Lab 5 – Rock Groups and Rock Properties

Minerals and Rocks

Minerals are the fundamental solids that compose the crust and mantle of the Earth. In
the previous lab we saw that of the thousands of different minerals that have been identified,
only about twenty are common in the crust of the Earth. Rarely are these common minerals
found separately in great abundance. Instead, minerals tend to form and associate together in
aggregates called rocks. Most rocks are comprised of a mix of two or more minerals. Of the
twenty common minerals, ten compose the bulk of almost all rock on Earth. These ten “rock-
forming” minerals are quartz, k-feldspar, albite, labradorite, hornblende, augite, olivine, calcite,
clay, and mica (biotite and muscovite).

How many different kinds of rocks are there? This is difficult to define precisely. In
detail, any rock that forms at a particular place and time is unique and no two rocks are exactly
alike. However, similar geologic environments and conditions produce similar rocks that are
given the same name. Geologists who specialize in petrology (the study of rocks and rock
formation) recognize hundreds of different kinds of rock. Fortunately, many kinds of rock are
similar enough to share a general name and some kinds of rock are more common than others.
Therefore, as with minerals, to understand and appreciate the basic concepts of geology, we only
need to be able to identify about twenty different kinds of rock.

Why is it so important for geologists to be able to identify rocks? The answer to this
question is found in the fact that all rocks have a history of formation. The types and
associations of minerals found in a rock (mineral composition) and the size, shape, and
arrangements of the individual mineral grains and crystals of a rock (texture) are caused by how
and where the rock formed. In other words, particular geologic processes (for example, erosion,
volcanism, or burial) and conditions (such as temperature and pressure) combine to produce a
particular kind of rock. When a geologist identifies a rock, he or she is also identifying the
processes and conditions that created the rock. This is how we come to learn how the Earth
functions and evolves – by reading from the rocks the story of their formation. The great
importance that geologists attach to rock formation is revealed in the fact that the first question
any geologist asks about a rock is not “what is its name?” but rather, “what group of rock does it
belong to?”

Introduction to the Three Rock Groups

Geologists classify rocks into three major groups: (1) igneous; (2) sedimentary; and (3)
metamorphic. This classification reflects the fact that rocks form by three fundamentally
different processes. Igneous rocks form from the cooling and crystallization of minerals from a
molten state. Sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation of mineral grains or mineral
precipitates in layers at the surface of the Earth. Metamorphic rocks form when a pre-existing
rock is changed by exposure to high temperatures and / or pressures. Each of these processes
takes place in different places on and within the Earth and each records different kinds of
information within the rock. For example, igneous rock forms wherever there is enough heat in
the Earth to melt rock. Usually this occurs where tectonic plates are either moving apart or
colliding, but also where excess heat is escaping from the mantle. By identifying and studying
igneous rock we learn about how the Earth’s interior functions. Sedimentary rock forms as
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sediments (gravel, sand, mud, shell, and salts) accumulate on the Earth’s surface. Different
environments produce different mixtures of sediment, which often preserve the remains of plants
and animals as fossils. Geologists can reconstruct the environments and life that existed in the
Earth’s past from layers of sedimentary rock. Most metamorphic rock forms when tectonic
plates collide and mountains are pushed up as wrinkles in the Earth’s crust. Many geologists
study metamorphic rock to understand the process and history of mountain building on the Earth.

The objective of this two-week lab is to become proficient at rock identification and to
learn to distinguish among the three groups of rock - igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Your main task is to examine each of 20 unknown specimens and attempt to determine rock type
from the texture and mineral composition. For many people, the most challenging aspect of rock
identification is determining rock group. For example, it is easy to identify a dull, black rock as
a basalt if you already know you are dealing with an igneous rock. But there are also dull, black
sedimentary rocks (mudstones) and metamorphic rocks (slate). How do you determine to which
group a rock belongs before you have identified it? Although it may seem backward, we will
first examine the properties of each rock group individually before we attempt to distinguish one
group from another. After all, how can you hope to distinguish an igneous from a metamorphic
rock without first understanding the characteristics of each group?

Characteristics of the Different Rock Groups

Although there are fundamental differences between igneous, sedimentary, and

metamorphic rocks, all rocks share two basic properties – the have a well-defined mineral
composition and texture. Mineral composition describes the mix of minerals present in the rock
and their relative proportions. Most rocks are composed mainly of one or two primary
minerals, others may contain roughly equal amounts of several minerals. Additional minerals
that occur in a rock in small amounts are called accessory minerals. Texture describes how the
minerals appear in the rock in terms of the size, shape, and arrangement of the mineral crystals or
grains. Each group of rocks has its own characteristic suite of textures that develop because of
the different processes of rock formation.

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks form whenever molten rock cools enough that it freezes into solid crystals
of mineral. Molten rock beneath the surface of the Earth is called magma, which cools slowly to
form intrusive (“within other rock”) or plutonic (“deep in the Earth”) igneous rock. Magma can
also be erupted onto the surface of the Earth as lava, which freezes rapidly to form extrusive
(surface) igneous rock. Solid masses of igneous rock are found in a variety of distinctive shapes
and sizes (see Optional Exercise 5.1 at the end of Lab 5).

