene") in Macbeth.
Knock, knock! Who's there, in the other devil's
name? Faith, here's an equivocator, that could
swear in both the scales against either scale;
who committed treason enough for God's sake,
yet could not equivocate to heaven: O, come in,
equivocator.
Many will tell you that the Porter scene is Comic Relief,
but they are wrong. His language and actions may seem
comical by today's audience, but to Elizabethans (at least
the educated ones), his performance is grotesque, and his
language is not unlike the devil's.

First of all, the most heinous crime in all of Elizabethan

England or in any Medieval honor culture is to kill a
king. Regicide is akin to killing God. Duncan's murder is
not shown on stage for a reason.

Next, the knocking on the door parallels the

sound Imagery from the scene before, with the
bell. Macduff is the hero of the play. He was born not of
woman (like virgin birth). He sacrifices his family for the
salvation of the country. He is a Christ-figure, and his
knocking is a Foreshadowing of the salvation to come.

I think the Porter's speech is grotesque, rather than

comic. Some critics think he's the devil. All would agree
that Macbeth's castle has become a hell, so who else
would guard its gates?

The Porter also talks of equivocations (half-truths,

paradoxes), like The Witches. The Devil is the great
equivocator: he seduces with lies and false promises. He
tempted Christ with "Man shall not live with bread alone"
and Eve with "You shall not surely die."

Equivocal morality frightened Elizabethans, almost as

much as regicide. To blur the lines of good and evil was a
great fear. We have all seen what moral relativism has
done to the power of the church and the slackening of
traditional moral values. It was indeed a death knell to
Christian theology and opened the door of the occult
philosophy that was prevalent in the day.

Dramatic Irony In Macbeth Act 3

Find three examples of dramatic irony in Act 3, Scene 4,
and explain their purpose.
The first example of dramatic irony occurs when Macbeth,
on being invited to take his seat at the banquet table by
Lennox, declares that 'The table's full.' At this point, he
does not seem to have fully identified the one who is
occupying his seat and when, once again, he is told that
there is a place reserved for him, asks, 'Where?'

Lennox points at his seat and it is at this point

that Macbeth recognizes the specter occupying his
seat as Banquo’s ghost. The others cannot see what
he sees. He is visibly shaken, which provokes Lennox into
asking what it is that is affecting him. Macbeth, who is now
clearly upset by the appearance of Banquo's ghost,
demands to know who it is that is playing a trick on him.
The lords' reply is a clear indication that they do not know
what he is talking about.

Macbeth then proceeds to address the ghost directly. The

dramatic irony lies in the fact that only we, the
audience, and Macbeth know that Banquo has been
murdered and that his ghost is there to haunt his
assassin (Macbeth). None of the others at the banquet
table have any idea about Banquo's fate and believe
him to be still alive.

Ross believes that his king is ill and asks the other lords to
rise so that he might be excused. Macbeth intervenes and
asks them to sit. She explains that her husband is having
a momentary fit and that if they react to his condition, it will
worsen. She addresses him directly and questions his
manliness. Macbeth replies that he is man enough to face
any challenge, fit enough to face anything that might
frighten even the devil.

Lady Macbeth accuses her husband of being a fearful

coward who sees things which are not there, just as he
had previously seen a nonexistent dagger. The dramatic
irony finds emphasis in the fact that she, unlike her
husband and the audience, cannot see the ghost.

When the ghost disappears, Macbeth regains some of his

composure and goes to take his seat at the table. He then
states, in part, the following:
...I drink to the general joy o' the whole table,
And to our dear friend Banquo, whom we miss;
Would he were here! to all, and him, we thirst,
And all to all.
It is dramatically ironic that he should drink a toast to
Banquo, when he and the audience know that Banquo
has been murdered, since one of the assassins he had
hired to kill Banquo had reported on the success of
their malicious venture. When Banquo's ghost
reappears, Macbeth loses all civility and shouts at the
spirit, commanding it to leave. The lords are obviously
confused and concerned about their king's
uncharacteristic behavior. Lady Macbeth, however, tries to
set their minds at ease by explaining that Macbeth's
condition is a customary affliction and that they should not
be too concerned. This statement adds to the irony since
the audience knows the real reason for Macbeth's
reaction—the gory sight of Banquo's blood-drenched spirit.

Macbeth addresses the ghost once more and the lords,

who do not know what he is about, can only stare and
wonder at his craziness. When the ghost finally vanishes,
Macbeth declares that he is a man again. Lady Macbeth
intervenes and asks the gentlemen to leave, which they
do. Macbeth then declares that it seems as if the ghost
was there to have its revenge.

It will have blood; they say, blood will have blood:

In Macbeth Act 1, Scene 3, what is an
example of dramatic irony?
The reader knows that The Witches are going to mess
with Macbeth but Macbeth does not.

Dramatic irony occurs when the reader or audience knows

something that the characters do not. In this case, the
witches are discussing how they will mess with
Macbeth. The audience or reader knows what will
happen, but Macbeth does not.

In the beginning of the scene, the Weird Sisters describe

their actions as witches and how they are going to mess
with Macbeth.

I will drain him dry as hay:

Sleep shall neither night nor day
Hang upon his pent-house lid;
He shall live a man forbid:
Weary se'nnights nine times nine
Shall he dwindle, peak and pine:
Though his bark cannot be lost,
Yet it shall be tempest-tost. (Act 1, Scene 3)
Macbeth has no idea what is going to happen. He
encounters the witches and takes their prophecies very
seriously, although Banquo is skeptical. He also worries
about Macbeth’s reaction. While Banquo is inclined to
think the whole thing silly, Macbeth seems highly affected
by the witches and their predictions.
Good sir, why do you start; and seem to fear
Things that do sound so fair? I' the name of truth,
Are ye fantastical, or that indeed
Which outwardly ye show? My noble partner
You greet with present grace and great prediction
Of noble having and of royal hope … (Act 1, Scene 3)
The witches make three predictions. They predict that
Macbeth will be Thane of Cawdor and that he will be
king. They also predict that Banquo’s sons will be
king. These predictions have a great effect on
Macbeth. When he finds out that he is not named
King Duncan’s heir, Macbeth has a strong reaction.

