I.

Prophet Muhammad

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbdullāh in short form Muhammad, is considered in Islam to be the

greatest messenger and prophet sent by God to guide humanity to the right way.
Muslims believe that Muhammad is the final prophet sent by God; and the Quran, which
is the central religious text of Islam, was revealed to Muhammad by God. According to
Muslims, he was sent to restore Islam, which they believe to be the unaltered original
monotheistic faith of Adam, Ibrahim, Musa, Isa, and other prophets. The religious,
social, and political tenets that Muhammad established in the light of Quran became the
foundation of Islam and Islamic civilization. He is usually referred to as Prophet
Muhammad, or just The Prophet or The Messenger, by Muslims, and regarded by them
as the greatest of all the prophets, and his established religion as the only accepted
religion to God. He is seen by Muslims as a possessor of many virtues. As an act of
respect Muslims follow the name of Muhammad by the Arabic benediction "sallallahu
`alayhi wa sallam" (Peace be upon him, sometimes abbreviated S.A.W.), a practice
instructed by Quran and Hadith. The deeds and sayings in the life of Muhammad –
known as Sunnah – are considered a model of the life-style that Muslims are obliged to
follow. Recognizing Muhammad as God's true messenger is one of the central
requirements in Islam which is clearly laid down in the second part of Shahadah, the
Islamic proclamation of faith: "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of God". The Quran chiefly refers to Muhammad as "Messenger" and
"Messenger of God" and asks people to follow him so as to become successful in this
life and the afterlife.

A. Life and Teachings of Muhammad

He was born in the city of Mecca in 570 CE. At the time, Mecca was a busy marketplace
crowded with residents and nomads buying and selling goods. Not a great deal is
known of Muhammad's early life. Both his mother and father were dead by the time he
turned six. He was first cared for by his grandfather, but when he passed away,
Muhammad's uncle, Abu Talib, adopted him. Abu Talib was the head of the Hashim
clan, one of many clans making up separate Arabic tribes. It is believed that as a young
adult Muhammad worked as a camel driver. He traveled the Arabian Peninsula with his
uncle, making contact with various cultures and religions, including Judaism and
Christianity. Because idol worship had come to dominate Mecca, this contact was
important. The Ka'bah itself housed many idols, including those representing the three
main goddesses. At the age of twenty-five, Muhammad was working for a widow named
Khadijah who was a wealthy merchant. Though he was much younger, she admired his
intelligence and maturity so much that she proposed to him. They married, and in the
fifteen years which followed, Muhammad lived in affluence. He continued traveling,
encountering different faiths and customs. But riches did not satisfy Muhammad. In
Mecca, powerful merchants controlled both the flow of goods and the religious life. As
the gap between the rich and the poor widened, Muhammad began to question his life
and the world around him. By the time he was forty, Muhammad had begun to spend
time in solitude, preoccupied with the questions that troubled him. He spent some nights
alone in a small cave near Mecca. During one such night, Muslims believe that the
angel Gabriel appeared before him. Gabriel grabbed hold of Muhammad and ordered
him to recite some words. Muhammad openly declared that there was only one God. He
called on Meccans to reject their idols. Though monotheism was shared by Jews and
Christians, its introduction into Mecca troubled the ruling class. As Muhammad's
followers increased, so did the unease among his opposition. Opposition to Muhammad
increased. The ruling families insulted him and threatened violence. Soon Muhammad
knew that he and his followers must leave Mecca. In 619 CE, they moved for a short
while to Ta'if, a nearby town. But they were not allowed to stay, and so they returned to
Mecca. Things got worse for Muhammad when death claimed both his wife, Khadijah,
and his uncle, Abu Talib. They had represented support and protection for the young
Muslim community. However, it was also during this period, in 619 CE, that Muhammad
was believed to have experienced his famous journey to heaven. With Gabriel guiding
him, they journeyed first to a rock in Jerusalem, and from there Muhammad rode his
faithful horse into heaven. It is claimed that he met other prophets, including Abraham,
Moses, and Jesus. Finally, he stood in the presence of Allah. The course of history
changed in 620 CE when some pilgrims from the northern town of Medina came
through Mecca. At the time, Medina was being torn apart by the violence of two rival
tribes. The pilgrims were moved by Muhammad's teachings and hoped he might settle
the raging dispute. For the next two years, groups of people from Medina came to
Mecca and converted to Islam. This inspired Muhammad, who instructed all Muslims to
settle in Medina. In 622, Muhammad fled Mecca after hearing of a plot to assassinate
him. Legend has it that he and a friend, Abu Bakr, hid in a cave. When his enemies rode
by, a giant spider's web covered the mouth of the cave, and seeing the web, they
assumed no one could have entered. From there Muhammad and Abu Bakr traveled
safely to Medina. This journey is known as the Hijrah, and it holds special significance
to Muslims. Muhammad's arrival into Medina marked the birth of a united Islamic
community. The Hijrah signifies the beginning of the Islamic calendar. Muhammad
arrived in Medina as the new leader, bearing tremendous responsibilities. While
receiving communication from God and teaching his devotees, he had to protect Islam
from opposition and find a peaceful solution to the local feuds. Though he was able to
unite the feuding clans through his teachings (the Jewish and Muslims prayed together,
for example), when Muhammad instructed his followers to pray towards Mecca instead
of Jerusalem, tensions grew, and the groups separated completely. Violence erupted,
ending in the expulsion of some Jewish tribes from Medina. With his community
established, Muhammad began raiding caravans bound for Mecca. These kinds of raids
were not uncommon at the time, and they provided sustenance for the Muslims. This
angered the Meccans, and a series of battles followed. Despite a few setbacks, the
Muslims gained power and recognition. After destroying or converting his tribal
enemies, Muhammad all but controlled the Arabian Peninsula. Finally, in 629 CE,
Mecca submitted to the Muslims. Muhammad entered the city and headed directly to
the Ka'bah. After circling it seven times, he smashed the stone idols. He spoke of the
oneness of God, or Allah, and proclaimed himself a prophet. From that moment until the
present, the Ka'bah became the principal holy place for Muslims. By 630 CE, Islam was
the dominant religion in Mecca. Muhammad then set out to conquer the Arabian
Peninsula. Some tribes were easily converted while others were met by force. The
crusade was successful, and Islam spread to the Arabian Sea to as far north as Syria.
In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to Mecca. First, he ordered that only
Muslims could worship at the Ka'bah. On his way back from this pilgrimage, Muhammad
fell ill. He died in Medina on June 8, 632 CE, at the age of sixty-one (the 12th day of
Rabi I in the Islamic calendar). Although he had married two wives since the death of
Khadijah, he had yet to father a son, leaving the question of successor in the hands of
his followers.