Mineral Composition
In igneous rocks, mineral composition is determined primarily by the location within the
Earth of the source of the magma. Magma derived from the upper mantle tends to produce rocks
that are rich in dark-colored, dense minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole. These
minerals form dark, dense mafic igneous rocks. Mafic magmas are usually erupted where plates
are diverging such as at the mid-ocean ridges or in East Africa where the continent is rifting.

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Mafic magma is also produced when the upper mantle melts over a hot spot, such as beneath the
island of Hawaii. Magma derived from the melting of continental crust tends to produce silica-
rich minerals such as quartz, K-feldspar, and albite. These minerals form light-colored, less
dense felsic igneous rocks. Magma that forms at subduction zones where plates are in collision
derives from the partial melting of upper mantle in the presence of water. This process produces
a magma that is intermediate in composition that freezes to form rock comprised of a mix of
both light minerals (e.g. albite) and dark minerals (e.g. amphibole, pyroxene). Intermediate
magma feeds the volcanoes of the Andes Mountains in South America where plates beneath the
Pacific Ocean are colliding with the western margin of the continent.

Igneous rocks include most of the common rock-forming minerals - quartz, feldspars,
pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. Accessory minerals include mica and magnetite. Igneous
rocks are always harder than glass due to their mineral composition. Table 4.1 illustrates the
mineral composition of common igneous rocks.

Texture
Igneous rock is almost always crystalline because it cools and solidifies from a melt. One
of the important parts of the cooling history of an igneous rock is the rate of cooling. Was
cooling fast (days to weeks) or slow (thousands to millions of years)? Cooling rate is directly
related to where the magma or lava is located in the Earth. Lava cools very rapidly at the surface
of the Earth, but magma located deep within the Earth cools very slowly. During slow cooling,
scattered large crystals can grow. During rapid cooling, many small crystals will grow. During
extreme chilling (such as occurs when lava is quenched in water or under glacial ice) no crystals
form at all and the result is a non-crystalline solid known as natural glass. Note that glass does
not have a mineral composition because all minerals are crystalline by definition. The molecular
structure of glass is more like a liquid than a solid and physicists often refer to glass as a “rigid
liquid”.

In addition to the rate of cooling, whether the cooling was uniform or non-uniform affects
the texture of the rock. If the cooling history was uniform, then the crystals in the rock will all
be of about the same size and the texture will be equigranular. If the cooling history was not
uniform, then the different crystals within the rock will have cooled at different rates and the
rock will have two populations of crystals of very different sizes. Such non-uniform textures in
igneous rocks are named porphyritic textures. In an igneous rock having a porphyritic texture,
the distinctly larger crystals are named phenocrysts and the smaller crystals are collectively
designated as the groundmass.

More than in any other group of rocks, texture in igneous rocks provides easily
interpretable information about how a particular rock has formed. To summarize: Phaneritic
rocks such as granite form from the slow cooling of magma deep within the Earth forming large,
visible crystals. Igneous rock that cools more rapidly at shallower depths within the Earth tends
to be composed of smaller crystals. Magma that erupts as lava and cools on the surface of the
Earth will have an aphanitic texture consisting of microscopic crystals. A porphyritic texture
indicates a magma that initially began cooling slowly, but that later was erupted and cooled
rapidly. Glassy igneous rocks form from silica-rich lavas that are rapidly chilled at the surface.
Gas-rich lavas result in a vesicular aphanitic texture.

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Textures in Igneous Rocks:

1 - glassy (No crystals – rock looks like massive glass or may be extremely frothy
and light).
2 - aphanitic (Crystals are microscopic – rock appears dull and uniform in color with
a few small, scattered visible crystals).
3 - porphyritic (Two different crystals sizes are present – in many cases visible,
angular crystals are floating in a dull, aphanitic groundmass).
4 - phaneritic (Crystals are large enough to see in hand specimens – cleavage planes
of individual crystals shine in reflected light and different minerals may be apparent.
5 - pegmatitic (Individual mineral crystals are larger than 10 mm – this texture is best
seen in large specimens).

Special Volcanic Textures

While cooling is in progress, gases dissolved in a lava are be rapidly escaping. The rapid
escape of gases from lava creates a spongy-looking rock full of small more-or-less spherical
cavities named vesicles. The resulting igneous rock is referred to as a vesicular igneous rock.
Many vesicles remain as empty spaces but others become filled with minerals to form tiny
cavity-filling mineral deposits named amygdules.

CLASSIFYING IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are classified by both their mineral composition and texture (Table 5.1). A
magma with a particular composition can solidify to form several different kinds of igneous
rocks, depending on where and how fast the magma cooled and the different textures that result.
For example, a felsic magma will produce a rock rich in quartz, K-feldspar, and albite. If this
magma cools slowly, deep in the Earth, it will form a phaneritic rock called granite. If erupted
as a lava and rapidly cooled, the same magma will form an aphanitic rock called rhyolite.
Likewise, a mafic magma will freeze to form crystals of olivine, labradorite, hornblende, and
augite. When cooled slowly deep in the Earth, the phaneritic rock that forms is a gabbro. When
cooled rapidly near the surface of the Earth, the same magma forms an aphanitic rock called
basalt. Intermediate magmas produce diorite (phaneritic) and andesite (aphanitic). Commonly,
an intermediate magma may begin to cool slowly, producing large crystals of albite and
hornblende. Before all of the magma freezes, it may be erupted on to or near the surface,
resulting in rapid cooling for the remaining melt. This forms an andesite porphyry – a rock
combining both phaneritic and aphanitic crystals. Massive volcanic glass is called obsidian. A
frothy glass having tiny (<1 mm) cavities is pumice. A vesicular mafic rock having large (>l
mm) cavities is scoria.

