Introduction to Criminology and Psychology of Crimes

Criminology- simply defined as the study of crime and criminals.

- It is also the body of knowledge regarding delinquency and
crime as a social phenomenon. it may also refer to the study
of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing
scientifically their causes and control and the treatment of
criminals.
- A multidisciplinary study of crimes. It involves the collection
of knowledge about criminal action, including psychology,
sociology, anthropology, biology, neurology, political
science and economics.
- It can also be defined as the body of knowledge regarding
crimes and criminals and the effort of the society to prevent
and repress them
Sub-fields of Criminology
Sociological Criminology- the study of crime focused on the group
of people and the society as a whole. It is primarily based on the
examination of the relationships of demographic and group
variables to crime. Variables such as socioeconomic status,
interpersonal relationship, age, race, gender and cultural groups of
people are probed in relation to the environmental factors that are
most conducive to criminal action such as time, place, and
circumstances surrounding crime.
Psychological Criminology- the science of behavior and mental
processes of the criminal. It is focused on the individual criminal
behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified.
Both environmental and personality influences are considered,
along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior.
Psychiatric Criminology- the science that deals with the study of
crime through forensic psychiatry, the study of criminal behavior in
terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual. It
also explains that criminals are acting out of uncontrollable
animalistic, unconscious, or biological urges.

Scope of the study of criminology

1. Criminal Behavior or criminal Etiology- the scientific analysis

of the causes of crime.
2. Sociology of law- the study of law and its application.
3. Penology or correction- the study that deals with
punishment and treatment of criminals.
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Sciences- one or more area
concerned in crime detection and investigation.

Nature of Criminology

1. An Applied science- anthropology, psychology, sociology and

other natural sciences may be applied in the study of the
causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics,
mathematics, and other sciences may be utilized in crime
detection.
2. A social science- in as much as crime is a societal creation that
it exist in a society, its study must be considered a part of a
social science.
3. Dynamic- criminology changes as a social condition changes.
That means the progress of criminology is concordant with
the advancement of other sciences that have been applied to
it.
4. Nationalistic- The study of crime must always be in relation
with the existing criminal law within the territory.

Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding crime as a

social phenomenon.
 It covers the:
1. Making of laws
2. Breaking of laws
3. The reaction towards the breaking of laws (Tradio,
Cirilo)

Object Of Interest Of Criminology

CRIME
- An act or omission in violation of a criminal law forbidding
or commanding it in its legal point
- An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or
harmful to the norms of the society; they are the
unacceptable acts in its social definition.
- Psychologically, it is an act, which is considered undesirable
due to behavioural maladjustment of the offender, acts that
are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviours.
It is also a generic term that refers to offense, felony, and
delinquency or misdemeanour.
Offense- an act or omission punishable by special laws like,
Republic acts, Presidential Decrees, Executive orders, etc.
Felony- is an act or omission that is punishable by the Revised
Penal Code, the criminal law of the Philippines
Misdemeanor/ delinquency- acts that are in violation of simple
rules and regulations usually referring to acts committed by
minor offenders.

Criminological Classification of Crimes

a. Acquisitive Crimes- crime which when committed, the offender

acquires something as a consequence of his criminal act.
b. Extinctive Crime- the result of the criminal act is destruction.
c. Seasonal crimes- are those that are committed only on a certain
period of the year.
d. Situational Crimes- crimes that are committed only in a given
situation conducive to its commission.
e. episodic Crimes- are serial crimes; they are committed by series
of acts within a lengthy period of time.
f. Instant crimes- those that are committed in the shortest possible
time.
g. Static Crimes- crimes that are committed only in one place.
h. Continuing Crimes- those that are committed in several places.
i. Rational Crimes- are those with intent; the offender is in full
possession of his mental faculties or capabilities.
j. Irrational crime- crimes committed without intent; the offender
does not know the nature of his act.
k. White collar crime- are those committed by a person of
responsibility and of upper socio-economic class in the
course of their occupational activities.
l. Blue collar Crimes- are those that committed by members of the
lower or under privileged class of society.
m. Crimes by imitation- are crimes that are committed by mere
duplication of what was done by others.
n. Crimes by passion- are those committed because of the fit of
great emotions.
o. Service crimes-refers to crimes committed through rendition of a
service to satisfy desire of another.

General Classification of Crimes

1. As to atrocity- severity or degree of the criminal act or

offense
a. grave offense
b. less grave
 2. As to intent-
a. mala inse- crime that are evil in themselves or the act is
generally wrong
b. mala prohibita-act which are prohibited by law, without the
law it could not have been wrong.
3. As to motive-
. economic- for financial or material gain
b. sexual- for the satisfaction of a sexual desire or urges
c. political- for the attainment of a political desire or motive
e. miscellaneous crimes
4. As to statistical purpose
a. crimes against property
b. crimes against person
c. crimes against morals
d. crimes against public order
e. crimes against liberty and security
f. crimes against chastity
5. As to penalty-
a. Crimes punishable by afflictive penalties
b. crimes punishable by correctional penalties
c. crimes punishable by light penalties

Legal Classification of crimes

o Crimes against National Security and the law of Nations ( e.g.

treason espionage piracy)
o Crimes against Fundamental laws of the State (e.g. arbitrary
detention, violation of domicile)
o Crimes against public order (e.g. rebellion, sedition, coup
d’etat )
o Crimes against public interest (e.g. forgery, falsification, fraud)
 o Crimes against public morals ( e.g. gambling, offenses against
decency and good customs)
o Crimes committed by public officers ( e.g. malfeasance,
misfeasance, nonfeasance)
o Crimes against person (e.g. murder, rape, homicide, physical
injuries)
o Crimes against property (e.g. robbery, theft)
o Crimes against personal liberty and security (e.g. kidnapping,
illegal detention)
o Crimes against chastity ( concubinage, adultery, seduction,
abduction, acts of lasciviousness)
o Crimes against civil status of a person ( e.g. Bigamy and illegal
marriages)
o Crimes against honor ( libel and oral defamation)
o Quasi- offenses or Criminal Negligence ( Imprudence and
negligence)
Other classification of Crimes
1. Traditional crimes-crimes that are committed every now and
then
2. Crimes due to changing society (social change)
3. Emergency Crimes- crimes that are committed to take
advantage of an abnormal situation or the nature of a social
problem, or the vulnerability of a person or group of persons

