UNIT I INTRODUCTION

AERODYNAMICS
The aerodynamics are the part of the fluid mechanics that studies the laws that
regulate the movement of the gases, specially the air, and the forces and reactions
which are developed between the atmosphere and the bodies that interact with it
when there’s a relative movement between the bodies and the air.
The reactions depend on the air conditions, the relative speed, the shape of the
body and the relative position, but they do not depend on the body’s weight.

Speed V
fluid
vector

FORCES AND AERODYNAMIC MOMENTS

There are diverse reference systems to considerate the relative moment between
the air and the body interacting with it.
For the structural calculus it is convenient to use a coordinate system geared towards
the geometry of the aircraft.
For the aerodynamic calculus it is convenient to use a coordinate system geared
towards the direction of the aircraft.
 Translation movement Rotation movement
Axis
along the axis around the axis

X-X (longitudinal) Forward Roll

Pitch (+) rise

Y-Y (lateral) Slip
(-) Fall

Z-Z (vertical) Rise or fall Yaw

PRESSURE CENTRE
As there exists a relative movement between the air and a body, the fluid produce
forces on it, which can be represented with a vector, denominated “Aerodynamic
resultant force” (R).

C
P
L: Lift
D: Drag
: Angle of attack
A: Chord
 C.P.: Centre of Pressure
Xcp
Xcp =
𝑐
The intersection point of the aerodynamic resultant force with the airfoil’s chord is
denominated “Centre of pressure”.
As the gravity force reacts on the gravity centre of the body, the aerodynamic
resultant force reacts on the intersection between the chord and the direction of the
resultant force.
The position of the centre of pressure along the chord can be defined with help of
the relative coordinate:

The attack border is the one before the wing, it is also said, depart from the wing
that takes contact with the air flux in advance. Applied to an airfoil, it is the point on
that firstly the air takes contact with your whole body.
The coordinate Xcp can be determined following to the aerodynamic moment (Mz),
which is represented with relation to the attack border.
𝑀𝑧 = −𝐿(𝑋𝑐𝑝)
−𝑀𝑧
𝑋𝑐𝑝 =
𝐿
In the real conditions the centre of pressures is displaced along chord during flight. Forward
the most used airfoils in subsonic aerodynamics, the next picture shows the displacement
limits
AERODYNAMIC CENTRE
A point along the chord can be determined in relation to aerodynamic momentum
four different angle of attack it is the same.
To that point on the airfoil in relation to where the momentum of the aerodynamic
forces does not depend on the attack angle is called aerodynamic center.

Pressure centre displacement limits

Aerodynamic centre

AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
For the aerodynamic airfoils calculi, those which have aeronautics application, it is
considerate the following designation or nomenclature.

Leading Edge. Forward edge of the airfoil

Trailing Edge. Aft edge of the airfoil
Chord. Line connecting the leading and trailing edge. Denotes the length of the
airfoil
Mean Camber Line Line drawn half way between the upper and lower surface of
the airfoil. Denotes the amount of curvature of the wing
Point of Maximum Thickness. Thickest part of the wing expressed as a
percentage of the chord
Curvature “f”

If 𝑓 > 0 then we have an asymmetric airfoil of a positive curvature

If 𝑓 = 0 (the chord line matches the X axis of the Wind Coordinate System) so you
have a symmetrical profile

If 𝑓 < 0 you have a symmetrical negative curvature profile

Maximum order. It is the maximum distance between the middle curve line and
the profile string. the value usually occurs in percentage of the string.

Fmax absolute distance from the leading edge to the position of the maximum
(maximum curvature) order on the x-axis.
This magnitude can be expressed relative to the chord.

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑐

The value usually occurs in percentage of the chord.