56
 See
example on
Data Sheet Igneous Rock Mineral Composition
5.1
Felsic Rocks Intermediate Rocks Mafic Rocks Ultramafic Rocks
Dark and light
Light minerals predominate minerals Dark minerals predominate
100% 100%

(
um
y)
e

r
lci
75%
re
75%

50%
rit

a
(g ich Ca)

C
do

K–feldspar Olivine

the specimen is identified as granite.

bra

(white or pink) (olive green)

La

Quartz
50% (colorless) 50%
Plagioclase
Feldspar

20%

Cumulative Percent
a)

57
(N Augite
25% um (black to 25%
di h
So ric ite) dark green)
h
(w

Table 5.1 - Igneous Rock Classification

ite

20%
A lb Hornblende
(black)
7%
Biotite (black) 3% 0%
0%
Overall color Pink to White Grey to Greenish Grey Dark Grey to Black

Aphanitic Rhyolite Dacite Andesite Basalt Igneous Rock

Volcanic
Rhyolite Dacite Andesite Basalt Names
Porphyritic Porphyry
Porphyry Porphyry Porphyry

Phaneritic Granite Granodiorite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite Dunite

Plutonic
Pegmatitic Granite Pegmatite Other Volcanic Rocks and Textures
Vesicular Pyroclastic Glassy
Igneous Rock Textures Scoria Obsidian (massive, dark in color)

minerals (hornblende and biotite) constitute only 10% of the rock. This identifies the specimen as
Tuff Pumice (frothy, light in color)
(dark)

Table 5.1 lists the names of common igneous rocks based on their texture (vertical axis) and

chart. In this case, felsic minerals predominate (50% K-feldspar, 20% quartz, 20% albite), the mafic
specific type of rock to be chosen from the family. Example A on Table 5.1 illustrates how to use this
mineral composition (horizontal axis). By estimating the overall mineral composition of an igneous rock
sample one chooses a family of igneous rock types. Identifying the texture of the sample then allows one

belonging to the rhyolite - granite family. Because the texture is one of large, visible crystals (phaneritic)
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Most of the rock exposed at the Earth's surface is sedimentary rock that formed by the
deposition of layers of loose mineral material called sediment (e.g. gravel, sand, mud, shells).
After deposition, the loose sediment grains become cemented together to form rock. Four
important attributes of sedimentary rocks are: (1) they form in horizontal layers; (2) they contain
the remains of extinct organisms (fossils); (3) they contain evidence of the environment in which
they were deposited (lagoons, deltas, rivers, dunes, shallow marine coasts, coral reefs, deep-sea
floor, etc.); and (4) they contain all of the world’s fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

Mineral Composition
Sediments, the raw materials of sedimentary rock formation, are formed by several
different processes. Clastic sediments are produced by the erosion and weathering of existing
rock. Weathering chemically degrades most rock-forming minerals into dissolved ions, iron
oxides, and clay. Quartz is not chemically degraded by weathering. Therefore, most clastic
sediment is composed of quartz and or clay. The dissolved ions released by weathering are
washed by rivers into the ocean where they may be precipitated as chemical sediment. The
most abundant chemical sediment is calcium carbonate (calcite), which is produced by a variety
of marine organisms such as algae and corals, as well as by inorganic precipitation. Once
deposited, calcite sediments may be chemically recrystallized into dolomite mineral. Calcite and
dolomite sediments are often grouped as carbonate sediments. Chemical sediment can also be
produced by the evaporation of seawater, which leads to the crystallization of halite (rock salt)
and gypsum. Silica can be crystallized by tiny marine plankton (diatoms and radiolarians) or it
can be precipitated as layers or nodules within other types of sediment. Carbonaceous
sediment is formed from the partially decayed remains of plants and consists mostly of the
element carbon.

Texture
Most sedimentary rocks do not appear crystalline, rather, are composed of mineral grains
that were deposited and then cemented together. Texture in clastic and carbonate sedimentary
rocks is distinguished by the size of the sediment grains in the rock. Pebble size sediments are
larger than 2 mm. Sand size sediments are smaller than pebbles, but large enough to see with
the naked eye or low-power magnifying lens. Mud size sediments are microscopic and may
consist of both quartz silt and clay particles. Rock that contains a large portion of clay will often
be fissile, which is a tendency to split into thin slabs. Crystalline textures are hard to distinguish
from aphanitic igneous textures except for the fact that igneous rocks tend to be hard.

Because most sediments are transported by ice, wind, water, or gravity before being
deposited, they may be altered in a variety of ways. Most sediment particles start out angular in
shape but become rounded as they are transported. Water and wind are very effective at sorting
sediment particles based on size. Sediment that has not been transported very far will contain a
mix of gravel, sand, and mud and is poorly sorted. Sediment that has been transported a great
distance or washed by waves and currents will tend to only have a limited range of grain sizes
and is well sorted. Sorting is also related to sediment maturity. Sediments that are mature
have been significantly transported and subjected to extensive rounding, chemical weathering,
and sorting. Immature sediments tend to be angular, poorly sorted, and to contain minerals such
as K-feldspar that are normally degraded by chemical weathering.