Under the Revised Penal Code

Crimes are committed by means of:
1. Dolo- deceit
Elements
a. Freedom
b. Intelligence
c. Intent
 2. Culpa- fault ( when the wrongful acts results from
imprudence, negligence, lack of skills, or lack of fore sight)
Elements
a. Freedom
b. Intelligence
c. Imprudence or lack of foresight
The Criminal Formula

C= T + S where: C= Crime (act)

R T= Criminal Tendency ( Desire/
Intent)
S= Total Situation ( Opportunity)
R= Resistance to temptation ( Control)

Triad of Crime
Intent/ Motive

Opportunity
Instrumentality
Victimless crimes- refers to acts committed by consenting adults in
private. The acts involve only the participants and do not
directly harm others. (e.g. drug addiction, prostitution,
gambling)
Index crimes- are violent crimes. Criminal acts that involve threats
or actual physical harm to a victim by the offender. It presents
not only the that we recognize as violent like murder, rape,
robbery, or other acts involving force and intimidation but
also “violent crimes” that are commonly considered as “ social
 problem” such as domestic violence, child abuse, elder abuse,
etc.
THE CRIMINAL

 A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a

court of the violation to a criminal law (Legal definition)
 A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-
social act (social definition)
 A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioural
maladjustment ( psychological definition)

Criminological Classification of Criminals

Based on Etiology
 Acute criminal- one who violates a criminal law because of
the impulse or fit of passion. They commit passionate
crimes.
 Chronic criminal- one who commits crime acted in
consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime
ahead of time.

Based on behavioural system

 Ordinary criminals- the lowest form of criminal in a
criminal career. He does not stick to crime as a profession
but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great
opportunity.
 Organized criminals- one who associate himself with other
criminals to earn a high degree of organization to enable
them to commit crimes easily without being detected by
authorities. They commit organized crimes
  Professional criminal- a person who is engaged in criminal
activities with high degree of skill. He is usually one who
practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.

Based on activities
 Professional criminals- are those who practice crime as a
profession for a living. Criminal Activity is constant in order
to earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
 Accidental criminals- are those who commit crimes when
the situation is conducive to its commission.
 Habitual Crimes- those who continue to commit crime
because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of self control

Based on Mental Attitudes

 Active criminals- those who commit crimes due to
aggressiveness
 Passive inadequate criminals- those who commit crimes
because they are pushed to it by reward or promise
 Socialized delinquents- criminals who are normal in their
behavior but defective in their socialization process or
development.

Based on Legal Classification

 Habitual delinquent- a person who, within a period of ten
years from the date of his release or last conviction of a
crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery,
estafa, or falsification, is found guilty is found guilty of any
of the said crimes.
 Recidivist- one who, at the time of his trial for one crime,
shall have been previously convicted by final judgement of
another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised
Penal Code.
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

It is an intentional behavior that violates a criminal code. It

may also refer to the study of the human conduct focused on the
mental processes of the criminal; the way he behaves or acts
including his activities and the causes and the influences of his
criminal behavior.

VICTIMOLOGY
It is the study of victims of crimes and contributory role, if any,
in crime causation. It is also the scientific process of gaining
substantial amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by
studying the nature of victims.

PENOLOGY (CORRECTION)
It deals with the punishment of the offenders. Punishment is
justified by deterrence, retribution, atonement, societal
protection, and reformation of criminals.

APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME

SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES- deals mainly on the biological

explanation of crimes, focused on the forms of abnormalities that
exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the
commission of the crime.
1. Anthropological approach- the study on the physical
characteristics of an individual offenders with non-offenders in
the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior
( Ernest Hooton)
 2. Medical approach- the application of medical examinations on
the individual criminal explain the mental and physical
condition of the individual prior and after commission of the
crime (Positivist)
3. Biological Approach- the evaluation of genetic influences of
the criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is one force
pushing the criminal to crime. (Positivist)
4. Physiological Approach- the study on the nature of human
being concerning his physical needs in order to satisfy his
wants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on
the basic needs is an important determiner of the commission
of crime. (Maslow)
5. Psychological approach- it is concerned with the deprivation of
the psychological needs of man, which constitute the
development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to
unpleasant emotions (Sigmund Freud, Maslow)
6. Psychiatric approach- the explanation of crime through
diagnosis of mental disease as a cause of the criminal
behavior. (Positivist)
7. Psychoanalytical approach- the explanation of the crime based
on Freudian Theory, which traces behavior as the deviation of
the repression of the basic drives.(Sigmund Freud)

OBJECTIVE APPROACHES –deals with the study of groups, social

processes and institutions as influences to behavior. They are
primarily derived from social sciences.
1. Geographic Approach- this approach considers topography,
natural resources, geographical location, and climate lead an
individual to commit crime (Adolphe Quetelet)
2. Ecological approach- it is concerned with the biotic grouping of
men resulting to migration, completion, social discrimination,
 division of labor, and social conflict as factors of crime. (Robert
Ezra Park)
3. Economic approach-it deals with the explanation of crime
concerning financial security or inadequacy and other
necessities to support life as factors to criminality. (Robert
King Merton)
4. Socio-cultural approach-those that focus on institutions,
economic, financial, education, political, and religious
influence to crime. (Albert Cohen)

