Modulation Is The Process of Having The Information To Be Communicated Modifies A Higher Frequency Signal Called A
Modulation Is The Process of Having The Information To Be Communicated Modifies A Higher Frequency Signal Called A
Modulation Is The Process of Having The Information To Be Communicated Modifies A Higher Frequency Signal Called A
Modulation is the process of having the information to be communicated modifies a higher frequency signal called a
carrier.
3. In AM, the amplitude of the carrier is changed in accordance with the amplitude and frequency or the characteristics
of the modulating signal. The carrier frequency remains constant.
4. The amplitude variation of the carrier peaks has the shape of the modulating signal and is referred to as the envelope.
5. A time-domain display shows amplitude versus time variation of AM and other signals.
6. Amplitude modulation is produced by a circuit called a modulator which has two inputs and an output.
7. The modulator performs a mathematical multiplication of the carrier and information signals. The output is their analog
product.
8. The ratio of the peak voltage value of the modulating signal Vm to the peak value of the carrier Vc is called the
modulation index m (m = Vm l Vc). It is also referred to as the modulation coefficient or factor and the degree of
modulation.
9. The ideal value for m is 1, Typically m is less than 1. The condition where m is greater than 1 should be avoided as it
introduces serious distortion of the modulating signal. This is called overmodulation.
10. When the modulation index is multiplied by 100, it is called the percentage of modulation.
11. The percentage of modulation can be computed from AM waveforms displayed on an oscilloscope by using the
expression
where Vmax is the maximum peak carrier amplitude and Vmin is the minimum peak carrier amplitude.
12. The new signals generated by the modulation process are called sidebands and occur at frequencies above and below
the carrier frequency.
13.The upper fUSB and lower fLSB sideband frequencies are the sum and difference of the carrier frequency fC and the
modulating frequency fM and are computed with the expressions
fUSB = fc + fm
fLSB = fc – fm
14. A display of signal amplitudes with respect to frequency is called a frequency-domain display.
15. An AM signal can be viewed as the carrier signal added to the sideband signals produced by AM.
16. The total transmitted power in an AM signal is the sum of the carrier and sideband powers PT =( PC + PUSB + PLSB)
and is distributed among the carrier and sidebands. This power distribution varies with the percentage of modulation. The
total power is
PT =Pe(1 + m2/2)
Ps = Pc(m2)/4
17. The higher the percentage of modulation, the greater the sideband power and the stronger and more intelligible the
transmitted and received signal.
18. Despite its simplicity and effectiveness, AM is a highly inefficient method of modulation.
19. In an AM signal, the carrier contains no information. Any transmitted information lies solely in the sideband. For that
reason, the carrier may be suppressed and not transmitted.
21. Since the same transmitted information is contained in both upper and lower sidebands, one is redundant. Full
information can be transmitted using only one sideband.
22. An AM signal with no carrier and one sideband is called a single-sideband (SSB) signal. The upper and lower
sidebands contain the same information, and one is not preferred over the other.
23. The main advantage of an SSB AM signal over an AM or DSB signal is that it occupies one-half the spectrum space.
24. Both DSB and SSB signals are more efficient in terms of power usage. The power wasted in the useless carrier is
saved thereby allowing more power to be put into the sidebands.
25. Power in an SSB transmitter is rated in terms of peak envelope power (PEP), the power that is produced on voice
peaks. PEP output is computed using the expression
PEP = V2/R
where PEP is in watts and V is the rms voltage across the antenna load impedance R. The PEP input is computed using the
expression
PEP = Vs x Imax
where Vs is the de supply voltage of the final amplifier stage and Imax is the amplifier current on voice peaks.
26. The average output of an SSB transmitter is one-fourth to one-third of the PEP value.
27. Frequency conversion is a form of AM used to translate signals to higher or lower frequencies for improved
processing.
29. The mixer performs analog multiplication of the input signal and a local oscillator signal.
30. The frequency conversion process faithfully retains any modulation (AM, PM, etc.) on the input. The translated signal
contains the same modulation.
31.The output of a mixer consists of the local oscillator signal fo and the sum and difference frequencies of the local
oscillator and input frequencies:
fS
fo
f O + fS
fO – fS or fS – fO
32. Either the sum or the difference frequency is selected with a filter, while the others are rejected.
1. Amplitude modulation can be accomplished by multiplying the carrier sine wave by a gain or attenuation factor that
varies in accordance with the intelligence signal.