The Prince of Cumberland! that is a step

On which I must fall down, or else o'erleap,
For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your fires;
Let not light see my black and deep desires ... (Act 1,
Scene 4)
In this aside, he comments that he is ambitious and
desires to be king. This is both Foreshadowing and
another example of dramatic irony, because the reader
knows that Macbeth is going to kill to get what he wants,
but Duncan has no idea. He willingly goes to Macbeth’s
castle.

What is the significance of the sleepwalking

scene in Macbeth?
In act five, scene one, Lady Macbeth is shown
sleepwalking throughout the castle, maniacally attempting
to clean her hands while having a conversation with
herself about Duncan's murder. This scene is significant
because it depicts Lady Macbeth's guilt and her
subsequent insanity after plotting King Duncan's
assassination. Initially, Lady Macbeth is depicted as an
ambitious, callous mastermind, who feels no regret for
convincing her husband to murder the king.

Summary[
The sleepwalking scene opens with a conference between two characters
making their first appearances, the Doctor of Physic and the Waiting-
Gentlewoman. The Gentlewoman indicates Lady Macbeth has walked in her
sleep. She will not report to the Doctor anything Lady Macbeth has spoken in her
somnambulistic state, having no witness to confirm her testimony.
Carrying a taper (candlestick), Lady Macbeth enters sleepwalking. The Doctor
and the Gentlewoman stand aside to observe. The Doctor asks how Lady
Macbeth came to have the light. The Gentlewoman replies she has ordered a
light be beside her at all times (she is now afraid of the dark, having committed
her crimes under its cover). Lady Macbeth rubs her hands in a washing motion.
With anguish, she recalls the deaths of King Duncan, Lady Macduff and Banquo
then leaves. The Gentlewoman and the bewildered Doctor exeunt, realizing
these are the symptoms of a guilt-ridden mind. The Doctor feels Lady Macbeth is
beyond his help, saying she has more need of "the divine than the physician". He
orders the Gentlewoman to remove from Lady Macbeth the "means of all
annoyance", anticipating she might commit suicide. Despite his warning, the
audience are informed she does commit suicide off-stage.

Fair is Foul And Foul is Fair:

Though it first appears in the beginning in the twelfth line of Act I, Scene I,
uttered by witches as “Fair is foul, foul is fair,” it lasts throughout the story with
recurring themes of evil doing, and deception in the name of equivocation,
ambition, and good. The meaning of this line is that though events, things, and
people may seem good or bad; after careful examination, they turn out to be
the opposite.

 Paradox: The phrase employs a paradox, as it foreshadows the

deception of Macbeth, in that the prophecies of witches might lead him
to greatness, but they would destroy him instead.
 Symbolism: The witches are symbolic of foul, but give fair advice, and
Macbeth outwardly appears to be a hero but inwardly he is a coward
and a plotter.
 Consonance: It is a very good use of consonance “f”, as fair, foul, foul,
fair shows mastery of the playwright.

Macbeth Themes
theme is an overarching idea present in a literary piece. Themes in Macbeth,
another masterpiece of Shakespeare, are aplenty. Not only does it present
excessive ambition, but also shows the works of supernatural being, violence
and betrayal. Some of the major Macbeth themes are discussed below.

Examples of Themes in Macbeth

Theme #1

Ambition

Ambition is one of the major themes in the play Macbeth. In fact, ambition is
also one of the themes of Julius Caesar, but Macbeth shows excessive
ambition and its working. Macbeth, though not overambitious in the beginning,
becomes ambitious when he hears prophecies of the witches that he would
become the king. This bait works more on his wife Lady Macbeth than on him.
Macbeth’s ambition grows so strong that he lets his vicious side of killing free
to kill not only the king but whoever comes his way. His end shows that
excessive ambition sometimes take humanity out of a person.

Theme #2

Supernatural Equivocation

The working of supernatural beings is another overarching theme of Macbeth.

Three witches play an important role to awaken the ambition of Macbeth to
become the king. The witches, once predicted that Macbeth will be the king,
keep an eye on the events. They weave a spell through different ingredients
and lead to Macbeth’s downfall. Since everything has ensued from the
incantation of the witches, it could be stated that supernatural equivocation is
one of the major themes in this play.

Theme #3

Betrayal and Treachery

As soon as Macbeth hears prophecy of his becoming the king from the
witches, he starts thinking about ways to get to the position. This instigates
treacherous thoughts in him. He plans to kill the king at the inciting of his wife
Lady Macbeth, who joins him without feeling any qualm for the king or others.
The betrayal in Macbeth lies in treachery of Macbeth. Duncan is not only his
king, but also a kinsman and friend. Therefore, this betrayal is another
significant theme of the play.

Theme #4

Crime

The theme of crime in Macbeth is not only prominent but also very glaring.
There is a crime of murder, a crime of rebellion and a crime of treason. The
first crime of murder is a universal crime that Macbeth commits against his
relative and king, Duncan. The second crimes are state crimes Macbeth
commits with the cooperation of his wife. By the end, he realizes that his
crimes are too heavy to win atonement for him.

Theme #5

Violence and Consequences

As soon as the play opens, the witches meet in murky air, a condition that
gives birth to violent events. Macbeth hears prophecy and plans to kill
Duncan. Lady Macbeth, his wife too hears the same thing and joins him.
When Duncan visits Macbeth, both husband and wife plans to kill him and
succeeds in their plan. This leads to a vicious cycle of violence with the killing
of guards as well as a protracted attack of others on Macbeth. However, it
does not mean that violence is the only theme; it is just part of the larger
thematic purpose.
Theme #6

conflict of Good and Evil

The conflict of good and evil starts as soon as Macbeth harbors the thought of
becoming the king. He becomes ambitious due to the prophecy of the witches
which is the start of evil. This evil, once unleashed, refuses to be bottled up.
This leads to murders, conspiracies and manipulations in the whole kingdom
in which king, guards and many others are killed. The good prevails by the
end when Macbeth faces defeat. Banquo, Malcom and Donalbain too are
shown in good light, representing good along with Duncan. Therefore, the
theme of the conflict between good and evil runs deep in the play with the
resultant deaths various good and bad people.

Theme #7

Conflict between Loyalty and Treachery

The first reaction of Macbeth after hearing the prophecy is that of disbelief and
shock. He does not and cannot think of betraying his beloved king. However,
a second thought of becoming the king starts treacherous musings. This leads
to conspiracy and consequential killings. Lady Macbeth also harbors loyal
thoughts but when she sees herself a queen, she starts taking part in the
conspiracy and weaving new plots. This leads to a conflict in the minds and on
the scene which eventually ends with a lot of bloodshed. This conflict rather
becomes a secondary theme after conflict of good and evil.