CRIME THEORIES/ THEORIES OF CRIMINAL CAUSATION

PRE-CLASSICAL ERA
The Demonological Theory-this explains that individuals were
thought to be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused
good or evil behavior. It maintains that criminal behavior was
believed to be the result of evil spirits and demons something
of natural force that controls behavior. Guilt and innocence
were established by a variety of procedures that presumably
called forth the supernatural allies of the accused. The accused
were innocent if they could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous
signs appeared. They were guilty if they died at stake, or if
omens were associated with them. Harsh punishment were
also given.
PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY (18TH C-1738-1798)
The Classical School of Criminology
This school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria
(Cesare Bonesara Marchese de Beccaria) together with Jeremy
Bentham who opposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory
which explains that a person always acts in such a way as to
seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Beccaria, in his “Essay on Crimes and Punishment”
presented his key ideas on the abolition of torture as a
legitimate means of extracting confessions. The Classical
theory maintains that man is essentially a moral creature with
absolute free will to choose between good and evil, therefore
every man is responsible for his act. Freewill (Beccaria)- a
philosophy that advocating punishment severe enough for
people to choose to avoid criminal acts. It includes the belief
that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment
without any variation. Hedonism (Bentham)- the belief that
people choose pleasure and avoid pain.
The Neo-classical School of Criminology
The Neo-classical school of criminology argued that
situations or circumstance that made it impossible to exercise
freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction.
This school of thought maintains that while the classical
doctrine is true and correct in general, it should be modified in
certain details, that children and lunatics should not be
regarded as criminal and should be free from punishment, it
must take into account some mitigating circumstances.
The Positivist/Italian School(1838-1909)
It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural
phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity. That
crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be
treated and checked by the imposition of punishment but
rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual
measures. ( Cesare Lomroso, Enrico Ferri and Raffaele
Garofalo)

Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909)- The Italian leader of the

Positivist school of criminology, was criticized for his
methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics
of the offenders, but his emphasis on the need to study
offenders scientifically earned him the title ‘father of modern
 criminology”. His major contribution is the development of
scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and to
reform the criminal law. He wrote the essay entitled “CRIME:
Its causes and Remedies” that contains his key ideas and the
classifications of criminals.
Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals- there are born criminals, criminal
behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by passion- individuals who are easily influenced
by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals- those who commit crime due to
abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempt from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid- a person who commits crime due to less
physical stamina or self control
5. Occasional criminals- those who commit crime due to
insignificant reasons that pushed them to do an act at a
given occasion.
6. Pseudo-criminals-those who kill in self-defense
Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)- He was the best known Lombroso’s
associate. His greatest contribution was his attack on the classical
doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held
morally responsible for their crimes because they must have a
rational decision to commit a crime
Raffaele Garofalo ( 1852-1934)- Another follower of
Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator and professor
of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will
and supposed the position that the only way to understand crime
was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced on Lombroso’s
theory of atavistic stigmata (ma’s inferior/ animalistic behavior), he
traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to
their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies”
Comparison between the classical and the Positivist School

Classical Positivist
Legal definition of crime No to legal definition
Punishment fit the crime Punishment fit the criminal
Doctrine of free will Doctrine of determinism
Death penalty allowed Abolition of death penalty
No imperical research Inductive method
Definite sentence Indeterminate sentence

Early Twentieth Century Theories

1. David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858-1917)- He advocated the
ANOMIE THEORY, the theory that focused on the sociological
point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence
of norms in the society provides a setting conducive to crimes
and other anti-social acts. According to him, the explanation of
human conduct lies snot on the individual but in the group and
the social organization.
2. Sigmund Freud (1856-1969)- Psychologist have considered a
variety of possibilities to account for individual differences-
defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate
childhood socialization, maternal deprivation, and poor moral
development. Freudian view on criminal behavior was based
on the use of Psychology in explaining an approach in
understanding behavior- the foundation of
PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY.
3. Robert Ezra Park (1864-1944)- Park is a strong advocate of the
scientific method in explaining criminality but he is a
sociologist. He advocated the HUMAN ECOLOGY THEORY- the
study of interrelationship of people and their environment.
 This theory maintains that the crime is a function of social
change that occurs along with environmental change. It also
maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition, conflict,
social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people are
the major influences of criminal behavior and crimes.

Mid-twentieth Century
1. Ernest Kretschmer(1888-1964) The idea of SOMATOTYPING
was originated from the work of a German Psychiatrist, who
distinguished three principal types of body physique as
follows:
a. Asthenic- lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
b. Athletic type- medium to tall, strong, muscular, course
bones.
c. Pyknic type- medium height, rounded figure, massive
neck, broad face
Kretschmer related these body physique to various
psychotic behavioural patterns: Pyknic to manic
depression, asthenic and athletics to schizophrenia.
2. William H. Sheldon (1898-1977)- He is an influenced of the
Somatotyping School of Criminology, which related built to
behavior. He became popular of his own SOMATOTYPING
THEORY. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of
survival of the Fittest as a behavioural science. He combines
the biological and psychological explanation to understand
deviant behavior. Sheldon’s Somatotyping theory maintains
the belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of
behavior and the physique is a reliable indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon
a. Endomorphy- a type with relatively predominance of
soft, roundness throughout the regions of the body.. They
 have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed
and comfortable disposition.
b. Mesomorphy- athletic type, predominance of muscle,
bone and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and
firm, sting and tough. They are people who are routinely
active and aggressive, and they are the most likely to
commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy- thin physique, flat chest, delicacy
throughout the body, slender, poorly muscled. They tend
to look more fatigue and withdrawn.

3. Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950) he has been referred to as “the

most important criminologist of the twentieth century”
because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can
be seen as a corrected extension of social perspective. For this
reason, he is considered the “Dean of Modern Criminology”.
He said that crime is learned and not inherited.
He advocated the DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY (DAT)
which maintains that the society is composed of different
group organization, the societies consist of group of people
having Criminalistic tradition and anti-criminalistic tradition.
And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is
learned through process of communication, and learning
process includes technique of committing crime, motive and
attitude.
4. Walter Reckless (1899-1988)- the CONTAINMENT THEORY
assumes that for every individual there exist a containing
external structure and a protective internal structure, both of
which provide defense, protection or insulation against crime
or delinquency. According to Reckless, the outer structure of
 an individual are the external pressures such as poverty,
unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner
containment refers to the person’s self-control ensured by
strong ego, good self image, well developed conscience, high
frustration tolerance and sense of responsibility.
5. Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818-1940)- they
are the proponents of the SOCIAL CLASS CONFLICT AND
CAPITALISM THEORY. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling
class in a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of
criminal law and their ideological bases in the interpretation
and enforcement of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling
class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the
demoralized surplus of population, which is made up of the
under privileged usually unemployed and underemployed.
Willem Bonger, a Marxist-Socialist, on the other hand, placed
more emphasis on working about crimes of economic gain. He
believes that profit-motive of capitalism generates an egoistic
personality. Hence, crime is an inevitable outcome.

Late Twentieth Century: The CONTEMPORARY PONEERS

1. Robert King Merton (1910) He s the premier sociologist of the
modern days who, after Durkheim, also related the crime
problem to anomie. He advocated the STRAIN THEORY, which
maintains that the failure of man to achieve a higher status of
life caused them to commit crime in order for that status or
goal to be attained. He argued that crime is a means to
achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the crime
problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes
that people are law abiding but when under great pressure
will result to crime.
2. Albert Cohen (1918) He advocated the SUB-CULTURE THEORY
OF DELINQUENCY. Cohen claims that the lower class cannot
 socialize effectively as the middle class in what is considered
appropriate middle class behavior. Thus, the lower class
gathered together share their common problems, forming a
sub-culture that rejects middle values. He call this reaction
formation. Much of this behavior comes to be called
delinquent behavior; the sub-culture is called a gang and the
kids are called delinquents. He put emphasis on the
explanation of prevalence, origins, process and purposes as
factors to crime.
3. Gresham Sykes (1922)- He advocated the NEUTRALIZATION
THEORY. It maintains that an individual will obey or disobey
societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize
whether he is protected from hurt or destruction. People
become law abiding if they feel they are benefitted by it and
they violate it if these laws are not favourable to them.
4. Lloyd Ohlin (1928)- he advocated the DIFFERENTIAL
OPPORTUNITY THEORY. This theory explains that society
leads the lower class to want things and society does things to
people. He claimed that there is differential opportunity, or
access, to success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate
means depending on the specific location of the individual
within the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are
provided with greater opportunities for the acquisition of
deviant acts.
5. Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822-
1982) They are the advocate of the LABELLING THEORY- a
theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The
theory maintains that the original cause of crime cannot be
known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior becomes
criminal if it is labelled as such.
 6. Earl Richard Quinney (1934) He was a Marxist criminologist
who advocated the INSTRUMENTALIST THEORY of capitalist
rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling
exploited class-the class that labours for the benefit of the
ruling class. He claims that upper classes create laws that
protect their interest and at the same time the unwanted
behavior of all other members of society. Quinney’s major
contribution is that he proposed the shift in focus from looking
for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination
of the criminal justice system for clues.
OTHER THEORISTS
1. Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809-1882) in his THEORY OF
EVOLUTION, he claimed that humans, like other animals are
parasite. Man is an organism 1 having an animalistic
behavior that is dependent on other animals for survival.
Thus, man kills and steals to live.
2. Charles Goring’s Theory (1870-1919). The medical officer in
England who accepted the Lombroso’s’ challenge that body
physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that
there is no such thing as physical chemical type. He
contradicted the idea that criminality can be seen through
physical features alone. Nevertheless, He accepted that
criminals are physically inferior to normal individuals in the
sense that criminals tends to be shorter and have less weight
than non-criminals.
3. Earnest Hooton’s Theory(1887-1954)- An anthropologist who
re-examined the work of Goring and found out that “Tall thin
men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are
thieves and burglars, short heavy person commit assault, rape
and other sex crimes, where mediocre(average) physique
flounder around among other crimes. He also contended that
 criminals are originally inferior, and that crime is the result of
the impact of environment.
4. Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874) A Belgian Statistician who
pioneered Cartography and the Cartographical School of
Criminology that place emphasis on social statistics. He
discovered, basing on his research that crimes against person
increased during summer and crimes against property tends
increase during winter.
Crimes of the Modern World

1. Transnational Crime- an offense that has an international

dimension and implies crossing at least one national border
before, during or after the act. This includes crimes such as
drug trafficking, money laundering, terrorism, human
trafficking cyber crimes and the like.
2. Organized crime- a criminal activity by an enduring structure
or organization developed and devoted primarily to the
pursuit of profits through illegal means. UN Convention
Against Transnational Crime defined it as structured group of
three or more persons, existing for a period of time and acting
in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious
crimes or offenses established in order to obtain, directly or
indirectly, a financial or material benefit.
It can also be defined as a group activity of three or more
persons, with hierarchical links or personal relationships,
which permit their leaders to earn profits or control territories
or markets, internal or foreign, by means of violence,
intimidation or corruption both in furtherance of criminal
activity and to infiltrate a legitimate market.
For organized crime groups to work there must be:
a. An Enforcer- one who make arrangements for killing and
injuring the members and the non-members.
b. A corrupter-one who bribes, buys, intimidates,
threatens, negotiates, and “sweet talks” into a
relationship to the police, public officials or anyone else
who might help the members security and maintain
immunity from arrest, prosecution and punishment.
 c. A Corruptee- a public official, usually not member of the
organization or family, who can wield influence on behalf
of the organization’s interest.
Characteristics of Organized Crime
1. It is a conspiracy activity involving coordination of
members .
2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is obtained through illegal means.
4. Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation, violence
or corruption.
5. There is effective control over members, associates, and
victims
6. Organized crimes does not include terrorist dedicated to
political change.