B. Abu Bakr

Being the closest friend and companion of Muhammad and the first Muslim caliph. He
was one of the first men to convert to Islam, and was chosen by the Prophet as his
companion on the hijrah to Medina. He was born to a wealthy family, Abu Bakr was a
successful merchant with a reputation for honesty and kindness. Tradition has it that,
having long been a friend to Muhammad, Abu Bakr immediately accepted him as a
prophet and became the first adult male to convert to Islam. Muhammad married Abu
Bakr's daughter Aishah and chose him to accompany him to Medina. Shortly before his
death, Muhammad asked Abu Bakr to offer up a prayer for the people. This was taken
as a sign that the Prophet had chosen Abu Bakr to succeed him, and after Muhammad's
death, Abu Bakr was accepted as the first "deputy of the Prophet of God," or caliph.
Another faction preferred Muhammad's son-in-law Ali as caliph, but Ali eventually
submitted, and Abu Bakr took over governance of all Muslim Arabs. As Caliph, Abu
Bakr brought all of central Arabia under Muslim control and was successful in spreading
Islam further through conquest. He also saw to it that the Prophet's sayings were
preserved in written form. The collection of sayings would be compiled into the Quran.
Abu Bakr died in his sixties, possibly from poison but just as likely from natural causes.
Before his death he named a successor, establishing a tradition of government by
chosen successors. Several generations later, after rivalries led to murder and war,
Islam would be split into two factions: the Sunni, who followed the Caliphs, and the
Shi'ite, who believed that Ali was the proper heir of Muhammad and would only follow
leaders descended from him.

C. Umar bin al-Khattab

He was the second Muslim caliph under whom Arab armies conquered Mesopotamia
and Syria and began the conquest of Iran and Egypt. A member of the clan of ʿAdi of
the Meccan tribe of Quraysh, Umar, at first opposed Muḥammad but later on became a
Muslim. When he went to Medina with Muḥammad and the other Meccan Muslims, he
had become one of Muḥammad’s chief advisers, closely associated with Abū Bakr. His
position in the state was marked by Muḥammad’s marriage to his daughter Hafsa. On
Muḥammad’s death, ʿUmar was largely responsible for reconciling the Medinan
Muslims to the acceptance of a Meccan, Abū Bakr, as head of state (caliph). Abū Bakr
relied greatly on ʿUmar and nominated him to succeed him. As caliph, ʿUmar was the
first to call himself “commander of the faithful”. His reign saw the transformation of the
Islamic state from an Arabian principality to a world power. Throughout this remarkable
expansion ʿUmar closely controlled general policy and laid down the principles for
administering the conquered lands. The structure of the later Islāmic empire, including
legal practice, is largely due to him. Assassinated by a Persian slave for personal
reasons, he died at Medina 10 years after coming to the throne. A strong ruler, stern
toward offenders, and himself ascetic to the point of harshness, he was universally
respected for his justice and authority.

D. Uthman ibn Affan

Like Abu Bakr and Umar, Uthman is a very common name among Muslims. The name
is chosen to commemorate Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the four Rightly Guided
Caliphs, according to Sunnis. The focus of this post, the third in a series of important
figures in Islamic history, is Uthman. His life and death left an imprint on the history of
the faith. Uthman was born to the powerful Banu Umayya clan in the Quraysh tribe. His
father, Affan ibn Abi al-As, died as a young man and left a large inheritance for Uthman.
Following in his father’s footsteps, Uthman was a successful buisnessman and became
one of the wealthiest men in Quraysh. Uthman was one of the first to become Muslim
and the only member of the Meccan aristocracy to become a believer in the early
period. After learning about the Prophet Muhammad’s mission through Abu Bakr,
Uthman joined the faith. From early on, Uthman was known for his dedication to the
faith and his generosity. It is documented that he spent much of his wealth on charity
and assisting the nascent Muslim community. After becoming Muslim, Uthman’s wife
abandoned him. He then went on to marry Ruqayyah the Prophet Muhammad’s
daughter. Ruqayyah later died and Uthman then married her sister Umm Kulthum.
Uthman was again widowed when Umm Kulthum died. As a result of these two
marriages, Uthman was nicknamed Dhun-Nurayn, the possessor of two lights. Upon his
deathbed, Umar designated a council of six to elect the next caliph. Uthman was
chosen and was the third caliph. Although Uthman did not have the political and military
astuteness of Umar, the empire continued to expand during his tenure, incorporating
most of North Africa, the Caucuses, and Cyprus. Like his predecessors, Uthman left his
own contributions, which included sending the first Muslim envoy to China, establishing
the first Islamic naval force, and most importantly, having the Qur’an compiled into the
single authoritative version known today. Uthman’s mark on Islamic history extends
beyond his contributions. Uthman, like Umar before him, was assassinated. Unlike
Umar though, Uthman was not as rigorous in controlling rivalries among various groups.
Eventually, pockets of dissent emerged around the empire. One of the grievances was
that Uthman appointed many of his kinsmen as governors and some were tyrannical in
their rule. Uthman held meetings to examine the grievances but the growing opposition
did not find his resolutions to be sufficient. This discontent led to a siege on Uthman’s
home that lasted for 20 days. Uthman would not allow his supporters to fight the
opposition because he did not want Muslims killing Muslims. Thus, members of the
opposition were able to surround Uthman while he was reading Qur’an and stab him
repeatedly until he died. He was buried after three days in Jannat al-Baqi, a cemetery in
Medina. While the assassination of Uthman further exacerbated the tensions that had
emerged after the Prophet Muhammad’s death that would eventually lead to the
Sunni/Shia division, he is remembered for his gentle manner, generosity, patience, and
dedication to Islam.

II. Branches of Islam

The major split in Islam is that between the majority Sunnis and the minority Shiites.
The split goes back after Mohammed’s death, the leadership of the Islamic community
passed to Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, one of Mohammed’s closest companions. Some in the
community felt that this succession was not legitimate, and that the title of caliph really
belonged to Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ali’s claim was supported by the fact that he was
Mohammed’s cousin, his adopted son, his first convert and husband of his daughter
Fatima. Both sides believe that Mohammed specifically designated their man:
Supporters of Abu became the Sunnis, those of ibn Ali the Shiites. The Caliphate
passed from Abu Bakr to Umar, and from Umar to Ulthman. Ulthman at last passed the
torch to Ali. When Ali was murdered, the Caliphate passed to Muawiya, who would
found the famous Umayyid Caliphate. Ali was buried in Najaf in what is now Iraq, and
the site remains a major Shiite holy site.