Theme #8

Meaninglessness of Life

Although this not the major theme of the play and not even overarching, it
shows that meaninglessness of life is a thematic strand. It appears within the
play at two places; once when the Lady Macbeth loses her mental balance,
and other when Macbeth faces death in the shape of advancing attack of
Macduff and Malcolm. This is the point where he comes to the conclusion that
life does not signify anything and that it is just a story told by an idiot.

Theme #9

Statecrafts
Another overarching but implicit thematic strand is that of the statecraft. It is
said that politics has no heart, and it seems true in the case of Macbeth.
Macbeth is not only relative of Duncan, the King, but also his subordinate and
loyal Thane. However, when it comes to ambition in politics, he mercilessly
orders his killing and that of his guards and children. This happens in the
statecraft which is a field of conspiracies, treacheries and treasons.

Theme #10

Trust and Distrust

The theme of trust and distrust also looms large in the background of
Macbeth’s ambition and treachery. Malcom and Donalbain expresses deep
doubts and misgivings over other people when they see that conspiracies are
being hatched to kill them, too. After the murder of their father and Banquo,
they have lost trust and faith in every body near and dear to them. Although
this theme could be analyzed on personal level, it is present on state level as
shown from the first scene of Macbeth to the last scene where Macbeth feels
that he has been deceived by the witches.

Macbeth Characters
Characters are people presented in a literary piece to explain an overarching theme or
idea of the writer. They sometime become mouthpieces of authors, while at other
times, take their own personalities on account of specific features. famous characters
of Macbeth have become memorable and living characters such as Lady Macbeth and
Banquo. Some of the memorable characters are discussed below.

Characters in Macbeth
Character #1

Macbeth, Thane of Glamis

A general in the Scottish army and the Thane of Glamis in Scotland, Macbeth is the
most memorable character in Macbeth. A valiant and powerful soldier, Macbeth is in
the inner circle of King Duncan and a very loyal relative. Besides a general, friend
and thane, he is also a loving husband. However, he falls prey to two wicked things;
the prophecies of the witches and the urgings of his wife. Once he starts thinking of
the prophecies of becoming the king and taking hold of the state, he becomes
obsessed with this thought. Lady Macbeth adds fuel to the fire by instigating him
further. Imaginatively, he is a powerful person who can imagine of killing and then
executing it. However, his weakness lies in the fact that he is a weak-minded person
who could be easily swayed by predictions of the witches and urgings of his wife. He
faces his death at the hands of the invading army led by Malcolm by the end. It is
because of his crimes of assassinations, treachery and betrayals.

Character #2

King Duncan

King Duncan is a generous king of Scotland. He is also a relative to Macbeth, as his

resemblance to Lady Macbeth’s father show it. He is not only kind but also very
trusting fellow but is also ready to punish his opponents. In the play, his role is very
limited. He has announced rewards for Macbeth and Banquo and nominated Malcolm
as his heir. Macbeth stabs him during sleep when he visits him and tries to occupy the
throne himself.

Character #3

Lady Macbeth

Lady Macbeth is among one of the memorable characters among the Shakespearean
characters. She has the ruthlessness of a criminal as well as the heart of a child. It is
she who has pushed Macbeth to kill the king. Whenever Macbeth has some
misgivings, she chides him. She urges him to awaken his manliness. However, by the
end she becomes mentally so weak that she suffers from sleepwalk and depression.
She commits suicide by the end showing she could not bear the enormity of the crime.
She has used memorable words and phrases such as “inform of purpose” when
referring to weakness of Macbeth and “Unsex me here” referring to her own firm
resolve.

Character #4

Malcolm and Donalbain

Malcolm and Donalbain are sons of King Duncan. When King Duncan visits
Macbeth, he is assassinated. Macduff, a noble from Scotland, discovers his body and
sounds the alarm where Malcolm and Donalbain first appear. When they try to talk to
each other, they sense dangers and immediately decide to flee. Donalbain, the wise
one, advises Malcolm to escape. Malcolm tells Donalbain to flee to England, while he
himself would be heading to Ireland. He tells his brother that “There’s daggers in
men’s smiles” and leave the scene. Both of them appear by the end when Macbeth is
facing a huge army led by Malcolm.

Character #5

Banquo, Thane of Lochaber

Banquo is another general in the Scottish Army. He is a Thane of Lochaber. He is a

close friend of Macbeth and an ally of King Duncan. He is with Macbeth when they
first meet three witches but they predict that Banquo’s descendants will be the king
and not Banquo himself. Macbeth later gets him killed through his assassins while his
son, Fleance, succeeds in escaping from the scene. Banquo’s ghost causes Macbeth to
raise an alarm during a festivity. His character is significant in that he realizes
Macbeth the enormity of his crime.

Character #6

Macduff, Thane of Fife

Although a minor character, role of Macduff is critical in Macbeth. He proves

his antagonist. He doubts Macbeth’s role in the assassination of the king very early.
He becomes a threat to Macbeth so much so that the three witches warn Macbeth of
this threat with the name of Macduff as “Beware Macduff.” It is also interesting to
note that Macbeth confronts him in the last scene when he invades his castle. He kills
Macbeth and presents his head to Malcolm, the son of King Duncan and next heir to
the throne.

Character #7

Siward, Earl of Northumerland

He is a great soldier in the army of the King of England. He appears in the final scene
with Malcolm, leading the army to attack the castle to kill Macbeth. He is also a blood
relative of the King Duncan and uncle of Malcolm. He is a brave fellow who receives
the news of his son’s death in the final battle with reticence.

Character #8

Three Witches, the Weird Sisters

Three witches, or as they are called weird sisters, are three supernatural characters in
Macbeth. They play an important role in the killings and violence. They open the play
with their incantation of “hurly burly” and their prediction of Macbeth killed by a man
not born of woman ends the play. They are important in that the part of the play,
where killing takes place, depends on them.

Character #9

Ross, Macbeth’s Cousin

Ross is a noble man of Scotland. Although his character is not significant for the main
events of the play, he is important in exposing Macbeth’s treachery and betrayal. He
appears in the first scene to announce the victory of Macbeth and then conveys the
King’s pleasure to Macbeth. He says with Macbeth but when comes to know the
murder of the King, he turns against him and joins Malcolm and English forces.