Maximum thickness and position

𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum thickness

𝑋𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Maximum thickness 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Are two important characteristics that are expressed as a percentage of the string.
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒̅ =
𝐶

Relative thickness

𝑋𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑒̅ =
𝐶

Maximum relative thickness coordinate

Classification of profiles by relative thicknesses

0% ˂ 𝑒̅ ˂ 3% -------- flat plate

3% ˂ 𝑒̅ ˂ 8% -------- Slim profile

8% ˂ 𝑒̅ ˂ 12% ------- medium profile

12% ˂ 𝑒̅ ˂ 18% ----- thick profile

Radius of curvature of the leading edge

Defines the shape of the leading edge and is the radius of a circle tangent to the
extrados and intrados, and with its centered center located on the tangent line at
the origin of the medium curvature line. wind tunnel wheels from specialized
laboratories. The most commonly used in civil aviation are the profiles of the NACA
series of the United States, the TSAGI series of Russia and the German Lilienthal
airfoiles.
Classification of aircraft according to the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) of the United Nations.

Spherical Free
Ballon
Non-Power-
Free balloon
Driven
Non-Spherical
Free Ballon
Lighter-Than-
Air Aircraft Rigid Airship

Semi-Rigid
Power-Driven Airship
Airship

Non-Rigid
Airship

Aircraft Non-Power- Glider Lang Glider

Driven Kite Sea Glider

Landplane

Aeroplane Seaplane

Heavier-Than-
Amphibian
Air Aircraft

Land
Gyroplane

Sea
Gyroplane
Gyroplane

Amphibian
Power-Driven
Gyroplane
Rotocraft
Land
Helicopter

Sea
Helicopter
Helicopter

Land Amphibian
Ornithopter Helicopter

Sea
Ornithopther
Ornithopter

Amphibian
Ornithopter
NACA AERODYNAMIC AIRFOIL (BY THE NASA)
The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA airfoils is
described using a series of digits following the word "NACA". The parameters in the
numerical code can be entered equations to precisely generate the cross-section of
the airfoil and calculate its properties.
The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:
First digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.
Second digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil leading
edge in tens of percent of the chord.
Last two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the chord.
For example, the NACA 2412 airfoil has a maximum camber of 2% located 40% (0.4
chords) from the leading edge with a maximum thickness of 12% of the chord.
The NACA 0015 airfoil is symmetrical, the 00 indicating that it has no camber. The
15 indicates that the airfoil has a 15% thickness to chord length ratio: it is 15% as
thick as it is long.
Five-digit series
The NACA five-digit series describes more complex airfoil shapes. Its format is:
LPSTT, where:
L: a single digit representing the theoretical optimum lift coefficient at ideal angle-
of-attack CLI = 0.15*L (this is not the same as the lift coefficient, CL)
P: a single digit for the x-coordinate of the point of maximum camber (max camber
at x = 0.05*P)
S: a single digit indicating whether the camber is simple (S=0) or reflex (S=1)
TT: the maximum thickness in percent of chord, as in a four-digit NACA airfoil code
For example, the NACA 23112 profile describes an airfoil with design lift coefficient
of 0.3 (0.15*2), the point of maximum camber located at 15% chord (5*3), reflex
camber (1), and maximum thickness of 12% of chord length.
GEOMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WING
The wing is the sustaining surface of the aircraft, whose function is to generate the
aerodynamic lifting force necessary for the flight and maneuvers of the aircraft in its
different stages.

Its main direct geometric characteristics are:

IN TOP VIEW

INDIRECT GEOMETRIC WING CHARACTERISTICS

Alar surface S

Elongation (AR) Aspect Ratio. Is the ratio between the wingspan and the string.

- For rectangular wings:

𝐸
𝐴𝑅 =
𝐶

- In subsonic airplanes of low speed ranges between

6 ˂ AR ˂ 12
 - For non-rectangular wings:

𝐸2
𝐴𝑅 = (Arrowed wings)
𝑆

Medium geometric chord. Assuming a homogeneous material, the point by which

the geometric medium chord passes is the center of gravity of the wing section and
is obtained with the help of the following image:

Conicity n. It is the relation between the root chord and the end chord.