2. Amplitude modulation can be carried out by linearly combining the carrier and intelligence signals then applying
the result to a nonlinear component or circuit. A diode is an example.
3. The simplest AM circuit uses resistors to linearly mix the carrier and information signal, a diode to rectify the
result, and a tuned circuit to complete the waveform.
4. Amplitude modulation can be produced by feeding the carrier to a voltage divider or other network and then varying
one of the resistive elements in accordance with the modulating signal. Common variable resistive components are diodes
and FETs. PIN diodes are used at UHF and microwave frequencies.
5. Low-level modulation is the process of generating 'the AM signal at low voltage and/or power levels and then using
linear amplifiers to increase the power level.
6. High-level modulation is the processes of amplitude modulating the final power amplifier of a transmitter.
7. High-level modulation is accomplished with a collector (plate in vacuum tubes) modulator that varies the collector
supply voltage in accordance with the modulating signal.
8. For 100 percent high-level modulation, the modulation amplifier must produce an out put wave whose peak-to-peak is
2 times the collector supply voltage.
9. For 100 percent high-level modulation, the modulation amplifier must generate an output power that is one-half of the
final RF power amplifier input power (Pi =Vcc x Ic).
10. The simplest and best amplitude demodulator is the diode detector. The AM signal is rectified by a diode and then
filtered by a capacitor to recover the envelope which is the original modulating information.
11. Balanced modulators are AM circuits that cancel or suppress the carrier but generate a DSB output signal that
contains the upper (sum) and lower (difference) sideband frequencies.
12. A popular balanced modulator is the lattice modulator that uses a diode bridge circuit as a switch. The carrier turns
the diodes off and on letting segments of the modulating signal through to produce a DSB output signal. A carrier
suppression of 40 dB is possible.
13. Another widely used balanced, modulator is an integrated circuit (IC) using differential amplifiers as switches to
switch the modulating signal at the carrier frequency. A popular device is the 1496 or 1596. Carrier suppression can be
as high as 50 to 65 dB.
14. The most common way of generating an SSE signal is to use the filter method which incorporates a balanced
modulator followed by a highly selective filter that passes either the upper or lower sideband.
15. To make both sidebands available, SSB generators use two filters, one for each sideband, or switch the carrier
frequency to put the desired sideband into the fixed filter, bandpass.
16.Most SSB, filters are made with quartz crystals.
17.A quartz crystal is a frequency-determining component that acts like an LC circuit with a very high Q.
18. Crystals have series and parallel resonant modes. These can be combined into a lattice (bridge) circuit that provides
extremely sharp selectivity over a desired bandwidth.
19. Ceramic filters use ceramic resonators that act like crystals but are smaller and lower in cost.
20. Mechanical bandpass filters are also used in SSE generators. These devices use multiple resonant disks that vibrate
at some frequency in the 200- to 500-kHz range.
21. The phasing method of SSE generation uses two balanced modulators and 90° phase shifters for the carrier and
modulating signal to produce two DSB signals that when added cause one sideband to be canceled out.
22. In phasing-type SSE generators, the accuracy of the phase shifters determines the degrees of unwanted sideband
suppression.
23.Precision RC networks are normally used to produce the desired 90° phase shifts.
24. A demodulator for SSE is a mixer such as a balanced modulator that, is called a product detector. The carrier is
reinserted in the receiver with a local oscillator.
25. Frequency translation or conversion is an AM process that converts a signal with any modulation to a higher (up
conversion) or lower (down conversion) frequency.
29. One of the most commonly used mixers is a single diode. Germanium or hot-carrier diodes are used for mixing at
very high radio frequencies.
30.The inputs to a mixer are the signal to be translated fs and a sine "wave fo from a local oscillator (LO). The outputs are
fo, fs, fo + fs, and fo - fs. A tuned circuit at the output selects either the slim or difference frequency while suppressing
the others. Any modulation on the input appears on the output signal.
31. Bipolar and field-effect transistors can be used as mixers by operating them in the nonlinear region of their
characteristics.
32. Transistor mixers offer the benefit of gain over diode mixers.
34. Doubly balanced modulators and GaAs FETs are the best mixers at VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies.
35. A single transistor can be connected to perform both the mixer and LO functions. Such a mixer is called a converter
and is used primarily in AM receivers at frequencies below 30 MHz.
36. A popular IC mixer is the NE602, which contains a cross-connected differential amplifier mixer circuit and an on-
chip local oscillator.