Character #10

Lady Macduff, Macduff’s Wife

Although a minor character, Lady Macduff is the wife of Macduff, the Thane of Fife.
She appears for a very short time with her son but is immediately murdered. This
innocent murder of Lady Macduff causes pity in the audience and hatred for Macbeth.
She is the unfortunate mother who tries to cry out to save her son but is murdered in
this effort.

Literary Analysis of Pound of Flesh

The themes or central ideas of this phrase include revenge, justice, and mercy. This
phrase is a figurative method of expressing a spiteful penalty or a harsh demand – the
consequences of non-payment on a distressed bargain. However, the usurer Shylock
asks for a real pound of flesh as security when merchant Antonio comes and borrows
money.

Though it is clever marketing, it is false advertising too. Antonio accepts the brutal
terms of Shylock, but he is aware of the fact that Shylock despises him. Ultimately,
Antonio is forced to default, while the usurer refuses the merchant’s beg for mercy.
Dressed as a famous judge, and an indirect beneficiary of Antonio, Portia takes a letter
of bond on insistence of Shylock and brings an absurd conclusion. She maintains that
the bond specifies a pound of flesh but “no jot of blood.”

Literary Devices
  Symbolism: Flesh is a symbolism of revenge and inflexibility.
 Tone: The tone of this phrase seems to be vengeance.

https://literarydevices.net/

What is the significance of the ring which

Portia gives to Bassanio in
Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice?
The ring in Shakespeare's The Mechant of Venice has great significance
between Portia and Bassanio because it is a symbol of their marriage.
Portia gives Bassanio the ring along with her vows and her inheritance.
This is a big deal because Bassanio is in great debt to Antonio and is
pretty much financially destitute without Portia's wealth that he acquires
through the marriage. Fortunately, Portia and Bassanio do love each
other, so it is also a symbol of love, not merely a financial union or
business contract. Portia says that she gives all of her wealth to her new
husband and the symbol of which is the ring itself: "I give them with this
ring;/ Which when you part from, lose or give away,/ Let it presage the
ruin of your love,/ And be my vantage to exclaim on you"(III.ii.175-178).
Summarily, Portia is saying that if he parts with the ring, it will bring ruin
to him and she will reclaim her wealth.

Bassanio readily agrees to Portia's terms because he does love her and
doesn't think that anything would come between him keeping the ring
safely on his hand. Hence, he vows, "But when this ring/ Parts from this
finger, then parts life from hence;/ O, then be bold to say, Bassanio's
dead"(III.ii.187-189). The irony comes, however, when Portia plays the
part of a young lawyer in the case between Shylock and Antonio
(Bassanio's friend and financier) when she asks Bassanio for the ring as
payment for saving Antonio's life. Basssanio wrestles with the decision
greatly, but Portia manipulates the situation so much that he gives in and
gives the ring away as payment and appreciation for Antonio. Luckily,
Portia understands later how unfair she was in the situation and doesn't
hold it against Bassanio when he explains what he had done with the
ring. In fact, she reinstates the ring to him and all have a pretty good
laugh over it.
How does Bassanio win Portia's heart in
Shakespeare's The Merchant Of Venice?
The play does not present any specific reason as to why Portia fell in
love with Bassanio, but we can gauge from what the charactyers say
that she had a particular affection for him. Bassanio, in Act 1, scene 1,
for example, has this to say about her as far as her feelings go, when he
approaches Antonio for a loan:

In Belmont is a lady richly left;...

...sometimes from her eyes
I did receive fair speechless messages:
Her name is Portia,...
He states that he was encouraged by the looks Portia gave him. She
gave him a clear indication that she liked him by looking at him in an
affectionate and appreciative manner.

Later, in scene 2, Portia and Nerissa, her hand-maiden, also make

positive references to Bassanio:

NERISSA
Do you not remember, lady, in your father's time, a
Venetian, a scholar and a soldier, that came hither
in company of the Marquis of Montferrat?

PORTIA
Yes, yes, it was Bassanio; as I think, he was so called.

NERISSA
True, madam: he, of all the men that ever my foolish
eyes looked upon, was the best deserving a fair lady.

PORTIA
I remember him well, and I remember him worthy of
thy praise.
Portia supports Nerissa's positive appraisal of Bassanio in that he was
the most deserving of a fair lady, thus confirming her fondness for him.

When Bassanio arrives at Belmont to try his hand at choosing the right
casket, her statements to him during their conversation serve as an
affirmation of her love. She says, in part, the following in Act 3, scene 2:

I pray you, tarry: pause a day or two

Before you hazard; for, in choosing wrong,
I lose your company: therefore forbear awhile.
There's something tells me, but it is not love,
I would not lose you; and you know yourself,
Hate counsels not in such a quality.
Portia beseeches Bassanio that he should not rush into choosing since
she does not want to lose his company too quickly if he should make the
wrong choice. She does not want to lose him so quickly. She further
expresses her love for him by saying that she could give him guidance
about which casket to choose, but that she had made an oath and would
then have to relinquish everything since her father's will forbids her from
providing a suitor any help.

She also confirms that half of what is hers is also his, but that it would
mean nothing if he should choose wrong. Portia's anxiety is clear. She
says that fate should suffer the consequences of Bassanio making a
wrong choice, not her. She acknowledges that she is speaking too much
but that it is just an attempt to retain Bassanio's company before he
makes a choice. These are clearly the expressions of one in love.

As Bassanio prepares to make his choice, Portia asks him to confess his
love for her since he has declared that he is in torment, for he fears that
he might not enjoy her love. He then states that his entire confession is
the sum of his love. Portia then expresses the depth of her love just
before Bassanio chooses a casket by saying:

...Go, Hercules!
Live thou, I live: with much, much more dismay
I view the fight than thou that makest the fray.
She compares Bassanio to Hercules who is about to enter battle and
states that she will suffer more in watching the battle than he who is
actually involved in the fight. The exaggeration emphasizes her passion
for Bassanio.