A. Shiite Islam

Shiite comes from the word shia, which means "the party of Ali". They are mostly found
in Iran and Iraq, and among the Palestinians. They consider certain direct descendants
of Ali, the Imams, infallible and the true inheritors of Mohammed. Ali was the first Imam,
his son Hassan the second, his second son Hussein the third. Ali’s sons were killed in
the conflict with Caliph Muawiya. However, their succession ended with the 12th Imam,
who went into hiding. Most Shiites believe that the 12th Imam will reemerge someday
as the Mahdi or Messiah, and reassert his leadership of the Islamic world. In the
meantime, ayatollahs are elected to serve as caretakers of the faith.

1. Ithna Ashariyya

The largest branch of Shiite Islam. The term Twelver refers to its adherents' belief in
twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as the Twelve Imams, and their belief that the
last Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, lives in occultation and will reappear as the promised
Mahdi. Twelvers believe that the Twelve Imams are the spiritual and political
successors to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to the theology of Twelvers,
the Twelve Imams are exemplary human individuals who not only rule over the
community in justice, but also are able to keep and interpret sharia and the esoteric
meaning of the Quran. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide
and model for the community to follow; as a result, Muhammad and the Imams must be
free from error and sin, known as Ismah or infallibility, and must be chosen by divine
decree, or nass, through Muhammad. The Twelve Imams are Ali, Hasan, Husayn, al-
Sajjad, al-Baqir, al-Sadiq, al-Kadhim, ar-Ridha, al-Taqi, al-Naqi, al-Askari, and al-Mahdi.
 2. Ismailis

a branch of Shia Islam. The Ismailis get their name from their acceptance of Isma'il ibn
Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from
the Twelvers, who accept Musa al-Kadhim, younger brother of Isma'il, as the true Imam.
Tracing its earliest theology to the lifetime of Muhammad, Ismailism rose at one point to
become the largest branch of Shiite Islam, climaxing as a political power with the
Fatimid Caliphate in the tenth through twelfth centuries. Ismailis believe in the oneness
of God, as well as the closing of divine revelation with Muhammad, whom they see as
"the final Prophet and Messenger of God to all humanity". The Ismailis and the Twelvers
both accept the same initial Imams from the descendants of Muhammad through his
daughter Fatimah and therefore share much of their early history. Both groups see the
family of Muhammad as divinely chosen, infallible, and guided by God to lead the
Islamic community, a belief that distinguishes them from the majority Sunni branch of
Islam. After the death of Muhammad ibn Ismail, the teachings of Ismailism further
transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on
the deeper, esoteric meaning of the Islamic religion. With the eventual development of
Twelverism into the more literalistic oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought,
Shiite Islam developed into two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismaili group
focusing on the mystical path and nature of God, with the "Imam of the Time"
representing the manifestation of truth and reality, with the more literalistic Twelver
group focusing on divine law and the deeds and sayings of Muhammad and the Twelve
Imams who were guides and a light to God.

3. Zaydis

An early sect which emerged in Shiite Islam, named after Zayd ibn ʻAli, the grandson of
Husayn ibn ʻAli. Followers of the Zaydi Islamic jurisprudence are called Zaydi Shi'a and
make up about 35-40% of Muslims in Yemen. Zaydis were the oldest branch of the Shia
and the largest group amongst the Shiite before the Safavid Dynasty and currently the
second largest group, Zaydis do not believe in the infallibility of Imams, but promotes
their leadership and divine inspiration. Zaydis believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn
Ali, he was betrayed by the people in Kufa. The Zaydis are principally distinguished
from other Shiite groups in their conception of the nature of the Imamate. Unlike the
Imamis and Ismailis, who believe that the Imamate is handed down through a particular
line of descendants, the Zaydis believe that anyone in the house of Ali is eligible for the
Imamate. The Zaydis reject the doctrine of the Hidden Imam and the return of the
Mahdi. The Imam is regarded as neither infallible nor capable of performing miracles.
Personal merit, rather than investiture, governs who should be made Imam. The Zaydis
reject any form of 'sufi' tradition. Theologically they are closest to the Mu'tazila school.

4. Alawites

An Islamic sect, centered in Syria, who follow a branch of the Twelver school of Shia
Islam but with syncretistic elements. Alawites revere Ali and the name "Alawi" means
followers of Ali. The sect is believed to have been founded by Ibn Nusayr during the 9th
century. Today, Alawites represent 12 percent of the Syrian population and are a
significant minority in Turkey and northern Lebanon. There is also a population living in
the village of Ghajar in the occupied Golan Heights. They are often confused with the
Alevis of Turkey. Alawites form the dominant religious group on the Syrian coast and
towns near the coast which are also inhabited by Sunnis, Christians, and Ismailis.
Alawites have historically kept their beliefs secret from outsiders and non-initiated
Alawites, so rumours about them have arisen. Arabic accounts of their beliefs tend to be
partisan. However, since the early 2000s, Western scholarship on the Alawite religion
has made significant advances. At the core of Alawite belief is a divine triad, comprising
three aspects of the one God. These aspects or emanations appear cyclically in human
form throughout history. The last emanations of the divine triad, according to Alawite
belief, were as Ali, Muhammad and Salman the Persian. Alawites were historically
persecuted for these beliefs by the Sunni Muslim rulers of the area.

B. Sunni Islam

Sunni refers to the sunnas, or oral traditions and interpretations of the Koran, a body of
work similar to the Jewish Talmud. Sunnis believe that the position of Caliph should be
a position to which one is elected by the religious leaders of the Islamic community, and
not dependent on direct lineage from Mohammed.
 1. Wahhabi

A branch of Sunni Islam. It has been variously described as "ultraconservative",

"austere", "fundamentalist", "puritanical" or "puritan" and as an Islamic "reform
movement" to restore "pure monotheistic worship" (tawhid) by scholars and advocates,
and as an "extremist pseudo-Sunni movement" by opponents. Adherents often object to
the term Wahhabi as derogatory, and prefer to be called Salafi or muwahhid. Wahhabi
is named after an eighteenth-century preacher and scholar, Muhammad ibn Abd al-
Wahhab. He started a revivalist movement in the remote, sparsely populated region of
Najd, advocating a purging of practices such as the popular "cult of saints", and shrine
and tomb visitation, widespread among Muslims, but which he considered idolatry,
impurities and innovations in Islam. Eventually he formed a pact with a local leader
Muhammad bin Saud offering political obedience and promising that protection and
propagation of the Wahhabi movement would mean "power and glory" and rule of
"lands and men.” The movement is centred on the principle of Tawhid, or the
"uniqueness" and "unity" of God. The movement also draws from the teachings of
medieval theologian Ibn Taymiyyah and early jurist Ahmad ibn Hanbal.