𝐶𝑜
𝜂=
𝐶𝑒

In subsonic airplanes 1˂𝜂˂5

In supersonic airplanes 10 ˂ 𝜂 ˂ ∞

IN SIDE VIEW
Geometric torque angle (𝝋)

The torque angle is obtained from the difference between the angle of the root chord
and the end chord, usually less than 4 degrees and is used to reduce the turbulence
generated in the extreme chord.
FRONT VIEW
Dihedral angle

Wing mechanisms
WINGS CLASSIFICATION
By number

1. Monoplane
2. Biplane
3. Triplane
4. Tetraplane

n. ∞

By relative position (to the fuselage)

By dihedral angle
By top view shape

Airplane configuration

- Conventional configuration - Canard

 - Twin boom - Flying wing

Non-conventional configuration Asymmetric airplane

Plane in c
BACK VIEW
Tail Types

Conventional Empennage
By number of engines
- Planner
- Mono-engine
- Bi-engine
- Tri-engine
- Tetra-engine
- n-∞
By type of landing gear

Fixed
Withdrawn
Retrectil
Hidden

By application
- Main
- Control
- Auxiliary
Landing gear by ICAO type

Terrestrial

 Spare landing gear

 Wheel landing gear
 Mixed

Aquatic

- Float
- Fuselage
- Amphibious
By number of wheels

0: without landing gear

1: monocycle

2: bicycle

3: tricycle

CLARK Y
For many applications the Clark Y has been an adequate airfoil section; it gives
reasonable overall performance in respect of its lift-to-drag ratio and has gentle and
relatively benign stall characteristics. But the flat lower surface is not optimal from
an aerodynamic perspective, and it is rarely used in modern designs.

TSAGI
TsAGI has developed new types of airfoils with peak and rear distributions of
pressure (airfoils with rear load). These airfoils formed the basis for comprehensive
computational and experimental investigations of aerodynamics of swept wings
designed for cruising speeds M=0.8-0.85.

The starting point for all aerodynamic projects was optimization of a wing form and
airfoil configuration for passenger airliners designed for various Mach numbers.
Helicopter Anatomy
Conventional configuration

Twin boom helicopter

Fenestron

Notar
Classification by number of blades

1. Monoblade
2. Biblade
3. Triblade

n. ∞

Classification by number of rotors

In parallel
Monorotor
In tandem
Birrotor
Coaxial
Trirotor
Synchropter
Tetrarotor

Turbulence generators
UNIT II. LIFT FORCE (L)

LIFT
Is the projection on the vertical axis in the coordinate system of the aerodynamic
resultant force of the wind.

There are different theories that explain how the lifting force is generated. The most
common ones will be analyzed.
Experimental force

𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑞𝑆

𝐿 = (𝐿𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡)(𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)(𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑤)

The Drag (represented with the D letter) is the component of the resultant
aerodynamic force which remains in a parallel direction with the one of the relative
wind.

𝐿
𝐶𝐿 =
𝑞𝑆
𝜌𝑉
Dynamic pressure  𝑞 =
2

El CL can be represented on a graphic in function of the attack angle, this graphic is

known as Lift curve.
IMAGINE ASSUMING A CIRCULATION OF 25 FT AROUND A OF
1 FT DIAMETER CYLINDER
Circulation is a mathematical assumption to explain how lift is generated. suppose
that inside a moving fluid we imaginatively designate a contour “C” that encloses a
solid body that is in the fluid

We observe that the elementary vector DS is equal to the magnitude of the length
of the DS and is directed along the positive direction tangent to the contour
ds==Ԏds the direction is considered positive when the contour is on the left side of
the velocity vector also the velocity vector turn counterclockwise.
The integral of the scalar product of the vectors V and ds taken in the open section
AB the contour is equal to
𝑉𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉 cos 𝑣𝑑𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑠
where
VS= speed vector projection
V= over the tangent
if we integrate the previous equation we will have
𝐵 𝐵
∫ (𝑉𝑑𝑠) = ∫ (𝑉𝑠𝑑𝑠)
𝐴 𝐴