Generic Types of Organized Criminal

1. Political Graft- manned by political criminals, who use
force and violence as a means to obtain profit or gain,
and or achieving political aims or ambitions.
2. The Mercenary/Predatory organized crime- crimes
committed by groups for direct personal profit but prey
upon unwilling victims.
3. In-group oriented organized crime- groups manned by
semi-organized individual hose major goals are for
[psychological gratification such as adolescent gangs.
4. Syndicated Crime- the organization that participates in
illicit activity in society by the use of force, threat, or
intimidation. The group with a formal structure- whose
purpose is to provide illicit services, which are i strong
public demand through the use of secrecy on the part of
the associates. There is an assurance of protection
 necessary for its operations through political corruption
or avoidance of prosecution.
3. White Collar Crimes- acts committed by a person of
respectability and high social status in the course of his
or her occupation
Forms of White Collar Crimes
a. Corporate Crimes- the violation of a criminal statute
either by a corporate entity or by iys executives,
employees or agents, acting on behalf of and for the
benefit of the corporation, partnership or other
business entity.
b. Environmental crimes- violation of criminal law which,
although typically committed by business officials. May
also be committed by other persons or organizational
entities, and which damage some protected or
otherwise significant aspect of the natural
environment.
c. Occupational crimes- any act punishable by law, which
is committed through opportunity created n the course
of an occupation that is legal.
 Organizational occupational crime- crimes
committed for the benefit of the entire
organization in such instances only the
organization or the employer, not individual
employees.
 State Authority occupational crime- crimes by
officials through the exercise of their state-based
authority. Such rime is occupation specific, and
can only be committed by person in public office
or by working for such operations.
 Professional occupational crime- crimes by
professionals in their capacity as professionals.
  Individual Occupational crime- crimes by
individuals as individuals which include income tax
evasion, theft of goods and services by
employees, the filing of false expense report and
the like.
4. Conventional crimes- are those traditional, illegal behaviors
that most people think as a crime, like violent crimes
and property crimes.
1. Violent crimes- are criminal acts, which in the
threat of or actual physical harm by an offender to
a victim.
Murder- the unlawful killing of a person with
malice and with the “act f violence” (with attendant
qualifying circumstances).
Serial Murder- An act involving killing of several
victims in three or more separate incidents over a
week, a month, or a year.]
Mass murder- the killing of four or more victims at
one location with one event.
Spree murder- the killing in two or more locations
with almost no time break between murders.
Homicide and Assault- the unlawful killing of a
person without the qualifying circumstances of
murder. Assault is the unlawful attack to another
person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries.
Rape- defined as a man having a carnal knowledge
of a woman against her will (see also RA 8353)
Classification of Men who Rape
a. Anger rape- sexual attack become a means of
expressing anger or rage and involves more
physical assault upon the victim
 b. Power rape- assailant primarily wishes to
express domination over the victim
c. Sadistic rape- perpetrator combines the
sexuality and aggression aims in psychic
desires often to torture or otherwise abuse
the victim.
Family violence-crimes involving physical assault by
a family member to other family members such as:
a. Child abuse- an attack or assault of an adult
against a defenceless or people who cannot
defend themselves, usually by a parent to a
child.
b. Spouse abuse- husband vs wife, or vice versa,
battered women
Types of violent offenders
1. Culturally violent offenders-those who live in
culture which is an acceptable problem
mechanism.
2. Criminally Violent offenders-those who use
violence as a means to accomplishment
criminal acts.
3. Pathological Violent offender- those who
commit crimes due to mental disturbances
4. Situational violent offenders- those who
commit acts of violence on rare occasions,
often under provocation; criminals by passion.
2. Property crimes- crimes of economic interest. It
includes those crimes that would most commonly
be categorized as theft in the ordinary language. It
also includes but not limited to offenses such as
unlawful entry to commit theft, shoplifting,
vandalism and arson.
 Occasional Property crimes- are group of property
crimes committed by ordinary property criminals
with little progressive knowledge on criminal
techniques.
Conventional property crimes- group of property
crimes committed by professional criminals on a
persistent basis, which constitute form of career
criminality. Ex. Burglary, the fence, larceny
Destructive Property crimes-includes arson-the
unlawful burning of property.
Ex. Profit motivated arson, revenge arson,
vandalism arson, excitement arson, sabotage arson
Cybercrime- criminal activity i which the computer
network is an essential part of the crime.
Robbery- the unlawful taking of personal property
belonging to another with intent to gain, by means
of force upon things, violence of or intimidation of
person.
Types of robbers
1. Professional robber- robber who has long term
commitment to the crime of robbery as a major
source of livelihood.
2. Opportunist- one who has a little commitment to
or specialization in robbery and one who is all
purpose property offender.
3. Addict robber- one who commit crime of robbery
to support the drug habit.
4. Alcoholic robber- engages in robbery occasionally
in order to support his habit.
5. The muggers- the most feared robber. They are
semi-professional robbers who are sometimes
called strong armed robbers- the street robbers
who commit everything from snatching to the
brutalization of the victim.
THE PHILIPPINE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM (PCJS)

It is the machinery used by the government or the State to

prevent or control crimes. It is an effective tool used to deter
individuals from the community from committing crimes. It is a
system or cycle that involves the five pillars such as: police (law
enforcement), prosecution, court, correction and community