When Bassanio chooses the right casket, Portia is obviously happy and
she expresses her joy to surrender to Bassanio's guidance and teaching.
She states, towards the end of her speech:

Myself and what is mine to you and yours

Is now converted: but now I was the lord
Of this fair mansion, master of my servants,
Queen o'er myself: and even now, but now,
This house, these servants and this same myself
Are yours, my lord:
It is clear that Portia loves Bassanio not for what he has done, but for the
fact that he is who he is. He did not have to do anything in particular to
win her affection. She probably loved him from the moment she first laid
eyes on him. One can assume that Bassanio, too, felt the same about
her.

In The Merchant of Venice, what are the

relationships between Portia and Nerissa
and Portia and Bassanio?
When we encounter Portia we discover that she is a wealthy heiress on
the cusp of inheriting her father's entire estate if she meets the terms of
his will - that she should marry the suitor who chooses the right casket.
She is constantly accompanied by Nerissa who is her lady-in-waiting and
also her closest confidante.

The close personal attachment between the two women is clearly

conveyed in the manner in which they communicate. Portia hardly sees
Nerissa as a servant but deems her a friend. She divulges and shares all
her thoughts, feelings, desires and frustrations with her. Their
relationship is obviously founded on a deep trust and respect for each
other. Furthermore, their bond is clearly the result of a long-standing
association which had been established when both were much younger.
The two appear to be of the same or a similar age and would thus
understand each other better, easing their conversation since they would
essentially be speaking 'the same language.'

Portia comfortably expresses her displeasure with the current line of

suitors to Nerissa, who encourages her mistress to speak openly and
freely. Nerissa obviously realises that Portia needs an outlet to vent her
frustrations and she becomes her 'shoulder to cry on.' Added to this is
also Portia's vexation about her father's will which she deems 'the will of
a living daughter curbed by the will of a dead father.' As a caring and
understanding friend, Nerissa avoids being too critical and advises Portia
to rather see the good in her father's determination.

The depth of the two girls' relationship is further illustrated by the fact
that Portia asks Nerissa to accompany her to Venice, in disguise, to act
in Antony's defence against Shylock's malicious demand. This is further
emphasised by the fact that Nerissa acts as her assistant during the trial
and both girls encounter a similar complication with regard to the rings
they had each given their husbands, with similar outcomes.

We learn of Bassanio's interest in Portia when he asks Antonio for

financial assistance to woo the wealthy heiress. Bassanio wishes to
stand an equal chance to win her hand but needs money to do so. He
tells Antonio:

In Belmont is a lady richly left;

And she is fair, and, fairer than that word,
Of wondrous virtues: sometimes from her eyes
I did receive fair speechless messages:
Her name is Portia, nothing undervalued
To Cato's daughter, Brutus' Portia:
Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth, ...
He is clearly infatuated with this lady 'of wondrous virtues.' He also
makes it clear that Portia has shown interest in him since she had given
him 'speechless messages' with her eyes. Portia must have given him
loving looks which have convinced him that he stands a good chance of
winning her hand.

When Bassanio arrives at Belmont, he is encouraged by Portia to

choose the right casket. She makes it pertinently clear that she desires
Bassanio and would stay his visit if she has to. She also mentions that
she would have advised him how to choose if it had not meant the
forfeiture of her inheritance. She intentionally wastes time in conversing
with him so that she may enjoy his company for longer because he might
just choose wrongly.

Bassanio expresses similar sentiments and states that he is tormented

by the idea of losing his love if he should make the wrong choice. He
expresses his love for Portia but wants to get done with the task of
choosing a casket so that his torment may cease. he, fortunately,
chooses the right chest and is soon married to his beloved. The wedding
is a rushed ceremony because he has just been informed about the
trouble Antonio is in.

Further evidence of Portia's love for him is found in the fact that not only
does she offer to settle Antonio's debt many times over, so that he may
be at peace, but also that she ventures to Venice, in disguise, to defend
Antonio. In the end, the two are united back at Belmont to enjoy their
nuptial pleasures and live a life of love and prosperity.

What is the importance of the trial scene in

The Merchant of Venice?
The trial is perhaps the most crucial scene in the play. In Act IV, Scene
I, Shylock demands the right to cut a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body.
The court’s decision determines Antonio’s fate. The duke appeals to
Shylock’s sense of compassion, to no avail. Shylock says he will stick to
his promise: “And by our holy Sabbath have I sworn / To have the due
and forfeit of my bond.” Antonio has willingly signed an agreement to
allow Shylock a pound of his flesh if he did not repay Shylock on time.

The duke believes there is nothing to be done. Bassanio attempts to

offer money, which Shylock refuses. Antonio’s friends hurl insults at
Shylock and cry for their friend, but Shylock does not yield. Portia,
disguised as a lawyer, arrives and describes to Shylock the wonders of
mercy: “it is twice blest; / It blesseth him that gives and him that takes.”
She declines to simply pardon Antonio because that will set a flawed
precedent.

Portia eventually manages to find a loophole in Shylock’s argument. The

bond does not make allowance for any blood to be spilled: “Shed thou
no blood, nor cut thou less nor more / But just a pound of flesh.” He has
insisted on his bond and therefore cannot legally back down. On top of
that, there is a law “against an alien” seeking “the life of any citizen,” on
pain of death and confiscation of his money. The duke forgives Shylock
of his life, and Antonio allows for Shylock to keep one half of his goods.
The condition is that his money goes to Shylock’s daughter and her
Christian husband after his death and that Shylock convert to
Christianity.

The scene concludes with the disguised Portia insisting that Bassanio
give her a ring as payment. This is the ring she gave Bassanio as his
wife and insisted he never remove. He eventually does so, which leads
to more teasing in the play’s conclusion. As you can see, the trial scene
affects everyone. Portia displays her intelligence and saves her
husband’s friend, Bassanio’s mind is set at ease (though his marriage
might be at risk), Antonio’s life is saved, and Shylock is threatened and
humiliated.

In The Merchant of Venice, what is the

importance of the trial scene and the role
played by Portia in the scene?
Antonio’s trial is the Climax of the play: having entered into a usury
agreement with Shylock on behalf of Bassanio, which he was unable to
repay, Antonio has been imprisoned. By the terms of the bond, Shylock
can claim a pound of Antonio’s flesh upon forfeiture. Shylock intends to
claim his heart, thereby killing Antonio.
Portia and her serving woman, Nerissa, disguise themselves as men to
intervene in the trial. Portia becomes Balthasar, a doctor of law, and
argues that Shylock ought to have mercy for Antonio. Her famous
speech begins,

The quality of mercy is not strain'd,

It droppeth, as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd

She goes on to extol the virtues of mercy: that it displays power better
than a crown ever could, that is is “an attribute to God himself,” that
salvation cannot come from justice but only from mercy. In doing so, of
course, she extols Christian values, which alienates Shylock as a Jew.
However, she rules in favor of Shylock: the bond is forfeit, and therefore
Shylock might claim his pound of flesh.