The previous equation is known as “linear velocity integral”

integrating along the contour C we have the following equation. known as speed
circulation that is represented by the letter uppercase range Г
Γ = 𝜙𝑐 (𝑉𝑎𝑠 ) = 𝜙𝑐 (𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑠 )
if we express the scalar product through its projections in a rectangular coordinate
system we have

Γ = 𝜙𝑐 (𝑉𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑉𝑧 𝑑𝑧 )

This concept can be applied to any other flow parameter. In this course we will
always be referring to the speed circulation
KUTTA JOUKOWSKI THEOREM
Joukowski assumed that an ideal fluid in the forces acting on the body is due to the
formation of vortices and the emergence of circulation around the body. in 1906
Joukowski demonstrated the relationship between the lift in the circulation around
a profile of any form submerged in an old fluid with a displacement of parallel current
lines in the plane
Joukowski's theorem is based on modern methods of calculating the aerodynamic
characteristics of the wings, propellers, rotors, blades
To circulate an ideal fluid on a profile in its unitary section, the lifting force acts that
is equal to the product of the velocity and circulation density on a profile
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ Γ
or
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉Γ𝐸
If we know how many sanitary sections exist if we know how large then
𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ Γ
The Joukowski theorem can be applied to any element of the wing d and finite
wingspan assuming it works as an element of infinite wingspan
We determine the theory of dietary support dl with the help of the form theorem
𝑑𝐿 = 𝜌∞ 𝑣∞ Γ(𝑦)𝑑𝑦

MAGNUS EFFECT

The Magnus effect is an observable phenomenon

that is commonly associated with a spinning
object moving through the air or a fluid. The path
of the spinning object is deflected in a manner
that is not present when the object is not
spinning. The deflection can be explained by the
difference in pressure of the fluid on opposite
sides of the spinning object.

The most readily observable case of the Magnus

effect is when a spinning sphere (or cylinder) curves away from the arc it would
follow if it were not spinning. It is often used by football players, baseball pitchers
and cricket bowlers. Consequently, the phenomenon is important in the study of the
physics of many ball sports. It is also an important factor in the study of the effects
of spinning on guided missiles—and has some engineering uses, for instance in the
design of rotor ships and Flettner aeroplanes.

NON-SLIP CONDITION
All experimental observations indicate that a moving fluid in contact with a stationary
solid surface arrives to stop completely on the surface and acquires a zero-
experimental velocity indicate that a moving fluid in contact with a stationary solid
surface comes to stop completely on the surface and acquires a zero speed. A layer
of fluid adjacent to a moving surface has the same speed as this a fluid in direct
contact with a solid stick the surface due to viscous effects and there is no slippage.
Periferic velocity:
2πRn
𝑉𝑡 = n=rpm
60

Γ = 2𝜋𝑅𝑉𝑡

BACK OVER POINTS (STAGNATION OR ZEROS PEED)

Points on the surface of a relative moving body where a viscous fluid pressure is
maximum and for a non-viscous fluid the relative velocity of the fluid relative to the
body is zero.

Back over points when a cylinder spins

COANDA EFFECT
Coanda effect is the phenomena in which a jet flow attaches itself to a nearby
surface and remains attached even when the surface curves away from the initial
jet direction.
In free surroundings, a jet of fluid entrains and mixes with its surroundings as it
flows away from a nozzle.
When a surface is brought close to the jet, this restricts the entrainment in that
region. As flow accelerates to try balance the momentum transfer, a pressure
difference across the jet results and the jet is deflected closer to the surface -
eventually attaching to it.
Even if the surface is curved away from the initial direction, the jet tends to remain
attached. This effect can be used to change the jet direction. In doing so, the rate
at which the jet mixes is often significantly increased compared with that of an
equivalent free jet.

for a
uncompressiblen Ma<0.3
flux
Subsonic
For a
0.3<Ma<0.9
compressible flux

for a
uncompressiblen 0.9<Ma<1.1
flux
Transonic
For a
Ma>0.9
compressible flux
HYPERBEARING
There are many types of hyper-supporting devices, which are used alone or
combined in general or modify the outer shape of the profile, or are devices that
control the boundary layer in order to delay its separation, and therefore, the lost.