Pillars of the PCJS

1. Police (Law enforcement) –it is known as the prime mover of

the criminal justice system. It is responsible in the prevention
of crimes, enforcement of laws, protection of lives and
property, preservation of peace and order and arrest of
offenders.
2. Prosecution- it is the process whereby accusations are
brought before the court of justice. It is responsible in
ascertaining that a crime has been committed and that the
offender is probably guilty thereof and should be held for
trial.
3. Court- the pillar that has the power to try, hear and make
conviction over cases brought to them.
4. Correction- considered as the weakest pillar of the PCJS due
to its failure to deter individuals to commit another crime
after going through the process. It is responsible for the
rehabilitation and treatment of offenders preparing them for
their reintegration in the community after serving sentence
and being released from jail.
 5. Community- primarily responsible in the prevention of crime
the fact that crime happen in the community. It is their
integral role to positively accept individuals from jail in their
reintegration to the community as a law abiding citizens.
THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE
It was established by Republic Act 6975 known as the
Department of Interior and Local Government Act of 1990, or the
PNP Law of 1991. It was signed into law on December 13, 1990
which created the following agencies: Philippine National Police,
bureau of Fire Protection, Bureau of Jail Management and Penology
and the Philippine Public Safety College.
It is also mandated by the Republic Act 8551 that provides for
the reform and reorganization of the Philippine National Police
which establishes a police organization that is civilian in character
and national in scope. The law was signed on February 25, 1998.
The organization is guided by the philosophy of Service, Honor
and Justice with the virtues of maka-Diyos, Makabayan, Makatao
and Makakalikasan.
Its mission: The PNP shall enforce the law, prevent and control
crimes, maintain peace and order, and ensure public safety and
internal security with the active support of the community.
PNP Rank Classification and Military Equivalent
Police Rank Military Ranks
Director General ( DG) General
Deputy Director General (DDG) Lieutenant General
Director (Dir) Major General
Chief Superintendent (Chief Brigadier General
Supt)
Senior Superintendent (Sr. Supt) Colonel
Superintendent (Supt) Lieutenant Colonel
Chief Inspector (Chief Insp.) Major
Senior Inspector (Sr. Insp.) Captain
Inspector (Insp.) Lieutenant
Senior Police Officer IV (SPO IV) Master Sargeant
Senior Police Officer III (SPO III) Technical sergeant
Senior Police Officer II (SPO II) Staff Sergeant
Senior Police Officer I (SPO I) Sergeant
Police Officer III (PO III) Corporal
Police Officer II (PO II) Private First Class
Police Officer I (PO I) Private

PNP Administrative Units

1. Logistics Support Service
2. Communication Service
3. Computer Service
4. Finance Service
5. Medical and Dental Service
6. Chaplain Service
7. Legal Service
8. Headquarters Support Service
PNP Operational Support Units
1. Maritime Command
2. Intelligence Command
3. Security Command
4. Criminal Investigation Command
5. Special Action Command
6. Crime Laboratory
7. Civil Security Command
8. Narcotics Command
9. Aviation Security Command
10. Traffic Management Command
11. Police Community relations Command
Minimum Qualifications for Appointment in the PNP

1. Citizen of the Philippines

2. A person of good moral character
3. Must have passed the psychiatric/psychological, drug and
physical tests administered by the PNP or any NAPOLCOM
accredited government hospital for the purpose of
determining physical and mental health
4. Must possess a formal baccalaureate degree from a
recognized institution of learning.
5. Must be eligible in accordance with the standards set by
NAPOLCOM.
6. Must not have been dishonourably discharge from military
employment or dismissed for cause from any civilian position
in the government.
7. Must not have been convicted by final judgement of an
offense or crime involving moral turpitude.
8. Must be at least 1.62 meters in height for male and 1.57
meters for female.
9. Must weigh not more or less than five kilograms from the
standard weight corresponding to his or her height.
10. For new applicant, he must not be less than 21 nor more
than thirty years of age.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION

Investigation is derived from the Latin word “vestigare” which

means to trace or to track. It is the search for truthful or
factual information.
Criminal investigation- the systematic process of identifying,
collecting, preserving and evaluating information for the
purpose of bringing the criminal offender to justice.
-an art which deals with the identity and location of the
offender and provide evidence of his guilt in a criminal
proceeding.

Cardinal Points/Rules in Criminal investigation

1. What crime has been committed?
2. Where was the crime committed?
3. Who committed the offense?
4. When was the crime committed?
5. Why was the crime committed?
6. How was the crime committed?
Importance of Criminal Investigation
1. It is part of understanding the problem on crimes and
criminals and provide for the solutions in crime problem.
2. It helps the pillars of the criminal justice system in recognizing
and identifying criminals and provides clues or information in
promoting social justice.
3. It is an aid in enforcing the the laws and the protection of lives
and properties.

Tools in Criminal Investigation (3 I’s)

 1. Information- data gathered by an investigator from various
sources such as persons including the victim himself and from
public records, private records, and modus operandi file.
2. Interview- friendly and simple questioning of a person who is
willing to divulge information.
3. Interrogation- it is the skilful and vigorous questioning of a
person who is reluctant to divulge information.
4. Instrumentation- it is the scientific examination of real
evidence, application of instrument and methods of physical
sciences in crime detection.
The Golden rule of Criminal Investigation
“Do not touch, move or alter anything in the crime scene
unless it is properly photographed, measured and sketched or
otherwise preserved so as not to destroy or contaminate the
important criminal things.
Methods of Crime scene search
1. Strip method- the area is blocked out in a form of a rectangle.
The searchers proceed slowly at the same place along paths
parallel to one side of the rectangle.
2. Double strip- also known as grid method. A modification of the
strip method, where the rectangle s traversed first parallel to
the base then parallel to a side.
3. Spiral Method- the three searchers follow each other along
the path of a spiral, beginning on the outside and spiralling in
toward the center.
4. Zone Method- the area to be searched is divided to quadrants,
each area is assigned to a searcher.
5. Wheel Method- The searchers gather at the center and
proceed outward along radii or spokes.
Crime Scene sketches
 1. Rough sketch- made at the crime scene, no scale or proportion
and everything is approximate
2. Finished Sketch- for courtroom presentation, scale and
proportion are strictly observed.
Kinds of sketches
1. Sketch of Locality- gives a picture of the crime scene in relation
to its environs including neighboring buildings, roads, etc.
2. Sketch of grounds- includes the crime scene and its nearest
environment.
3. Sketch of details- describes the immediate crime scene only.