2. Deobandi

A revivalist movement within Sunni Islam. It is centered in India, Pakistan, Afghanistan

and Bangladesh, has recently spread to the United Kingdom, and has a presence in
South Africa. The name derives from Deoband, India, where the school Darul Uloom
Deoband is situated. The movement was inspired by the spirit of scholar Shah Waliullah
Dehlawi, and was founded in 1867 in the wake of a failed revolt against British rule a
decade earlier. The movement developed as a reaction to British colonialism in India,
which was believed by a group of prominent Indian scholars consisting of Rashid
Ahmad Gangohi, Muhammad Yaqub Nanautawi, Shah Rafi al-Din, Sayyid Muhammad
Abid, Zulfiqar Ali, Fadhl al-Rahman Usmani and Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi to be
corrupting the Islamic religion. They therefore founded an Islamic seminary known as
Darul Uloom Deoband. From here the Islamic revivalist and anti-imperialist ideology of
the Deobandis began to develop. Gradually Darul Uloom Deoband became the second
largest focal point of Islamic teachings and research after the Al-Azhar University, Cairo,
Egypt. Through organisations such as Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind and Tablighi Jamaat its
ideology began to spread and the graduates of Darul Uloom Deoband from countries
like Saudi Arabia, China and Malaysia opened up thousands of madrasas throughout
South Asia, specifically in parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

3. Aligarh Movement

Syed Ahmad Khan was the first man to start a reform movement among the Muslims.
This movement was known as the Aligarh Movement. To him Quran was the only
authentic scripture for Islam and all other Islamic writings are secondary and misnomer.
For the safety of the Muslim community in India, he wanted to maintain cordial relation
between the Muslims and the Bruisers. Further, he wanted to provide modern education
to the Muslims. For educating the Muslim society, Ahmad Khan established an English
Medium School at Ghazipur in 1864. Later on he established 'Vegan Samaj' for
translating English books to impart scientific knowledge to the Muslims. To materialise
his dream, he established Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which
developed into Aligarh University in 1890, thus, the Aligarh movement was instrumental
in spreading western education among the Muslims and developing religious
fundamentalism within them. For achieving that end, he organized a Mohammedan
Educational Conference which fostered unity among the Muslims and spread western
education among them. Taking chance of it, Theodore Back, the first principal of the
Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College and his successor Mr. Morrison spread
communalism among the educated Muslims. The Aligarh Movement was instrumental in
the social, economic and educational progress of the Muslims in India. Due to the
predominance of the Hindus in the national awakening, Ahmad Khan launched this
movement to safeguard the Muslim interest. Being deeply impressed by the western
education and culture, Ahmad Khan wanted to incline towards the English
administrators of India and advised the Muslims to remain loyal to the British authority.
In 1893, he formed the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Defense Association of. India and
limited its leadership only to the Muslims. By this, he wanted to keep the Muslims away
from politics. Syed Ahmad Khan also opposed the All India Congress. Thus, the Aligarh
Movement made the Muslim fundamentalism strong. The Bruisers capitalized this by
sowing the seeds of communalism among the Muslims and followed their principle
'divide and rule' to secure their position in India.

C. Sufism

A mystical-ascetic form of Islam. It is not a sect, rather it is considered as the branch of

Islamic teaching that deals with the purification of inner self. By focusing on the more
spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making
use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. Tasawwuf is
regarded as a science of Islam that has always been an integral part of Orthodox Islam.
In his Al-Risala al-safadiyya, Shaykh Ibn Taymiyya describes the Sufis as those who
belong to the path of the Sunna and represent it in their teachings and writings. Jurist
and Hadith master Ibn Taymiyya's Sufi inclinations and his reverence for Sufis like 'Abd
al-Qadir Gilani can also be seen in his hundred-page commentary on Futuh al-ghayb,
covering only five of the seventy-eight sermons of the book, but showing that he
considered tasawwuf essential within the life of the Islamic community.

III. Key Terms

Caliph: A leader of an Islamic polity, regarded as a successor of Muhammad and by

tradition always male.

Hadith: A collection of traditions containing sayings of the prophet Muhammad that, with
accounts of his daily practice (the Sunnah), constitute the major source of guidance for
Muslims apart from the Koran.

Imam: The person who leads prayers in a mosque.

Kabah: A small, cubical building in the courtyard of the Great Mosque at Mecca
containing a sacred black stone, regarded by Muslims as the House of God and the
objective of their pilgrimages.

Minaret: A tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from which a
muezzin calls Muslims to prayer.

Mosque: A building used as a place of Muslim worship.

Muezzin: A man who calls Muslims to prayer from the minaret of a mosque.

Sura: A chapter or section of the Qu’ran.

Ulama: A body of Muslim scholars recognized as having specialist knowledge of Islamic

sacred law and theology.

IV. Sacred Book of Islam

A. Qu’ran

The central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God or
Allah. It is widely regarded as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language.
Quranic chapters are called suras and verses, ayahs. Muslims believe the Quran was
verbally revealed by God to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, gradually over a
period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609 CE when Muhammad
was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as the
most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood, and the culmination
of a series of divine messages that started with the messages revealed to Adam and
ended with Muhammad. There are 114 (one hundred and fourteen) chapters or Surahs
in Holy Quran among them 86(eighty six) chapters are Makki and remaining 28(twenty
eight) are Madni chapters. There are 30(thirty) paras containing 6666(Six thousand six
hundred and sixty six) verses in the Quran with 7(seven) stages. There are 14(fourteen)
verses on sajda (prostration) in Holy Quran and it is necessary for everyone to make a
prostration when he recites those verses. Quran defines nearly 700 (seven hundred)
times about prayer. Holy Quran has many other names according to the Quran itself like
al-furqan, al-kitab, al-zikr, al-noor, al- huda etc. Quran covers all the aspects of human
life and it divides human into two groups (believers and disbelievers). You have to
respect Quran and always do ablution before Quran recitation.

B. Sunnah

The verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds and sayings, silent permissions
(or disapprovals) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, as well as various reports about
Muhammad's companions. Along with the Quran (the holy book of Islam), the Sunna
makes up the two primary sources of Islamic theology and law. The Sunna is also
defined as "a path, a way, a manner of life"; "all the traditions and practices" of the
Islamic prophet that "have become models to be followed" by Muslims.