58
CLASSIFYING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rock is classified primarily on the sediment type composing the rock and the
grain size present in the rock (Table 4.2). Other factors include the accessory minerals present,
the degree of sorting in the rock, and the roundess of the sedimentary particles. A clastic rock
composed of large, pebble size grains is called a conglomerate if the pebbles are rounded and a
breccia if the particles are angular and poorly sorted. A clastic rock composed of sand is called
a quartz sandstone if composed mostly of quartz sand. If, however, there is a notable quantity
of feldspar, mica, and iron oxide mixed with the quartz sand, then the rock is called an arkose.
If there are grains of rock fragments and mud mixed with the sand, then the rock is known as a
greywacke. Rocks composed of mud are called mudstone if they are massive and shale if they
are fissile and easily split. Carbonate rocks are referred to as limestone when composed of
calcite and dolostone when composed of dolomite. Limestones composed of large shell
fragments are called coquina and a white limestone composed of the microscopic shells of
marine algae is called chalk. All carbonate rocks will react with dilute hydrochloric acid to
produce bubbles of carbon dioxide, which makes them easy to identify. The few crystalline
sedimentary rocks are the evaporites, which can be identified by their distinctive mineral
composition (rock salt and rock gypsum). Siliceous rocks (chert or flint) have a distinctive
conchoidal fracture and waxy luster. Carbonaceous rock (coal) is notably less dense than almost
all other rocks and usually dusty black in appearance.

Sedimentary Rock Textures and Grain Types

Clastic texture: The clastic texture is characterized by particles that were broken by the process
of mechanical weathering and erosion. Such broken particles include rock fragments,
mineral grains, and clay particles.

Bioclastic texture: Many limestones are composed almost exclusively of broken shell material
derived from a wide variety of marine organisms (corals, algae, plankton, shellfish, etc.).
Shell material is also referred to as skeletal grains.

Oolitic texture: Calcium carbonate is sometimes precipitated out of the waters of the basin of
deposition in such a way that it accretes concentrically to form a coating around a nucleus
particle (quartz, skeletal particle, clay particle etc.). Such coated particles are named ooids
because they look like tiny eggs. A sediment or sedimentary rocks composed of ooids is said
to possess oolitic texture.

Pyroclastic texture: Volcanic eruptions (particularly explosive eruptions) often produce tephra
consisting of a range of grain sizes (from large “bombs” to tiny ash particles) that settle out
to form layers of volcanic sediment. These sediments are referred to as pyroclasts.

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 Clastic Environments of
Quartz and / or rock fragments and / or clay Deposition

High-energy areas:

Pebble (>2mm)
Rounded rock- or mineral Conglomerate streams, river beds,
fragments, some quartz sand shorelines.

Angular rock- or mineral Breccia Arid regions: flash floods,

fragments, some sand landslides, cave collapse
Sand (2mm to .06mm)

Sand dunes, beaches,

Mostly quartz sand, usually Quartz offshore sand bars,
light in color sandstone river beds.
Grain size
Detrital

Mixture of feldspar, mica, quartz Arid regions where granite

sand, some rock fragments, Arkose is weathering.
red-brown in color

Dark rock fragments and quartz, Graywacke Rapid deposition in off-

matrix of clay and silt, dark in color shore deep water near
(Lithic sandstone) areas of active tectonism.

Dull, fine-grained rock, breaks

Mud (<.06mm)

into irregular blocks, may be Mudstone

(invisible)

composed of quartz silt (siltstone) Low energy environments

and / or clay (claystone). such as lake bottoms,
floodplains, lagoons,
Mudstone that splits or in deep water.
into thin,flat pieces (fissile) Shale

Carbonate Generally the result of

Calcium carbonate (effervesces freely on contact with dilute acid) organic production of
Chemical and Biogenic

calcium carbonate by
Gray to white, granular to smooth Limestone
with acid

marine organisms in
reacts

White, chalky Chalk tropical- to subtropical

climates.
Shell fragments Coquina
Reaction of limestone with
Dolomite (effervesces slowly when powdered) Dolostone Mg-rich fluids.

Produced by evaporation
Evaporite Rock Salt in arid environments -
Crystalline texture Rock Gypsum desert basins or coastal
tidal flats.

Other Smooth, waxy-looking, conchoidal Chert, Flint

Deep-sea 'oozes' or
precipitated in cavities.
fracture, siliceous (quartz)
Black, dusty to vitreous, Buried plant remains
deposited
low density (composed of organic Coal in swamps and bogs.
carbon)

Table 5.2 - Sedimentary Rock Classification

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 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rock is formed when pre-existing rock (the parent rock or protolith) is
subjected to major changes in temperature and pressure. Most metamorphic rock is created
when large regions of bedrock become buried beneath rising mountains during the collision
between tectonic plates (regional metamorphism). Some metamorphic rock is also produced
when bedrock is heated by contact with magma (contact metamorphism). Small quantities of
metamorphic rock are formed by the pressure produced when rock moves along faults in the
Earth’s crust and with the extreme high pressure of impacting meteorites and asteroids. The
metamorphic changes that occur in the parent rock alter both the mineral composition and the
texture of the rock. Geologists refer to the “3 R’s” of metamorphism to describe the changes that
occur in metamorphic rock. Recrystallization is the transformation of one mineral into a
different mineral by rearrangement of the atoms within the crystal lattice. For example, clay
minerals will recrystallize into mica minerals at high temperature and pressure. Regrowth is the
tendency for mineral crystals to amalgamate and become larger during metamorphism.
Reorientation of mineral crystals results from directional pressure, which causes the crystals to
regrow in a preferred direction. All of these metamorphic changes occur while the rock remains
in a solid state. If the rock becomes hot enough to melt, it will become magma and eventually
cool into igneous rock.