Hyper- Mobiles Fixed

sustaining •Leading edge
•Output edge
•At the leading edge
•On the wing surface
mechanisms

LIMITING LAYER CONTROL DEVICES

In order to delay the removal of the limit layer, vacuum cleaners or blowers of the
limit layer are used
forward resistance
The drag force (drag D) is the projection of the vector resulting aerodynamic force
on the x-axis (relative wind direction) of the wind coordinate system.
The resistance to the advance “D” is the force that opposes the airplane. in the
diagram vector of the following figure it is observed that the resistance to the
advance is the force that must be balanced by the traction force "T" for constant
speed

If T=D and L=W then the

aerodynamic will fly at a horizontal
flight speed and cruising speed
It should be remembered that there
are other advanced resistance
components that some authors
include in the ones described above
that appear only in some flight
conditions

Total Drag D

Parasite trawl
Induced Drag
Dpar

Friction Drag Drag by form DAP

BOUNDARY LAYER
Is the zone where the movement of this is disturbed by the presence of a solid with
which the boundary layer is in contact is understood as the one in which the velocity
of the fluid with respect to the solids in motion varies from zero to 99 the undisturbed
current speed

Note: the boundary layer can also be represented in 2 fluids with different velocity,
for example on the surface.
A second definition, in terms of physics is the following
Boundary layer is the thin area relative to the linear dimensions of the fluid body
attached to the surface of a body where the tangential gas-dynamic gradients and
the inertia and viscosity forces are of the same order
Outside the limit layer influence of the viscosity forces is minimal and the flow is
mainly determined by surface and volumetric forces

P,ρ,t,v

If the Reynolds number increases, the thickness of the boundary layer decreases,
The structure in the boundary layer largely determines the carrying force the profile
strength and the aerodynamic heating (for supersonic flow)
LAMINAR FLOW
The flows in which the viscosity of a fluid is not negligible can be of two laminar
types or turbulent the basic difference in the two types of flows was demonstrated
in 1883 by Osborne Reynolds by means of an experiment in which it was injected
an ink-saving dredging in the middle of the water flow through a transparent tube.
For low flow rates note that the ink jet flow was still on straight track and defined
indicating that the fluid had moved in parallel layers between parentheses sheets
without mixing movements between the layers this type of behaviour is called
laminar flow,

In real conditions it is necessary that the laminar flow is at the beginning of the
travel on the body after a transition zone is presented and finally the flow becomes
turbulent as shown in the following image.
1. Laminar flow
2. Transition point
3. The wool coat
4. Viscous sub layer
5. Turbulent flow
- δE.- thickness of the laminar layer
- δT.- thickness of the boundary layer in the turbulence zone
- XT.- transition coordinates
The transition coordinate can also be represented relative to the string
𝑋𝑇
̅̅̅𝑇̅ =
𝑋
𝐶
𝐼𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠
Speed Gradient
We should note that the velocity gradient in the laminar flow therefore the velocity
vector at the same distance from the surface is greater in a turbulent flow but not
laminate as seen in the following picture