C. Hadith

Collections of the reports claiming to quote what the prophet Muhammad said verbatim
on any matter. Hadith are second only to the Qu’ran in developing Islamic
jurisprudence, and regarded as important tools for understanding the Qu’ran and
commentaries on it. Many important elements of traditional Islam, such as the five salat
prayers, are mentioned in hadith but not in the Qu’ran. The hadith literature is based on
spoken reports that were in circulation in society after the death of Prophet Muhammad.
Unlike the Quran itself, which was compiled under the official direction of the early
Islamic State in Medina, the hadith reports were not compiled by a central authority.
Hadith were evaluated and gathered into large collections during the 8th and 9th
centuries, generations after the death of Muhammad, after the end of the era of the
"rightful" Rashidun Caliphate, over 1000 km from where Muhammad lived. The two
major aspects of a hadith are the text of the report (the matn), which contains the actual
narrative, and the chain of narrators (the isnad), which documents the route by which
the report has been transmitted. The sanad, literally 'support', is so named due to the
reliance of the hadith specialists upon it in determining the authenticity or weakness of a
hadith. The isnad consists of a chronological list of the narrators, each mentioning the
one from whom they heard the hadith, until mentioning the originator of the matn along
with the matn itself.

V. Islam Images

A. Crescent Moon and Star

The star and crescent symbol itself is very ancient, dating back to early Sumerian
civilization, where it was associated with the sun God and moon Goddess (one early
appearance dates to 2100 BCE), and later, with Goddesses Tanit and even Diana. The
symbol remained in near constant use, and was eventually adopted into the battle-
standard of the Ottoman Dynasty, who are mainly responsible for its association with
Islam. As the Dynasty was also the political head of the faith, it was inevitable that their
symbol would be associated with Islam as well. It should be noted that there is no
mention of such a symbol in the Koran, the Holy book of Islam, nor is there any
relationship between the crescent and star and the Prophet (whose flag was black and
white, inscribed Nasr um min Allah, “with the help of Allah.”)

B. Show in picture and differentiate

Hijab: A veil that covers the head and chest, which is particularly worn
by some Muslim women beyond the age of puberty in the presence of adult males
outside of their immediate family.

Niqab: A cloth that covers the face as a part of sartorial hijab. It is

worn by some Muslim women in public areas and in front of non-mahram adult males,
especially in the Hanbali Muslim faith tradition.

Burka: An enveloping outer garment worn by women in some Islamic

traditions to cover their bodies when in public.
 Al-Amira: A two-piece veil consisting of a cap or extra-large headband
and a tube-like scarf worn over that. Women around the world wear this style.

Shayla: A rectangular piece of cloth (favored by women in the Gulf

region and making a surge in North America) wrapped around the head and pinned in
place on the shoulder.

Khimar: A long cape-like veil with an opening for the face that falls over
the bosom often to the hands.

Chador: A full-body-length semicircle of fabric that is open down the

front. This cloth is tossed over the woman's or girl's head, but then she holds it closed in
the front.
VI. Islam Teachings

A. Five Pillars of Islam

Creed (Shahadah): A declaration of faith and trust that professes that there is only one
God (Allah) and that Muhammad is God's messenger. "There is no god but God (and)
Muhammad is the messenger of God." It is essential to utter it to become a Muslim and
to convert to Islam.

Prayer (Salat): The Islamic prayer. Salat consists of five daily prayers according to the
Sunna; the names are according to the prayer times: Fajr (dawn), Dhuhr (noon), ʿAṣr
(afternoon), Maghrib (evening), and ʿIshaʾ (night). The Fajr prayer is performed before
sunrise, Dhuhr is performed in the midday after the sun has surpassed its highest point,
Asr is the evening prayer before sunset, Maghrib is the evening prayer after sunset and
Isha is the night prayer. All of these prayers are recited while facing in the direction of
the Kaaba in Mecca and forms an important aspect of the Muslim Ummah. Muslims
must wash before prayer; this washing is called wudu ("purification"). The prayer is
accompanied by a series of set positions including; bowing with hands on knees,
standing, prostrating and sitting in a special position (not on the heels, nor on the
buttocks). A Muslim may perform their prayer anywhere, such as in offices, universities,
and fields. However, the mosque is the more preferable place for prayers because the
mosque allows for fellowship.

Charity to the Poor (Zakat): The practice of charitable giving based on accumulated
wealth. The word zakat can be defined as purification and growth because it allows an
individual to achieve balance and encourages new growth. The principle of knowing that
all things belong to God is essential to purification and growth. Zakat is obligatory for all
Muslims who are able to do so. It is the personal responsibility of each Muslim to ease
the economic hardship of others and to strive towards eliminating inequality. Zakat
consists of spending a portion of one's wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, like
debtors or travelers. A Muslim may also donate more as an act of voluntary charity
(sadaqah), rather than to achieve additional divine reward.
Fasting (Sawm): Three types of fasting (Siyam) are recognized by the Quran: Ritual
fasting, fasting as compensation for repentance (both from sura Al-Baqara), and ascetic
fasting (from Al-Ahzab). Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan.
Muslims must abstain from food and drink from dawn to dusk during this month, and are
to be especially mindful of other sins. Fasting is necessary for every Muslim that has
reached puberty (unless he/she suffers from a medical condition which prevents him/her
from doing so). The fast is meant to allow Muslims to seek nearness and to look for
forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and dependence on him, atone for
their past sins, and to remind them of the needy. During Ramadan, Muslims are also
expected to put more effort into following the teachings of Islam by refraining from
violence, anger, envy, greed, lust, profane language, gossip and to try to get along with
fellow Muslims better. In addition, all obscene and irreligious sights and sounds are to
be avoided. Fasting during Ramadan is obligatory, but is forbidden for several groups
for whom it would be very dangerous and excessively problematic. These include pre-
pubescent children, those with a medical condition such as diabetes, elderly people,
and pregnant or breastfeeding women. Observing fasts is not permitted for
menstruating women. Other individuals for whom it is considered acceptable not to fast
are those who are ill or traveling. Missing fasts usually must be made up for soon
afterward, although the exact requirements vary according to circumstance

Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj): A pilgrimage that occurs during the Islamic month of Dhu al-
Hijjah to the holy city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim is obliged to make the
pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their life. When the pilgrim is around 10 km (6.2 mi)
from Mecca, he/she must dress in Ihram clothing, which consists of two white sheets.
Both men and women are required to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. After a Muslim
makes the trip to Mecca, he/she is known as a hajj/hajja (one who made the pilgrimage
to Mecca). The main rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba
termed Tawaf, touching the Black Stone termed Istilam, traveling seven times between
Mount Safa and Mount Marwah termed Sa'yee, and symbolically stoning the Devil in
Mina termed Ramee. The pilgrim, or the haji, is honoured in the Muslim community.
Islamic teachers say that the Hajj should be an expression of devotion to God, not a
means to gain social standing. The believer should be self-aware and examine their
intentions in performing the pilgrimage. This should lead to constant striving for self-
improvement. A pilgrimage made at any time other than the Hajj season is called an
Umrah, and while not mandatory is strongly recommended. Also, they make a
pilgrimage to the holy city of Jerusalem in their alms-giving feast.