Mineral Composition
Metamorphic rocks include most of the common rock-forming minerals: quartz,
feldspars, hornblende, mica, and calcite / dolomite. Clay minerals are recrystallized by
metamorphism into mica and many metamorphic rocks are rich in glittery flakes of mica.
Recrystallization also produces large crystals of accessory minerals such as garnet, staurolite,
kyanite, and andalusite.

Texture
Because of the processes of regrowth and recrystallization, most metamorphic rocks are
crystalline and many have large, visible crystals. Geologists divide metamorphic rocks into two
broad textural categories based on whether or not they show the influence of pressure on their
texture. Foliated metamorphic rocks have a non-random texture, meaning that their mineral
crystals are oriented in some way. Foliation may be expressed as a rock cleavage, mineral
layering or banding, and crystal or grain elongation and orientation. Often, foliated metamorphic
rocks contain distinctive crystals of garnet that can be seen to have grown within the rock,
disrupting the surrounding mineral crystals. Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are randomly
crystalline and are usually composed of either quartz or carbonate minerals (calcite / dolomite).
Large crystals of accessory minerals such as garnet that grow within the fabric of a rock during
metamorphism are called porphyroblasts and impart to the rock a porphyroblastic texture.

Examples of common metamorphic textures should be examined in lab with your

professor with the use of the Rock Texture Kits. For now don’t concern yourself with the rock
names (in parentheses below). Just focus on the textural varieties of metamorphic rocks.

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CLASSIFYING METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are classified primarily based on their texture, which reflects the
intensity of heat and pressure that the rock was exposed to during metamorphism (Table 4.3).
Mineral composition is largely inherited from the parent rock, although recrystallization can
transform the parent minerals within limits. Metamorphism is also progressive, meaning that
rock will undergo continuous metamorphic change as it becomes buried deeper and deeper
within the Earth. For example, the parent sedimentary rock mudstone or shale is one of the more
common rocks to form on the surface of the Earth. During the early stages of metamorphism
(low-grade), the clay minerals in mudstone begin to recrystallize into mica and reorient to form
layers, giving the resulting metamorphic rock slate a slaty cleavage. With deeper burial, the
microscopic crystals of mica in the rock regrow, becoming larger. This results in phyllite, a rock
that is similar to slate but one that has a distinct shine on its foliation surfaces because the larger
mica crystals better reflect light. Under high-grade metamorphic conditions deep in the Earth,
the mica crystals regrow to become visible to the eye, resulting in a schist. Most schists contain
layers (folia) of large, glittery mica crystals. Eventually, mica will recrystallize into feldspar as
quartz grains present as silt in the parent rock regrow to become visible. Pressure and shearing
within the rock will cause the quartz and feldspar to segregate into distinct layers and stripes,
forming a rock with banded foliation called gneiss. If the parent rock is a mafic igneous rock
such as basalt, the same sequence of rock textures will form, but with different mineral
compositions. Under high-grade metamorphic conditions a basalt will metamorphose into a
hornblende gneiss, which is also called amphibolite. Most non-foliated rocks lack foliation
because the mineral in the parent rock does not segregate or reorient during metamorphism. For
example, the parent rock sandstone is composed primarily of quartz. During metamorphism the
quartz grains in the sandstone regrow to form larger, more uniform crystals of quartz, but
without a particular orientation. This produces the metamorphic rock quartzite. Likewise,
carbonate sedimentary rocks metamorphose into marble, a rock composed of large, intergrown
crystals of calcite or dolomite.

Hints for Distinguishing Parent Rocks from Their Metamorphic Products

Quartzite vs. sandstone: In quartzite, the rock breaks across the individual quartz
grains. In the sandstone parent rock, a broken surface feels "rough" (like sandpaper) because the
rock breaks around the quartz particles, between the clasts and the cement.

Calcite marble vs. limestone: Both rocks consist of calcite and can be scratched with a
knife blade and will effervesce immediately with dilute hydrochloric acid. The limestone parent
rock may display fossils and be gray to dark gray. Marble will show glittering cleavage faces
and be crystalline, with no fossils.

Dolomite marble vs. dolostone: The texture of both rocks is crystalline and they both
consist of the mineral dolomite. Both will effervesce in dilute hydrochloric acid only after first
being scratched. If the rock shows cleavage faces, it is dolomitic marble.

Granite-gneiss vs. granite: The fabric of the parent rock granite is random. The fabric
of the granite-gneiss is oriented. This oriented fabric is expressed by a well-developed gneissic
layering or foliation. The mineral layers may appear streaky, but are clearly visible by the
alternation of light-colored minerals (feldspars and quartz) with dark-colored biotite or
amphibole.
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Table 5.3 - Metamorphic Rock Classification

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 Table 5.4 - Rock Texture Reference Collection
Use these small hand samples as references to identify textures in the three different rock types.