The variation of energy in the boundary layer translates into the resistance to the
advance called surface friction
To solve problems related to the boundary layer it is necessary to find the solution
to complex differential and integral equations by which reduced methods are used
by means of laborious calculations (from Blasius) we can calculate the following
parameters of laminar flow
Laminar Layer
To obtain formulas of practical application in engineering from the equation of
Quantity of movement and the conditions of mass observation we can describe a
steady flow in two dimensions of fluid incomprehensible to the length of a curved
surface (small curvature)
Let us analyse the simplest case as it is the longitudinal flow in a flat plate whose
values of thickness of limit layer and resistance to the base by friction can be
approximated for the calculation of a thin profile
From these conditions considering the integral formula of Vom Karman for the flow
in limit layer and by means of laborious calculations (of Blasius) we can obtain the
variation of speed on the plane plate and the coefficients of friction (friction)
From these values it is possible to calculate the main parameters for the laminar
flow within the limit layer
1. THICKNESS OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
ν kinetics viscosity

𝑉′𝑥
𝜌 = 4.91√
𝑉∞

Or considering the number of Reynolds

𝑥𝑉∞ 𝜌 𝑥𝑉∞
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝑉
The thickness of the boundary layer can be calculated how
𝑥
𝜌 = 4.91
√𝑅𝑒𝑥

In this case the subindex “x” the Reynolds number indicates how far from the leading
edge the thickness is being calculated.
For the whole rope (the thickness at the exit edge or the maximum thickness ) X=C
2 . TANGENTIAL FORCE
At level 0 on the surface of the flat plate
𝑀𝑣
𝜏0 = 0.332 √𝑅𝑒𝑥
𝑥
Depending on the accuracy of the calculations the magnitude of constants may vary
slightly
the variation of the tangential stress and the thickness of the boundary layer as a
function of x we can see the following graph

3. THE TOTAL FRICTION STRENGTH ACTING ON ONE SIDE OF THE PLATE

of length or rope of plate C and of width or span
and is determined by the equation
 E - Wingspan (width of plate)
 C - Rope (length of plate)
1.328 𝜌𝑉∞ 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝛿
√𝑅𝑒 2

Or the experimental one

𝜌𝑉∞ 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑐𝑝 𝛿
2
where we get the following parameters

4. COEFFICIENT OF LOCAL FRICTION

1.328
𝐶𝑓 =
√𝑅𝑒
5.COEFFICIENT OF LOCAL FRICTION
0.664
𝐶𝑓 =
√𝑅𝑒𝑥

6.EXISTENCE TO ADVANCE BY SURFACE FRICTION on a flat plate or on a

grade profile
𝐷𝑓 = 2𝑥𝑓

near the leading edge due to the sudden change in longitudinal velocity the technical
results obtained are not acceptable

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

that the distribution of the velocity in the turbulent flow can be presented
approximately with the help of a potential function
The main parameters for the turbulent flow within the layer limit are the following.
1. THICKNESS OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
1
𝑣 5
𝛿 = 0.377 𝑥
𝑣∞x
1
1 5
𝛿 = 0.377 𝑥
𝑅ex
In this case the subindex x of the Reynolds number indicates at what distance from
the leading edge the thickness is being calculated.
For all the string (the exit edge thickness ) X=C
We can see that the thickness in turbulent flow disproportionate to x’/s while the
laminar flow is proportional to x’/s
2. TANGENTIAL STRESS AND AT LEVEL 0 (on the surface of the flat plate)
1
2 1 4
𝜏0 = 0.023𝜌𝑉∞ ( )
𝑅𝑒
𝑥𝑉∞
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉
𝜌𝑉∞ 2 1
𝜏0 = 0.023
2 5√𝑥
3. THE TOTAL FRICTION STRENGTH acts one side of the plane
𝜌𝑉∞ 2
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓 𝑆
2
There is no theory that describes exactly turbulent flow. Experimentally it has been
concluded