B. Jihad

An Islamic term referring to the religious duty of Muslims to maintain the religion. In
Arabic, the word jihād is a noun meaning the act of "striving, applying oneself,
struggling, persevering". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid, the plural of
which is mujahideen. The word jihad appears frequently in the Quran, often in the
idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God (al-jihad fi sabil Allah)", to refer to the
act of striving to serve the purposes of God on this earth. Muslims and scholars do not
all agree on its definition. Many observers both Muslim and non-Muslim as well as the
Dictionary of Islam, talk of jihad having two meanings: an inner spiritual struggle (the
"greater jihad"), and an outer physical struggle against the enemies of Islam (the "lesser
jihad") which may take a violent or non-violent form. Jihad is often translated as "Holy
War", although this term is controversial. According to orientalist Bernard Lewis, "the
overwhelming majority of classical theologians, jurists", and specialists in the hadith
"understood the obligation of jihad in a military sense." Javed Ahmad Ghamidi states
that there is consensus among Islamic scholars that the concept of jihad will always
include armed struggle against wrong doers. It was generally supposed that the order
for a general war could only be given by the Caliph, but Muslims who did not
acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Caliphate such as non-Sunnis and non-
Ottoman Muslim states always looked to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad.
There has been in fact no universal warfare by Muslims on non-believers since the early
caliphate. Some proclaimed jihad by claiming themselves as mahdi, e.g. the Sudanese
Mahommed Ahmad in 1882. In classical Islam, the military form of jihad was also
regulated to protect civilians. Jihad is an important religious duty for Muslims. A minority
among the Sunni scholars sometimes refer to this duty as the sixth pillar of Islam,
though it occupies no such official status. In Twelver Shi'a Islam, however, jihad is one
of the ten Practices of the Religion.
 C. Sharia (Shariah) Law

The basic Islamic legal system derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly
the Quran and the Hadith. The term sharia comes from the Arabic language term
sharīʿah, which means a body of moral and religious law derived from religious
prophecy, as opposed to human legislation. Sharia deals with many topics, including
crime, politics, marriage contracts, trade regulations, religious prescriptions, and
economics, as well as personal matters such as sexual intercourse, hygiene, diet,
prayer, everyday etiquette and fasting. Adherence to sharia has served as one of the
distinguishing characteristics of the Muslim faith historically. In its strictest definition,
sharia is considered in Islam as the infallible law of God. There are two primary sources
of sharia: the Quran, and the Hadiths (opinions and life example of Muhammad). For
topics and issues not directly addressed in these primary sources, sharia is derived.
The derivation differs between the various sects of Islam (Sunni and Shia are the
majority), and various jurisprudence schools such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and
Jafari. The sharia in these schools is derived hierarchically using one or more of the
following guidelines: Ijma (usually the consensus of Muhammad's companions), Qiyas
(analogy derived from the primary sources), Istihsan (ruling that serves the interest of
Islam in the discretion of Islamic jurists) and Urf (customs). Sharia is a significant source
of legislation in many Muslim countries where some countries apply a majority or some
of the sharia code, and these include Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Brunei, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Yemen and Mauritania. In these
countries, sharia-prescribed punishments such as beheading, flogging and stoning
continue to be practiced judicially or extra-judicially. There has been controversy over
what some perceive as a movement by various Islamist groups to introduce and
implement sharia throughout the world, including in Western countries, but attempts to
impose sharia have been accompanied by controversy, violence, and even warfare.
Most countries do not recognize sharia; however, some countries in Asia, Africa and
Europe recognize parts of sharia and accept it as the law on divorce, inheritance and
other personal affairs of their Islamic population. In Britain, the Muslim Arbitration
Tribunal makes use of sharia family law to settle disputes, and this limited adoption of
sharia is controversial. The concept of crime, judicial process, justice and punishment
embodied in shari'a is different from that of secular law. The differences between sharia
and secular law have led to an ongoing controversy as to whether sharia is compatible
with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's
rights.

D. God

In Islamic theology, God or Allah is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer,
ordainer and judge of everything in existence. Islam emphasizes that God is strictly
singular (tawḥid ) unique (wāḥid ) and inherently One (aḥad ), all-merciful and
omnipotent. According to Islamic teachings, beyond the Throne and according to the
Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all
comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things." God, as referenced in the Quran, is
the only God. Definition of God is given in the Surat 112 Al-'Ikhlāş (The Sincerity) it says
"He is God, [who is] One. God, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is
there to Him any equivalent." In Islam, there are 99 known names of God each of which
evoke a distinct attribute of God. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-
comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most familiar and
frequent of these names are "the Compassionate" (Ar-Raḥmān) and "the Merciful" (Ar-
Raḥīm). Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of prime mercy for
which all creatures sing God's glories and bear witness to God's unity and lordship. God
responds to those in need or distress whenever they call. Above all, God guides
humanity to the right way, "the holy ways".

E. Purpose of Existence

The purpose of life as understood by the Believing Muslim can be simply stated in only
two (2) words: Obey God. Our only purpose and salvation lie in these two words. We
must come to know our Creator, Sustainer and Ultimate Judge. We must learn to
believe in Him, thank Him, praise Him, honor Him and worship Him, alone without any
partners from His Creation. We must learn about His Messengers and Prophets, peace
be upon them, and the message with which they were all sent. We must learn the Word
of God as was directly revealed, preserved and memorized and passed down by
memory throughout all the generations of Muslims to the present day. Those who are in
search of truth, having open minds and hearts will recognize this as a message in truth
and sincerity. Open your heart and your mind now and ask the Almighty God of the
Universe [Allah] to guide you now to His True Way. And then be ready to accept your
true purpose in life.