Specimen Rock Type Texture

1 Igneous Glassy (massive)

2 Igneous Aphanitic

3 Igneous Phaneritic

4 Igneous Vesicular (glassy)

5 Igneous Porphyritic

6 Sedimentary Sand (clastic)

7 Sedimentary Clay / Mud (clastic)

8 Sedimentary Pebble (clastic)

9 Sedimentary Crystalline

10 Metamorphic Non-foliated

11 Metamorphic Foliated (slaty cleavage)

12 Metamorphic Non-foliated

13 Metamorphic Foliated (banded)

14 Metamorphic Porphyroblastic

15 Metamorphic Foliated (schistose)

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 Lab 5 Exercises – Rock Groups and Rock Properties

LAB EXERCISES

Instructions: This laboratory has three stations, each with a group of specimens for you to
examine using hand samples and the Rock Texture Reference Collection (see Table 5.4). The
objective of these activities is for you to familiarize yourself with the different rock textures and
minerals in rocks and how texture and mineral composition are combined to classify rocks. Next
week you will apply what you learn today to identifying twenty common rock types.

Station 1: Igneous Rocks and Textures

Key Words:
Igneous Textures: aphanitic, phaneritic, porphyritic, glassy, vesicular
Minerals: quartz, K-feldspar, albite, labradorite, hornblende, augite, olivine
Igneous rock categories: felsic, mafic, volcanic, intrusive, extrusive

1. Identify which sample(s) of igneous rock have the following textures:

Texture Sample #s
Aphanitic _____________________
Porphyritic _____________________
Phaneritic _____________________
Glassy _____________________
Vesicular _____________________

2. Identify which sample(s) of igneous rock have the following mineral compositions:
Mineral Composition Sample #s
Felsic (quartz, K-feldspar, albite) _____________________
Intermediate (hornblende, feldspar) _____________________
Mafic (hornblende, augite, olivine) _____________________
Glass (no mineral composition) _____________________

3. Using Table 5.1 – Igneous Rock Classification - Combine texture and mineral composition to
identify which sample represents each of the following rock types:

Rhyolite ___________ Granite ___________

Andesite Porphyry ___________ Scoria ___________
Basalt ___________ Obsidian ___________

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Station 2: Sedimentary Rocks and Textures

Key Words:
Sedimentary Textures: grain size – pebble, sand, mud, fossils
Minerals: quartz, K-feldspar, clay, calcite, dolomite, halite, gypsum
Sedimentary rock categories: clastic, carbonate, evaporite, carbonaceous

1. Identify which sample(s) of sedimentary rock have the following textures:

Texture Sample #s
Pebble _____________________
Sand _____________________
Mud _____________________
Crystalline _____________________

2. Identify which sample(s) of sedimentary rock have the following mineral compositions:
Mineral Composition Sample #s
Quartz (glassy, light in color) _____________________
Clay (dull, dark in color) _____________________
Calcite (reacts with dilute HCl) _____________________
Halite (crystalline rock salt) _____________________
Carbon (low density, black, dusty) _____________________

3. Which specimen(s) of sedimentary rocks contain fossils? _________

4. Using Table 5.2 – Sedimentary Rock Classification - combine texture and mineral
composition to identify which sample represents each of the following rock types:

Coal ___________ Arkose ___________

Conglomerate ___________ Halite ___________
Shale ___________ Limestone ___________

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Station 3: Metamorphic Rocks and Textures

Key Words:
Metamorphic Textures: foliated, non-foliated
Minerals: quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, calcite, dolomite, garnet
Metamorphic rock categories: low grade, high grade

1. Identify which sample(s) of metamorphic rock have the following textures:

Texture Sample #s
Slaty cleavage (weak foliation) _____________________
Foliated texture _____________________
Non-foliated texture _____________________
Porphyroblastic texture _____________________

2. Identify which sample(s) of metamorphic rock have the following mineral compositions:
Mineral Composition Sample #s
Mica + Quartz (glittery flakes + glassy grains) _____________________
Calcite (shiny cleavage faces, reacts with HCl) _____________________
Garnet (deep red, well-formed crystals) _____________________
Quartz (hard, sugary appearance) _____________________
Hornblende (black, shiny cleavage faces) _____________________

3. Using Table 5.3 – Metamorphic Rock Classification - combine texture and mineral
composition to identify which sample represents each of the following rock types:

Marble ___________ Slate ___________

Phyllite ___________ Gneiss ___________
Schist ___________ Quartzite ___________
Porphyroblastic Schist ___________

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 Lab 6 – Rock Identification

SIMPLE TESTS TO PERFORM ON ROCKS

Five simple tests should be applied to any rock specimen: hardness, dilute hydrochloric
acid, density, visual observation, and tactile observation. These tests will provide important
clues to the mineral composition of a rock and the identity of the rock.

HARDNESS: Try to scratch the rock with a knife blade or a nail. If you can't scratch the rock,
then you know right away that it probably consists of silicate minerals (the hardness of most
silicates falls in the range of 5 to 7; exceptions are some sheet silicates, such as minerals of the
mica group and talc). Apart from these flaky "soft" silicates, the other soft minerals (hardness
<5) are abundant only in some sedimentary rocks (such as limestone, dolostone, gypsum rock,
halite rock, and shale) or metamorphic rocks derived from these (calcite marble, dolomite
marble, slate, phyllite, schist). If you can scratch the rock, be sure to apply the acid test.