BOUNDARY LAYER WITH MIXED COMBINED FLOW

In real conditions only one area of the surface from the leading edge is occupied by
the laminar flow and the remainder by the turbulent flow the transition point x of
the laminar flow to turbulent. Transition point XT laminar flow mainly depends on
flow turbulence and plate roughness.
With increased roughness, the magnitude of the transition coordinate decreases.
If the flow turbulence increases the transition coordinate decreases.
If the flow turbulence increases the transition coordinate decreases.
Thus the pressure distribution on the surface also influences the X position, which
depends on The geometric characteristic of the body.
The laminar flow is conserved only for negative pressure gradient along a current
line so the limit layer is practically can be laminated for example on a current profile
before the maximum pressure point.
The laminar flow is also altered where there are sudden changes of shape (layer
detachment ) in holes, grooves, layers, etc.
But a flat X plate is determined by Recr, XT=FC of the roughness of the plate and the
degree of turbulence of the flow and oscillates between 2x105 and 5 x105.
Reynolds demonstrated that the transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow always
occurred at a critical value of the parameter flow called Reynolds Critical Number
Recr defined as.
 𝑉𝑥
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟 = ≈ 3000 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑉

V - Average flow rate through the cross-section

x=d - Tube diameter for internal flow
V - kinematic viscosity of the fluid
𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑟 =
𝑉
2x105
5x105
For air
L - flat plate length (can current profiles)
So if the flow conditions of a given fluid to a Reynolds number below the critical
value are considered to correspond to a turbulent flow.
The critical value may vary depending on the experiment type fluid and its pressure.
In real conditions the laminar flow becomes turbulent and finally separates or
detaches from the surface of the body in the magnitude of each stage allows us to
assume completely turbulent or mixed laminar flow.
For mixed combined flow the coefficient of friction is calculated as
1
𝐶𝑓 = 0.073𝑅𝑒𝐿 − − 1700𝑅𝑒𝐿 −1
𝑆
𝑅𝑒𝐿 < 107

LIMIT LAYER IN A COMPREHENSIBLE FLOW

Coefficient of friction
For the incomprehensible flow for Ma>0.3
𝐶𝑓
𝐶𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 2
1 3
(1 + 𝑀𝑎 2 )
15
2
1 3
𝛿𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 = 𝛿 (1 + 𝑀𝑎 2 )
15
The diagram showing the detachment of the boundary layer is as follows.

Within the boundary layer the effect of viscosity causes viscosity loss.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
The pressure distribution on the surface of a profile depends on the profile shape of
the angle of attack and the speed of the free current V ∞, generally the pressure
distribution is determined in an experimental way with the help of the results
obtained in models connected to a multiple manometer and tested in the wind
tunnel.
In normal flight conditions the pressure at the leading edge as well as the outlet
edge is greater than the pressure of the free current P∞. The ΔP between both edges
generates a displacement force of the body in the direction of the lower area
pressure towards the exit edge opposing the displacement of the body.
For this reason such force is known to force of resistance to the advance if the
function on the surface the body is negligible then we can designate this force with
strength of resistance a’ advance by form DAP
Pressure distribution can be represented with the help of trough distribution graphs
or vector diagrams
 V∞

Resistance Curve
Shape Drag Coefficient

Cube 1.05

Angled Cube 0.80

Long Cilinder 0.82

Short Cilinder 1.15

Sheam lired body 0.04

Sheam lired half-

0.09
body
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
How it can be seen , in the graph of pressure distribution coordinates at the exit
edge to the curve does not reach the magnitude of the depression coefficient
generating the resistance to the advance . in the vector diagrams (b) it appreciates
how the area of greatest pressure (positive , that is greater than the pressure of
free current P) is larger than the output edge which confirms the presence of the
force that displaces the body to match the magnitude of the pressure coefficient by
generating the resistance to the advance , in the direction of the lowest pressure
zone.
sometimes the pressure distribution is represented only with vector diagrams
Rotor
The rotor function is the transformation of the rotating energy of the engine shaft
into the energy that allows the transfer movement of the propulsion plane as a result
of the displacement of the flow in the opposite direction to the displacement of the
aeroplane.

Parts of one rotor

aerodynamic profiles make up a propeller are subject to the same laws of principles
of any other aerodynamic profile for example a
Rotor Classification
per number of shovels
1 mono-sholvel
2 bi-sholvel
3 tri-sholvel
4 tetra-sholvel
n=∞