F. Human Being

A definition of humanity seems easy to think of yet difficult to propose, and there have
been disputes about it among different schools of thought. Most pioneers in social
thought and leaders of movements claim that the main feature of their activities is their
humanism and humanitarian efforts. To avoid having misconceptions about humanity or
sinking in the whirlpool of literal interpretations and logical disputes, we need to first
focus on the reality of the human being and his different aspects, and then discuss the
derived infinitive word form humanity, its meaning, virtues, and functions. First, human
beings are objective beings who are different from other objective beings with respect to
freedom of choice, meaning that their actions and behaviours are a result of their
reasoning and will, albeit relatively. Second, human beings are to a large extent affected
by their surroundings, that is, the physical environment and other beings. Third, human
beings are social beings who naturally interact with other human beings. Fourth, human
beings are created by God, the Creator of the universe. This relation with God has
different dimensions which affect them as persons and all of their relationships. These
four features are like four chapters of the book of humanity. Thus, human values are
those basic elements in the nature of human beings which are to be developed by his
own efforts. This development is an evolutionary movement in which no part of the
human existence harms the others and none of these elements should stop the
movement of the human being towards a better state. These are the outlines for his
comprehensive perfection which originate from his very nature. Man’s God-given nature
and colour are like seeds and potentials which are hidden in him at the beginning of
creation and will flourish when man follows the right path.
 G. Suffering and Evil

The monotheistic faiths must consider the problems of suffering and evil within the
context of God's power and mercy. In Islam, there are two views of suffering, both of
which resemble views held by its sister faiths, Judaism and Christianity. Suffering is
either the painful result of sin, or it is a test. In the latter view, suffering tests belief; a
true Muslim will remain faithful through the trials of life. But suffering also reveals the
hidden self to God. Suffering is built into the fabric of existence so that God may see
who is truly righteous. In other words, God not only allows the various agonies and
struggles of life, but has a purpose for them. Suffering opens up the soul and reveals it
to God. God uses suffering to look within humans and test their characters, and correct
the unbelievers. Suffering is also a painful result of sin. In Islam, sin is associated with
unbelief. Muslims surrender to God's will, and find peace in that surrender. Sometimes
people forget to listen to the prophets, and fail to serve God in all that they do. This is
the state of unbelief, called kufr, which literally means to forget through hiding of the
truth. Therefore someone who is a kafir is someone who has purposefully forgotten the
Lord. They become preoccupied with their own particular needs and their passions.
Islam does not condemn human passions or human needs, seeing them as a necessary
part of a full and useful life. But when people forget to serve God, these needs and
passions can enslave them. They begin to misuse their divine gifts of intelligence, will,
and speech. Enslaved by lust, and by cravings for wealth and pleasure, they do evil and
destructive things. These moments of unbelief can happen to anyone, and when people
realize their mistake, they suffer. Seen in this light, suffering is not only painful, but a
lesson. It reminds humans of the truth of God's revelation. Although all people are
imperfect and vulnerable to kufr, Islam does not teach that they are essentially evil.
When they realize their sin and make amends with true remorse, God forgives the sin.
Genuine repentance is all that is needed to restore humans to a sinless state. However,
individuals are always vulnerable to it, and sin and suffering are serious matters. The
great struggle, or jihad, of human life is the struggle to perfect one's heart and live in
total submission to God. It is possible to be a perfect Muslim, since God does not ask
anyone to do anything that is beyond his or her ability. But perfect Muslims, like
prophets, are very rare individuals. Most must be vigilant and always begin with the
intention to do good. Islam teaches the endurance of suffering with hope and faith. The
faithful are not counseled to resist it, or to ask why. Instead, they accept it as God's will
and live through it with faith that God never asks more of them than they can endure.
However, Islam also teaches the faithful to work actively to alleviate the suffering of
others. Recognizing that they are the cause of their own suffering, individuals work to
bring suffering to an end. In the Islamic view, righteous individuals are revealed not only
through patient acceptance of their own suffering, but through their good works for
others. And if suffering is a consequence of unbelief, then good works will relieve pain.

H. Women in Islam

Women in Islam are guided by primary Islamic sources of personal law, namely the
Quran and hadiths, as well as secondary sources such as the ijma, qiyas, ijtihad in form
such as fatwas; the secondary sources vary with various sects of Islam and schools of
jurisprudence (madhhab). In certain regions, in addition to religious guidelines, pre-
Islamic cultural traditions play a role. Islamic laws and cultural customs impact various
stages of a Muslim women's life, including her education, employment opportunities,
rights to inheritance, dress, age of marriage, freedom to consent to marriage, marriage
contract, mahr, permissibility of birth control, divorce, sex outside or before marriage,
her ability to receive justice in case of sex crimes, property rights independent of her
husband, and when salat (prayers) are mandatory for her. Polygyny is allowed to men
under Islam, but not widespread; in some Islamic countries, such as Iran, a woman's
husband may enter into temporary marriages in addition to permanent marriage. There
is debate and controversy on gender roles according to Islam. Sharia provides for
complementarianism, differences between women's and men's roles, rights, and
obligations. Being a Muslim is more than a religious identity; Islam outlines and
structures ways in which Muslim women should live their lives on a day-to-day basis. In
majority Muslim countries women exercise varying degrees of their religious rights with
regards to marriage, divorce, legal status, dress code, and education based on different
interpretations. Scholars and other commentators vary as to whether they are just and
whether they are a correct interpretation of religious imperatives.
 I. Marriage in Islam

A legal contract between two people. Both the groom and the bride are to consent to the
marriage of their own free wills. A formal, binding contract is considered integral to a
religiously valid Islamic marriage, and outlines the rights and responsibilities of the
groom and bride. There must be two Muslim witnesses of the marriage contract.
Divorce is permitted and can primarily be issued by the groom. However, the bride also
has the right to initiate the demand for the divorce. The actual rules of marriage and
divorce can differ from country to country, based on codified law and the school of
jurisprudence that is largely followed in that country. In addition to the usual marriage
until death or divorce, there is a different fixed-term marriage known as zawāj al-mutʻah
("temporary marriage") permitted only by the Twelver branch of Shia Islam for a pre-
fixed period. There is also Nikah Misyar, a non-temporary marriage with the removal of
some conditions permitted by some Sunni Muslims, which usually amount to the wife
waiving her right to sustenance from her husband. Islam is totally opposed to
monasticism and celibacy. Marriage is an act of Sunnah in Islam and is strongly
recommended.