REACTION WITH DILUTE ACID: If you detect a "soft" rock, then apply a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid and pay attention to what happens. Vigorous bubbling indicates calcite (the
chief mineral in limestone and calcite marble and possibly the cement in sandstone, siltstone and
shale; use your hand lens to see where the tiny bubbles are coming from. If the calcite forms the
cement of a sandstone, for example, the bubbles will be coming from the spaces between the
quartz particles). If no bubbling takes place, do not end the test just yet. Powder a portion of the
rock with a knife or nail and check to see if the powdered rock effervesces. If the powder reacts
faintly, then the mineral dolomite is present and the rock may be a dolostone or a dolomitic
marble. Silicate minerals do not react effervescently with dilute acid.

DENSITY: The density of a rock is a function of the density average of the constituent minerals
and of how much air-filled pore space is present. Dense rocks are composed of dense minerals
closely arranged with minimum pore space. Many rocks have similar densities because they are
composed mainly of quartz and feldspars. However some rocks are distinctive for having
unusually high or low density. Heavy, high density rocks include igneous rocks such as basalt
and gabbro that are composed of the iron-rich minerals olivine, augite, and hornblende. Light,
low density rocks include coal, composed of the light element carbon, and pumice, which is a
frothy glass with many small vesicles.

After you have completed these three simple tests, take a first close look with your eyes
and your hand lens (or use one of the binocular-stereo microscopes on the lab table).

VISUAL OBSERVATION – THE EYEBALL TEST: For crystalline rocks (mostly igneous
and metamorphic), one of the most important observations you can make is to determine if the
rock is composed of visible crystals or not. Most of the rock-forming minerals have cleavage.
On a broken surface of the rock large, visible crystals will be apparent because the cleavage
faces of the minerals will flash and wink as the rock is slowly rotated in light. In contrast,
microscopic crystals are invisible to the eye and appear dull. Large crystals are easy to see in
rocks composed of a mix of different colored minerals (e.g. granite) but are more difficult to spot
in rocks composed of dark minerals (e.g. gabbro) or a single mineral only (e.g. marble). Look
carefully. If you see cleavage faces shining in the light you are looking at large, phaneritic
crystals. Careful observation of a specimen can also reveal other important clues to the identity

69
of a rock. Does the rock contain vesicles? Vesicular rocks are usually volcanic (igneous). Can
you see any pieces of shell or other fossils in the rock? Fossils are only found in sedimentary
rock (with a few, very rare, exceptions). What is the color of the rock? Light colored rocks are
usually rich in felsic minerals such as quartz and feldspars, while dark colored rocks tend to be
rich in mafic minerals such as hornblende, augite, and olivine.

TACTILE OBSERVATION – THE TOUCH TEST: Non-crystalline sedimentary rocks are

composed of grains of mineral material that have been rounded and abraided by weathering and
transport. Pebbles are large grains that are obvious to the eye. Sand size grains are visible, but
often difficult to distinguish because they are small and uniform in color. However, on a freshly
broken rock surface, sand grains protrude and will feel rough on your fingertips. Rub the surface
of the rock. If it feels abrasive the rock is probably composed of sand size grains. Rocks that
feel smooth are either crystalline (e.g. rock salt) or composed of microscopic grains (e.g.
mudstone).

TWO IMPORTANT QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN TRYING TO IDENTIFY AN

UNKNOWN ROCK

(1) What is the MINERAL COMPOSITION? Is the rock composed of several types of
minerals or just one? Are the minerals hard silicate minerals, soft silicate minerals, or
carbonates? A simple hardness scratch test will distinguish soft from hard minerals. A test with
dilute acid will identify carbonate minerals. Quartz appears glassy and grey in crystalline rocks
and shows no cleavage planes. In sedimentary rocks, quartz occurs as light-colored pebbles and
sand grains. K-feldspar shows cleavage planes and is usually pink to orange in color. Albite is
similar, but white in color. A grey mineral with cleavage is likely to be dark plagioclase
feldspar. A light-colored, flakey mineral is muscovite mica. A shiny, dark, flakey mineral is
biotite mica. Black minerals with cleavage faces may be hornblende or augite. Hornblende
crystals are often elongate and needle-like, whereas augite crystals tend to be blocky. Calcite
will react immediately and vigorously with dilute acid. Dolomite will react slowly after first
being powdered.

(2) What is the TEXTURE? Texture is an important clue to determining both the rock group in
which a sample belongs and the name of the rock itself. Is the rock heterogeneous in appearance
– can you see individual crystals or grains? Large crystals are found in phaneritic igneous rock
and in high grade metamorphic rock. Grains are characteristic of sedimentary rock. Is the rock
layered? Layered rocks may be sedimentary or metamorphic. Rocks that are homogeneous in
appearance may be fine-grained sedimentary rocks or aphanitic igneous rocks (a scratch test,
described above, with distinguish between the two possibilities). Fossils are indicative of
sedimentary rock. Vesicles form in volcanic igneous rock.