Evidence-is a means sanctioned by the Rules, of ascertaining in a

judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Crime scene- it is the location or place of commission of a crime.
Arrest- is the actual taking of a person into custody in order that he
may be bound to answer for the commission of an offense.
Two kinds of arrest
1. Arrest with warrant
2. Warrantless Arrest-a peace officer or a private person may,
without a warrant arrest a person:
a. When, in his presence, the person to be arrested has
committed, is actually committing or is attempting to
commit an offense
b. When an offense has just been committed and he has
probable cause to believe based don personal knowledge
of facts or circumstances that the person to be arrested
has committed it
c. When the person to be arrested is a prisoner who has
escaped from a penal establishment or place where he is
 serving final judgement or is temporarily confined while
his case is pending, or has escaped while transferred from
one confinement to another.

The Prosecution

Institution of Criminal Action- Criminal actions can be

instituted as follows:
1. For offenses where a preliminary investigation is required
pursuant to section 1 of rule 112, by filing the complaint
with the proper officer for the purpose of conducting the
requisite preliminary investigation.
2. For all offenses, by filing the complaint or information
directly with the Municipal Trial court and Municipal
Circuit Trial court, or the complaint with the office of the
prosecutor.
Complaint- A sworn written statement charging a person with
an offense, subscribed by the offended party, any peace officer,
or other public officer charged with the enforcement of the law
violated.
Information- an accusation in writing charging a person with an
offense, subscribed by the prosecutor and filed with the court.
Rule 112- Preliminary Investigation- An inquiry or proceeding
to engender a well founded belief that a crime has been
committed and the respondent is probably guilty thereof and
should be held for trial. (for crimes with a penalty of at least 4
years two months and 1 day)

Officers authorized to conduct preliminary Investigation

1. Provincial or city prosecutors or their assistants
2. Judges of the MTC and MCTC
3. National and Regional State Prosecutors
4. Other officers as maybe authorized by law.

Arrest- the taking of a person into custody in order that he may

be bound to answer for the commission of an offense.
Bail – is the security given for the release of a person in custody
of the law, furnished by him or by a bondsman, to guarantee his
appearance before any court as required under the condition
hereinafter specified.

Forms of Bail
1. Corporate surety
2. Property bond
3. Cash deposit
4. Recognizance

Rights of an accused
1. To be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved
beyond reasonable doubt.
 2. To be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation
against him
3. To be present and defend in person and by counsel at every
stage of the proceedings, from arraignment to the
promulgation of the judgement.
4. To testify s a witness in his own behalf but subject to cross
examination to matters covered by direct examination.
5. To be exempt from being compelled to be a witness against
himself.
6. To confront and cross-examine the witnesses against
himself at the trial.
7. To have compulsory process issued to secure the
attendance of witnesses and production of evidence in his
behalf.
8. To have speedy, impartial public trial
9. To appeal in cases allowed in the manner prescribed by law.

Correction

Punishment- the redress taken by the State against an offending

member; a device used to cause people to become cohesive and to
induce conformity.

Justifications of Punishment
1. Retribution- redress through personal vengeance
2. Expiation/Atonement- condemnation of the whole group
against the offending member
 3. Deterrence- punishment gives a lesson to the offender
4. Protection- society is protected
5. Reformation- society can be vest protected from crime if the
purpose of imprisonment is to reform or rehabilitate the
prisoner
Development of prisons
1. Auburn prison- a prison which the confinement of prisoners in
single cells at night and congregate work in shops during the
day.
2. Pennsylvania Prison- confinement of prisoners in their own
cells day and night.
The Reformatory Movement
1. Alexander Macanochie- Father of Parole system
-he introduced the Mark System, a system where prisoners are
required to earn a number of marks, for a ticket for leave
(considered as parole).
2. Walter Crofton- he introduced the Irish System, a system
where the prisoners go through the first stage as solitary
confinement for 9 months, the second stage was assignment
to public works, next was the release of prisoners without
custodial supervision and was exposed to ordinary temptation
of freedom , the final stage is the release of the prisoner under
supervision or conditions of parole.
3. Zebulon Brockway- the Director of Elmira Reformatory
considered as the forerunner of modern penology.
4. Sir Evelyn Ruggles Brise- the Director of the Borstal Institution
that is considered the best reform institution for young
offenders.
Correction in the Philippines
 The correction is carried out by the Department of Justice
through Bureau of Corrections (created by virtue of Proclamation #
495, dated November 22, 1989) and Department of Bureau of Jail
Management and Penology (BJMP ) by virtue of RA 6975.
Correctional Institutions under the Bureau of Corrections
1. New Bilibid Prison (Muntinlupa City)
New Bilibid Prison- (Maximum Security Compound) houses
the Maximum Security Prisoners
Camp Sampaguita- (Medium Security Compound) houses the
Medium security prisoners
Camp Bukangliwayway- (Minimum Security Compound)
houses the Minimum security prisoners
2. San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm ( Zamboanga)
-Copra is the biggest source of income
3. Iwahig Penal Colony- best open institution in the world having
no walls
Sub-colonies
 Sta Lucia
 Inagawan
 Montible
 Central
It also has the Tagumpay settlement, a land area allotted
for released prisoners
4. Davao Penal Colony (Tagum City)
-Abaca is the biggest source of income (biggest in the country)
Sub-colonies
 Panabo
 Kapalong
5. Sablayan Penal Colony (Sablayan Occidental Mindoro)
-youngest and fastest growing colony
Rice is the biggest source of income
 6. Correctional Institution for Women (Mandaluyong City)
7. Leyte Regional Prison
Jails
- A place of confinement for those awaiting final disposition
of criminal cases and those serving sentence of not more
than three years
Types of Jails
1. Lock-up- common in police stations
2. Ordinary jails- place of confinement for those awaiting trial or
court action
3. Workhouse, jail farm, or camp- for those serving short
sentence
Mittimus- a warrant issued by a court directing the jail authorities
to receive the convicted inmate for the service of sentence
imposed to them.
Provincial jails- under the supervision and administration of
Provincial government
Executive clemency- an act of grace extended by the President over
prisoners
Forms of executive Clemencies
1. Pardon- an act of grace of the President giving pardon ()
2. Parole- an executive clemency that is extended to inmates
after serving their minimum sentence.
3. Commutation- reducing of heavier penalty to a lighter penalty
4. Reprieve- it is the temporary stay of a penalty
5. Amnesty- a form of executive clemency that is extended to a
class or group of person who have committed political crimes
PD 968. Probation Law of the Philippines
Probation is a form of punishment where penalty is served not
inside jail or prison but in the community on conditions set forth by
the probation officer.