Why, this bond is forfeit;

And lawfully by this the Jew may claim
A pound of flesh, to be by him cut off
Nearest the merchant's heart.—Be merciful;
Take thrice thy money; bid me tear the bond.

But while she concedes that Shylock is owed his pound of flesh, by the
terms of the bond no blood has been allotted with it. Therefore, Shylock
cannot carve out his pound of flesh. Adding insult to injury, she rules
that:

If it be proved against an alien

That by direct or indirect attempts
He seek the life of any citizen,
The party 'gainst the which he doth contrive,
Shall seize one half his goods; the other half
Comes to the privy coffer of the state;
And the offender's life lies in the mercy
Of the duke only, 'gainst all other voice.

Thus, Shylock has fallen: from possessing the power to legally take his
enemy’s life to having his fortune confiscated and half given to that same
enemy. Portia denies Shylock the same mercy that she had urged him to
act upon, hypocritically; insult is added to injury when Antonio allows
Shylock to keep half his fortune if he names Lorenzo as his heir and
converts to Christianity. Shylock is humiliated and degraded, claiming
that:

You take my house when you do take the prop

That doth sustain my house; you take my life,
When you do take the means whereby I live.
The trial scene serves many purposes: one of the main storylines comes
to fruition as Shylock receives his downfall; Portia proves herself as
capable as any man; and Antonio is relieved of the bond. Portia’s role is
pivotal in this scene: without her intervention, Antonio would have died.
In saving Antonio, Portia's character is fleshed out: she has gone from a
woman trapped by her father's will to a woman more capable than any
man present in the courtroom. At the same time, she is revealed to be
hypocritical in her attitudes toward Shylock: she urges him to be merciful
yet is unmerciful herself.

Explain the role of Portia in The Merchant

of Venice.
Portia has two roles in this play. The first is to marry, the typical role for a
woman in her time period. This role shows just how constricted even a
wealthy woman's lot could be. Portia has no choice in who she marries,
as her controlling father has set up circumstances so that her future
husband must correctly choose one of three caskets in order to win
Portia's hand and fortune. She laments, no doubt articulating the woes of
many women at the time, "O me, the word 'choose!' I may neither
choose whom I would nor refuse whom I dislike."

But Portia is not the stereotypical passive woman, accepting her lot: she
knows she wants to marry Bassanio. Therefore, she sets it up so that
music plays to convey clues about which box he should pick.
Portia's other, more unconventional role, is to play a lawyer and
defend Antonio. Since a woman wasn't actually allowed to be a lawyer,
she disguises herself as a man—and does an admirable job defending
her client. Her famous speech, "The quality of mercy is not strained,"
merges the pathos—the appeal to emotions, to our better instincts—that
we associate with the stereotypically feminine and the intelligence we
associate with a man. She saves Antonio, and both Antonio and
Bassanio end up indebted to her. Could Shakespeare be suggesting
through Portia that the constricting roles his society imposed on women
don't make sense, and that women are capable of as much intelligence
and agency as men?

Theme of Merchant of Venice

William Shakespeare, the master of dramatics in the English literary tradition, has
incorporated certain unique themes in the play Merchant of Venice. The play is, to this
day, universally read, analyzed, critiqued and taught all over the world. Not only that,
the characters Antonio, Portia and even Shylock the Jew are widely acclaimed.

The Merchant of Venice is a play whose central theme can be identified as the conflict
between selflessness and self interest. This main theme drives the plot and moves the
play forward, influencing the action of the central characters. Other themes include
greed, the cyclic increase of hatred, mercy, prejudice and the opposites- playing versus
perception. This essay on Merchant of Venice is an analysis; themes that dominate this
play have been explored and explained.

The main theme of The Merchant of Venice is the conflict between self interest and
love. On the surface level, the major difference between Shylock the Jew and the
Christian characters of the play is their level of compassion. On one hand, the
Christians value the importance of human relationships over their business contacts.
Unlike them, on the other hand, Shylock is heavily invested in material gain.

However, Shylock is agonized over his loss of money, reportedly running through the
streets lamenting for them. He even goes as far as calling his ducats his daughter,
suggesting that he values money as much as his own child. Hence in Shylock’s case,
greed overpowers compassion. However, when we inspect closely, this difference
between the two opposite characters breaks down.

In Act III, Scene I, Shylock’s dissatisfaction is not due to the monetary loss of the ring,
rather the fact that his daughter sold the token of love from his dead wife. Hence, we
see that certain human relationships do seem to hold more importance in Shylock’s life
than money. We also see that Shylock makes a strange demand from Antonio- a pound
of his flesh in exchange of money. Hence, we can conclude that Shylock’s resentment
is much deeper rooted than his monetary greed.

Equally complicated is the case of the Christian characters of The Merchant of Venice.
One of the major Merchant of Venice themes being love versus money, we do see
some materialistic views in the apparently ‘good’ characters too. Even though Bassanio
and Portia grow to love each other, it was not the case of pure love initially.

Bassanio’s main motivation in asking her hand in marriage was due to his humungous
debt, and that he needed Portia’s money to clear it. After taking money from Antonio,
Bassanio insists that this act of lending him money was an investment on Antonio’s part.
Even though the latter likes to lend money solely out of a moral responsibility, Bassanio
seems eager to view their correspondence as a business matter. One of the highlights
of The Merchant of Venice themes was Shylock’s argument.

He eloquently states that Jews, just like Christians, are human beings. Antonio’s hate
for Shylock, the latter argues, is only because of his religious identity. Hence, even
though the Christians speak about mercy the most, in fact, they are showing prejudice
towards Shylock. Therefore, there is a constant conflict of the themes love and self
interest. Hence this is the central theme of The Merchant of Venice.

The divine nature of mercy is yet another one of the driving themes of the play. The
conflict between the Christians and Shylock reaches its peak over the issue of the
extent of mercy. Even though the law is in Shylock’s favour, which the Christian
characters also acknowledge, they still expect him to show mercy even though it means
the violation of the contract.