70
Distinguishing Between the Three Rock Groups

Unfortunately, there is no simple test for determining if a rock is igneous, sedimentary, or

metamorphic. Instead, a variety of observations of mineral composition and texture must be
combined to make the correct determination. These observations are summarized in the flow
chart in Table 6.1. Following the arrows and making correct observations will lead you to the
correct rock group for most common types of rock. Some types of rock that are unusual and
distinctive (e.g. rock salt, pumice, chert, scoria, etc.) are not included on this chart.

Identifying Rock Type

Once you know what rock group a specimen belongs to, you can identify the name of the
rock based on the mineral composition and texture of the specimen. To assist you in making
identifications there are three flow charts, one for each major group of rock. Note that for
igneous rock (Table 6.2) you must first determine the mineral composition of the rock, then
determine the texture of the rock. For metamorphic rock (Table 6.3) and sedimentary rock
(Table 6.4) texture must be identified first, followed by mineral composition.

What to do:

Using your observations of mineral composition and rock texture, you will identify
twenty unknown rock specimens. Observe each specimen carefully and record your
observations on the Lab 6 Data Sheet. Use Table 6.1 to determine which of the three rock
groups each specimen belongs in. Tables 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 will assist you in identifying specific
rock names. You may also wish to consult the classification charts found in Laboratory 5.

71
 Begin
Sedimentary
black, dusty, low density Here Fossils? Rock
Sedimentary Unknown Rock
Rock
Igneous
Vesicles? Rock
{coal}
Heterogeneous, layered, grainy, Homogeneous, unlayered,
or visible crystals (aphanitic)
crystals not visible

glass
layered or crystals oriented unlayered or crystals random Homogeneous
{obsidian}
when viewed
with hand lens Heterogeneous
layers dull, no well- when viewed
formed with hand lens
mineral crystals visible, well–formed rounded or angular
mineral crystals, grains or rock
breakage across crystals fragments, breakage
Sedimentary
around grains and

73
Rock earthy, dull grey
fragments or black

{sandstone effervesces in HCl, scratches glass

mudstone softer than glass
limestone}
softer than glass

Table 6.1 - Rock Group Flow Chart

harder than glass
or other minerals
pure quartz effervesces
in HCl
layers shiny, or with
visible mineral crystals {sandstone,
arkose
conglomerate {basalt, rhyolite,
{slate, phyllite, schist, {granite, gabbro andesite}
{marble} {quartzite} limestone} {mudstone} {limestone}
gneiss, amphibolite} diorite, }
Metamorphic Metamorphic Igneous Sedimentary Sedimentary Igneous
Rock Rock Rock Rock Rock Rock

(foliated) (non-foliated) (phaneritic, porphyritic, (aphanitic)

pegmatitic, etc.)
 Table 6.2 - Flow Chart for Identifying Igneous Rock

Table 6.3 - Flow Chart for Identifying Metamorphic Rock

74
Table 6.4 - Flow Chart for Identifying Sedimentary Rock

Fine
Medium

Sand

Very Fine Coarse

Med. Very Coarse

Pebbles Fine Very fine

(granule)

Figure 6.1 - Diagram for Estimating Sediment Grain Size

75
 Distinctive Mineral
# Luster
Rock / Color
Group Hardness
Texture Cleavage Streak RockOther
Name Mineral
NotesName
Features Composition

76
6
Rock Identification

7
Laboratory Data Sheet 6.1

10
 Distinctive Mineral
Streak
# Rock / Color
LusterGroup Hardness
Texture Cleavage RockOther
Name Mineral
NotesName
Features Composition
11

12

13

14

15

77
16
Rock Identification

17
Laboratory Data Sheet 6.1

18

19

20
 Optional Exercise 6.1 – Plutonic and Extrusive Igneous Features

A block diagram illustrating the various forms of bodies of igneous rock (igneous
features) is provided in Figure 6.1 for this exercise. Using your textbook and other sources,
define the igneous features listed and match them to the numbered features on the block diagram
(Nos. 1 through 13). Fill in the table below indicating on your list with a "V" or a "P" where
volcanic textures or plutonic textures would occur and, if you can, what typical igneous rocks
might be found at each locality. Be prepared to discuss your work in lab next week.

# Igneous Feature Volcanic - Plutonic Rock Types

10

11

12

13

14

79
Igneous plutons, intrusives, and landforms illustrated in the block diagram below
Dike
Sill
Caldera
Laccolith
Laccolith exposed by erosion
Batholith
Radial dike swarm
Eroded volcanic neck (pipe)
Volcanic vent
Lava flow
Xenoliths (inclusions)
Flood basalt capped mesa
Flood basalt capped butte
Volcanic neck

8 7

14

11
6
12

9
10

1
4
2 5

13

3
5

Figure 6.2 - Block diagram illustrating the common occurrences of volcanic- and plutonic rocks.
See instructions for Optional Exercise 6.1.

80
 Lab 7 - Rock Practicum

PURPOSE

The purpose of today's laboratory meeting is to test your proficiency in identifying

unknown rock specimens as provided by your lab professor. You will have ample time to use
your geology test kits, record data, and identify the rock specimens. A sample practicum report
sheet is provided, in reduced form, below.

Geology 1c Rock Practicum Name

Igneous Minerals
Sample

Metamorphic Textures and/or Present Rock

other features Name
Sedimentary (one or two)

10

11

12

81