J. Haram

An Arabic term meaning "forbidden." Thus it may refer to: either something sacred to
which access is forbidden to the people who are not in a state of purity or who are not
initiated into the sacred knowledge; or to an evil thus "sinful action that is forbidden to
be done." In Islamic jurisprudence, haram is used to refer to any act that is forbidden by
Allah, and is one of five Islamic commandments that define the morality of human
action. Acts that are haram are typically prohibited in the religious texts of the Quran
and the Sunnah. The category of haram is the highest status of prohibition. Islam
teaches that a haram (sinful) act is recorded by an angel on the person's left shoulder. If
something is considered haram, it remains prohibited no matter how good the intention
is or how honorable the purpose is. A haram is converted into a gravitational force on
the day of judgment and placed on mizan (weighing scales). Views of different madhabs
can vary significantly regarding what is or is not haram.
 K. Halal

An Arabic word meaning lawful or permitted. The opposite of halal is haram, which
means unlawful or prohibited. Halal and haram are universal terms that apply to all
facets of life but this discussion will be limited to food products, meat products,
cosmetics, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, food ingredients, and food contact
materials. While many things are clearly halal or haram, there are some things which
are not clear. Further information is needed to categorize them as halal or haram. Such
items are often referred to as mashbooh, which means doubtful or questionable. All
foods are considered halal except the following sources: Swine/Pork and its by-
products, animals not properly slaughtered according to Islamic method or dead before
slaughtering, alcoholic drinks and intoxicants, carnivorous animals and birds of prey and
blood and blood by-products.

VII. Muslim Festivals

There are two great festivals in Islam, 'Idul-Fitr, which falls on the first day of Shawwal,
the tenth month of the Islamic year, and 'Idul-Adha, which falls on the tenth day of Thul-
Hijjah and coincides with the Yauman-Nahr, "Day of the Sacrifices" in the Hajj
Pilgrimage as we have seen. The first festival, Eid-ul-Fitr (the "Festival of the Breaking
of the Fast"), occurs as soon as the new moon is sighted at the end of the month of
fasting, namely Ramadan. The igdah is a large place especially set aside for the large
congregations who will attend the special Eid prayer early in the morning and can be an
open field or flat piece of ground. It is only used as such on festival days for
congregational prayers, the proper place always being the mosque on other occasions.
The Eid prayer is not only said at an unusual place but is also conducted without the
usual azaan, the call to prayer. The festival is intended to be a festive and joyous
occasion. Special foods and delicacies are prepared for the day and are distributed to
neighbours and friends. Despite its importance it is considered inferior to the Eid-ul-
Adha and is known as the "little feast". Eid-ul-Adha (the "Feast of Sacrifice") is the great
festival of Islam. It is also known as Baqri-Eid (the "Cow Festival") because its most
important feature is the sacrifice of an animal (cow, goat, sheep, or other appropriate
beast) in commemoration of the ram sacrificed by Abraham in place of his son. In
Muhammad's time a camel was usually the animal sacrificed. The command to perform
sacrifices is given in Surah 22.36 and although no specific day is fixed in the Qur'an the
sacrificing of animals was already practiced on the last day of the pilgrimage by the pre-
Islamic Arabs and the institution was duly retained. A special prayer, similar to the Eid-
ul-Fitr prayer, is also offered on this day before the animals are sacrificed. The name
commonly given to the Eid sacrifice, qurbani, seems to have similar origins to the
Jewish "Corban", meaning something set apart for God (Mark 7.11), and is probably
derived from the Jewish word. Both Eids can last for two or three days but the
prescribed rituals and prayers must be performed on the first day of each festival. Islam
has three holy nights each year, the most important being Laylatul-Qadr (the "Night of
Power") which is traditionally believed to be the 27th night of Ramadan. It is the night on
which the Qur'an was allegedly brought down to the first heaven before being revealed
to Muhammad and it is also the night on which special blessings are believed to be sent
down on true worshippers from heaven. Other traditions say it falls on one of the last
seven nights of the month. The night is also called laylatim-mubaarakah in Surah 44.3 -
"a blessed night". This is one night of the year when every Muslim will seek to attend
the evening prayer and the usual tarawih prayers of Ramadan. The second great holy
night of Islam is Laylatul-Bara'ah, the "Night of Record", which falls on the fifteenth night
of Shabaan, the month before Ramadan. Once again every effort will be made to attend
the mosque. The night is also commonly known as Shabi-Baraat and it is said that there
is a tree in heaven which sheds a number of leaves on this night, each one containing
the name of someone destined to die in the coming year. The mercy of Allah,
nevertheless, also descends on this night and sinners who repent are likely to obtain
forgiveness in it. There appears to be a possibility that the night's significance may have
Jewish origins. The third holy night is Laylatul-Mi'raj, the "Night of Ascension",
commemorating Muhammad's ascent to heaven. This night, like the others, is also one
in which much reading of the Qur' an and reciting of prayers takes place, but little need
be said of it as we have already discussed the supposed ascension in an earlier chapter
and have there made reference to this night of observance. These three nights are the
most important nights in the Islamic faith and are universally observed by the Muslims.
There are really only two other days in the Muslim year that are regarded as especially
important. One is the tenth of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic year. During
Muhammad's life this day became a day of fasting in imitation of the Jewish fast of
Ashura (cf. Exodus 12. 1-7). This practice was soon abandoned, however, and
Muhammad is reported as saying that fasting on this day is not obligatory (Muwatta
Imam Malik, p.123). After the massacre of Muhammad's grandson Husain and his band
of followers at Karbala on this same day many years later, the whole of the first ten days
of Muharram became a time of mourning for Shi'ite Muslims and today the day itself is
observed in both Sunni and Shi'ite Islam as a remembrance of the tragedy at Karbala.
More will be said of this event in the section on Shi'ite Islam. The other holy day is
Maulidun-Nabi, the birthday of Muhammad, which falls on the 12th of Rabi-ul-Awwal.
This festival of great feasting and many peculiar practices of un-Islamic origin is often
frowned upon by the more orthodox Muslims and took some time to become widely
observed. Many Muslims openly concede that the practice of observing Muhammad's
birthday is an innovation in Islam, something invariably disapproved of by conservative
elements, but they excuse it as a "praiseworthy" innovation, a bid'atun-hasanah. It has
also become customary to hold celebrations honouring various "saints" in Islam on this
day as well, a custom considered even more reprehensible by orthodox Muslims. It
seems likely that the Christian festival of Christmas gave rise to this equivalent in Islam.
Ironically neither the actual date on which Jesus was born nor the birthday of
Muhammad is known and the dates recorded are purely speculative. There are many
other days in popular Islam that have become widely observed in the Muslim world,
especially the Urs of any particular saint (usually his birthday when various unorthodox
celebrations take place), but the two Eids and the three holy nights are the great
festivals of Islam and are the only ones universally observed by all Muslims without
dispute as to the worthiness of the occasion.