In a sense, Shylock too is right as he wants to remain true to the contract. During the
final trial, Shylock asks the disguised Portia what might possibly force him to become
merciful. Portia stresses that the quality of mercy is never strained, clarifying what
remains at stake in the argument. As God is merciful and it is an attribute of the
almighty himself, humans should also exhibit mercy. God’s power is greater than any
earthly power, law or majesty.

We can trace this understanding of mercy, as narrated by Portia, as the manner in

which the difference between the Old and New Testament was understood by the
Christians of Elizabethan period. ‘Old Testament God’ is the epitome of strict adherence
to regulations and divine rules, giving harsh punishment to the ones who go astray. On
the contrary, God’s attributes in the New Testament is heralded by human-like qualities
such as mercy; and the emphasis has shifted to the adherence of spirit.
Hence, the spirit of the law gets more precendence over the letter of the law. God is a
forgiver in the New Testament. Rather than outright punishment, God offers salvation to
those who want to be forgiven, actively seeking mercy. There was of course, strong
anti-Jewish and pro-Christian agenda concealed in Portia’s warning against pursuing
the law strictly.

Renaissance drama had it’s limitations, and thus, minorities like Shylock had to be
portrayed as a villain. Hence, his character was written to fit into the theme of good
versus evil. Shylock is therefore, unable to show compassion to his adversaries by
default. The audience of the sixteenth century would not expect a character like Shylock
to show any mercy, therefore, it was up to the Christian actors to play this role. Once
Portia successfully turned Shylock’s most powerful weapon- the law, against him, it
gave her the opportunity to exercise the mercy that she advocates so effectively. Yet,
she corners Shylock, strips him of the bond, his money, estate and dignity.

She is the one who forces him to kneel and beg. The question remains whether it was
right to return Shylock only half of his goods, taking away what might be more valuable
to him- his profession and religion. The characters force Shylock to convert, and thus
disable him from his moneylending profession.

Deadline for "Merchant of Venice"

paper is approaching?
According to Shylock, this was the reason behind Antonio’s behaviour such as taunting
and spitting on him in public. Hence, we see that it is self-interst that gives rise to this
act of mercy, not from his concern for the fellow man. Contrary to how Portia presents,
the play Merhant of Venice does not manage to incorporate mercy is such a sweet,
gracefull and selfless theme.

Accumulation of hatred is another one of the play’s main themes. Shylock claims
throughout that he is only applying whatever lessons he has learnt from his Christian
neighbours. This claim of his becomes an essential part of his argument during the trial
as well as his character. In his very first appearance, Shylock’s mission is revealed as
solely to mean harm to Antonio. However, this resentment of his is inspired by the
injuries and insults that Antonio subjected to him in the past.

One could argue that Antonio fully realizes his culpability in this situation when he was
nearly executed. When the trial ends, Antonio still remains unfair to Shylock, demanding
that he convert to their religion. However, he inflicts upon him no other punishment.
Other Christians such as Gratiano threaten Shylock; however, Antonio is no longer seen
kicking on spitting on Shylock. We can say that the Duke, as well as Antonio, puts an
end to this conflict by depriving it of the injustices it needs to fuel it.
A main theme we would like to discuss in this essay on Merchant of Venice is prejudice.
The prejudice runs deep and strong on both sides. The Christian side hates Shylock
vehemently just because of his Jewish beliefs. On the other hand, Shylock hates them
in return. However, the audience is given legitimate reasoning behind Shylock’s
behaviour and prejudice.

These reasons include their religious opposition to his profession of moneylending or

usury, persecution and hindrance to both his business and his self respect. The
Merchant of Venice also reveals how Shylock lives under a double standard and the
cruel nature of Christian hatred of Jews. Shylock, though expected to show mercy, is
not shown any in return from the dominating and ruling class of Christians in the play.

In the analysis, themes of money and materialism come under close scrutiny among
The Merchant of Venice themes. The importance of money to Christians has been
illustrated here. To most of the Christian characters, money is definitely of the most
importance even though Antonio is shown as a compassionate and humane merchant.
We observe that the metaphors of devotion and love are often cast in terms of money,
hence it is evident that even the value of human relationships. Even compassion and
love are seen as agreements on contract basis.

Finally, The Merchant of Venice is also replete with playing and perception as one of its
major themes. In the play, it is shown that appearances can be deceiving. In the three
casks trial, the cask that was the most ugly outwardly has the most rewarding interior.
This symbolizes the disconnect between appearance on the outside and character on
the inside.

This theme is however, somewhat contradictory to the question of perception and

prejudice among the characters of the play. Shylock’s famous utterance begs us to
question, does a Jew not have eyes, do the minorities not feel pain? He urges the
audience to delve further into his nature and motivations rather than ostracizing him as
Jewish and as a villain.

Is The Merchant of Venice a romantic

comedy? If so, why?
The Merchant of Venice is a romantic comedy. It is a comedy in the
broadest sense of the term: nobody dies and the play has a happy
ending. Though it can be dark at times, humorous moments punctuate
the play, such as when Portia and Nerissa, still in disguise as lawyer and
clerk, play a joke on their husbands in prevailing upon them to give up
the rings the men had promised never to relinquish.

It's a romance in the sense of its fairytale-tinged plot, in which the lovely
Portia must be wooed through her successful lover choosing the correct
one of three caskets, and even more so in that Bassanio is willing to risk
losing everything--"give and hazard all he hath"--to gain Portia's hand. If
he is interested in her dowry, he is more interested in her. He genuinely
loves her, calling her "fair" and of "wondrous virtue." In this play,
sacrificial love triumphs: the Prince of Morocco, who desires worldly
wealth, chooses the gold casket and does not win Portia, nor does the
Prince of Arragon, who believes he "deserves" Portia. It's Bassanio, who
willing accedes to the lead casket's demand that he risk all, who gains
his beloved.

The play is a romantic comedy too in that Portia and Nerissa, after
demanding their rings, admit to the joke they played, forgive, and
continue to love their husbands so that all ends happily and
harmoniously. Love in this play may be bounded by the pragmatic--and
that is part of the comedy--but it is love all the same.

How has Shakespeare interwoven the main

plot of The Merchant of Venice with the
subplots?
The main plot of Shakespeare's The Merchant Of Venice is the Antonio-
Bassanio-Shylock plot, in which the merchant Antonio borrows money
from the Jewish moneylender Shylock in order to fund Bassanio's
courtship. Along the way, Shylock convinces Antonio to agree to giving
him a pound of flesh if he can't pay back the loan. This plot is the main
focus of the story, but it also relies on two subplots to progress.

First of all, there is the subplot involving Portia, her suitors, and the three
caskets. In this subplot, a series of suitors try to guess the correct casket
and win the right to marry Portia, a rich heiress. This subplot is
interwoven with the main plot because Portia is the woman Bassanio
aims to woo, and so Antonio only borrows the money from Shylock in
order to help Bassanio fund his attempt to win the heiress of Belmont's
love.

Second, there is a subplot involving Lorenzo, a friend of Bassanio and

Antonio, and Jessica, Shylock's daughter. Lorenzo and Jessica elope,
enraging Shylock. This second subplot connects to the main plot
because, since Shylock is upset with Lorenzo for stealing away his
daughter, he's in a particularly foul mood, especially when it comes to
Lorenzo's friends, Antonio and Bassanio. Thus, when Antonio fails to
pay the loan, Shylock is only too happy to exact his revenge. Thus
begins the main climax of the story and the famous trial scene in which
Portia comes to Antonio's rescue.

Therefore, we can see that the main plot of the play relies on two
interwoven subplots to progress, and the ways in which Shakespeare
brings these seemingly diverse stories together is quite masterful.

Introduction
The problem play is a genre of drama that emerged amid the nineteenth
century as a major aspect of the more extensive development of
realism in human expressions, particularly taking after the
advancements of Henrik Ibsen.

It manages burning social issues through civil arguments between the

characters in front of an audience, who regularly speaks to clashing
perspectives inside a practical social setting.

According to Chris Baldick, this genre rose “from the ferment of the
1890s… for the most part inspired by the example of Ibsen’s
realistic stage representations of serious familial and social
conflicts”. He explained it as follows:
Rejecting the frivolity of intricately plotted romantic intrigues in the
nineteenth-century French tradition of the ‘well-made play’, it
favoured instead the form of the ‘problem play’, which would bring
to life some contemporary controversy of public importance—
women’s rights, unemployment, penal reform, class privilege—in a
vivid but responsibly accurate presentation. (Wikipedia)
F. S. Boas, a critic, used the term to describe certain plays by William
Shakespeare that he considered having attributes like Ibsen’s
nineteenth-century problem plays.
Accordingly, the term is likewise utilized all the more comprehensively
and reflectively to depict any tragicomic shows that don’t fit effortlessly
into the traditional nonspecific refinement amongst parody and
catastrophe.

Later commentators have utilized the term for different plays, like Timon
of Athens and The Merchant of Venice.

19th Century Problem Play

While social open deliberations in plays were just the same old thing
new, the problem play of the nineteenth century was recognized by its
expectation to stand up to the observer with the difficulties experienced
by the characters.

The most punctual types of the issue play are to be found in the work of
French essayists, for example, Alexandre Dumas, fils, who managed the
subject of prostitution in The Lady of the Camellias.

Other French dramatists took action accordingly with dramatizations

about scope of social issues, now and then moving toward the subject in
a moralistic, once in a while in a nostalgic way.

Pundit Thomas H. Dickinson, in 1927, said that these early problem

plays were hampered by the emotional traditions of the day, “No play
written in the problem form was significant beyond the value of the
idea that was its underlying motive for existence. No problem play
had achieved absolute beauty or a living contribution to truth.”
The most vital type of the problem play, be that as it may, was the
Norwegian essayist Henrik Ibsen, whose work joined entering
characterization with an accentuation on topical social issues, typically
focused on the ethical situations of a focal character.

In a progression of plays, Ibsen tended to a scope of issues, most

remarkably the limitation of ladies’ lives in A Doll’s House, sexually-
transmitted illness in Ghosts and common voracity in An Enemy of the
People.

Ibsen’s plays demonstrated monstrously persuasive, producing

variations of the problem play in works by George Bernard Shaw and
other later writers.

20th Century Problem Play

Problem Play was particularly persuasive in the mid-twentieth century. In
Britain plays, for example, Houghton’s Hindle Wakes, built up the genre
to move the way of the ‘problem’.
This “unfalteringly reasonable issue play set in residential insides
of the plant town Hindle” begins with the “problem” of an evidently
enticed lady, yet closes with the lady herself dismisses her status as a
casualty of temptation “the ‘problem’ is not, all things considered,
the reclamation of a sold-out lady’s discoloured respect, yet the
availability of her respectable older folks to decide a young lady’s
future for her without respect to her rights—including here her
entitlement to sensual occasion satisfaction.”
It was an apparatus of the communist theatre in the 30s, and covered
with types of narrative theatre it works, for example, Carl Crede’s
Paragraph 218, which concerns the issue of abortion, and which was
coordinated by Erwin Piscator.

Comedy of Manners

The comedy of manners is a genre of comedy that flourished on the

English stage during the Restoration period. Plays of this type are
typically set in the world of the upper class, and ridicule the pretensions
of those who consider themselves socially superior, deflating them
with satire. With witty dialogue and cleverly constructed scenarios,
comedies of manners comment on the standards and mores of society
and explore the relationships of the sexes. Marriage is a frequent
subject. Typically, there is little depth of characterization; instead, the
playwrights used stock character types—the fool, the schemer, the
hypocrite, the jealous husband, the interfering old parents—and
constructed plots with rapid twists in events, often precipitated by
miscommunications. The roots of the comedy of manners can be traced
back to Molière's seventeenth-century French comedies and to the
“humours” comedy of Ben Jonson; indeed, certain characteristics can be
found as far back in time as ancient Greek plays.

Critics agree that the masters of the comedy of manners were George
Etherege (1635-1692), William Wycherley (1640-1716), John Vanbrugh
(1664-1726), William Congreve (1670-1729), and George Farquhar
(1678-1707). Etherege's The Comical Revenge; or, Love in a Tub (1664)
and She Wou'd If She Cou'd (1668) are often seen as inaugurating the
genre of the comedy of manners, and his characters, including Sir
Frederick Frollick and Sir Fopling Flutter, were favorites with audiences
and became standard character types.