Criminalistics
-It is the science of criminal things- or those that are left by the
criminals in the crime scene which are significant in criminal
investiagtion.
Divisions of Criminalistics
1. Forensic Ballistics
2. Forensic Dactyloscopy
3. Forensic Photography
4. Forensic Medicine
5. Questioned Documents Examination
6. Polygraphy

Forensic Ballistics
Ballistics- the science of the motion of projectile
- The science of firearms arms identification which involves
the scientific examination of ballistics exhibit such as fired
bullet, fired shell, firearms used in crime.
Etymology
The term Ballistics is attributed to Ballista, a gigantic bow or
catapult used to hurl stones, or from Ballo or Ba’llein which means
to throw.
Branches of Ballistics
A. Interior/ Internal Ballistics- the science of the motion of
projectile while inside the barrel of a gun.
 1. Ignition of the Primer
2. Flame is produced
3. Combustion of gunpowder
4. Energy is generated
5. Pressure develops
6. Velocity of the bullet
7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
B. Exterior/External Ballistics- the science of the motion of
projectile after it has left the muzzle of the gun
1. Muzzle blast- the noise created at the muzzle of the gun
2. Muzzle energy- energy generated at the gun muzzle
3. Trajectory- the actual curved path of the bullet during its
flight
4. Range- is the straight forward distance between the
muzzle of the gun and the target
5. Velocity- the rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time
6. Air resistance- the resistance encountered by the bullet
while in its flight
7. Pull of gravity-downward reaction of the bullet while in
flight
8. Penetration- depth of entry on the target.
C. Terminal Ballistics-the science that deals with the effects of
the impacts of the projectile on the target.
1. Terminal accuracy-size of bullet grouping in the target
2. Terminal Energy- energy of the projectile when it strikes
the target
3. Terminal penetration- depth of entry of the bullet in the
target
4. Terminal Velocity- speed of the bullet upon striking the
target
 D. Forensic Ballistics- The branch of science that involves the
investigation and identification of firearms by means of the
ammunition fired through them.
E. Wound ballistics- the study on the effects of the projectile to
the body
F. Shot ballistics- study of the motion of the shots from shotguns
Firearm- ( Section 877 Revised Administrative Code; Section 290
National Internal Revenue Code) –includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
pistols, revolvers, and all other weapons from which a bullet, ball, a
shot, a shell or missile maybe discharged by means of gunpowder
or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles, except that are
in small caliber and usually used as toys. The barrel of any firearm is
considered a complete firearm.
Classification of Firearms
A. According to gun barrel internal construction
1. Rifled bore Firearms- with riflings
2. Smooth bore Firearms-without riflings
B. Main type of Firearms
1. Artillery- uses projectiles more than 1 inch in diameter
2. Small arms uses projectiles less than 1 inch in diameter
C. According to mechanical construction
1. Single shot Firearm
2. Repeating arms
3. Bolt Action Type
4. Automatic loading type
5. Slide action type
6. Lever action type
D. According to use
1. Military firearms
2. Pocket and home Defense
3. Target and outdoor men’ s Firearm
 E. Miscellaneous Firearms
1. Home-made
2. Paltik
3. “Sumpak”
Ammunition- Section 877 Revised Administrative Code; Section 290
National Internal Revenue Code) a loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbines, shorguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet,
shot, shell or other missiles may be fired by means of gunpowder or
other explosives.
Parts of a cartridge
1. Bullet- the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm
by means of expansive force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder
2. Cartridge case-the tubular metallic tube container for the
gunpowder.
3. Gunpowder- It is the propellant powder which when ignited by
the primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and
propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel and on
the target.
4. Primer- the metal cap containing highly sensitive priming
mixture of chemical compound, which when heat or struck by
the firing pin would ignite.
Classification of Ammunition according to Location of Primer
1. Pin fire cartridge- a pin ids hit by a hammer coming down
vertically from the side f the cartridge instead of penetrating
horizontally from its center.
2. Center fire cartridge- the priming mixture is located at the
center of the base.
3. Ringfire Cartridge- the primer is placed on a circular hollow
ring of the base of the cartridge
 4. Rimfire Cartridge-the priming mixture is found on the cavity
along the rim of the cartridge
Classification of Cartridge according to Shapes
1. Straight case
2. Bottle-neck
3. Tapered case
Classification of Cartridge according to configuration of its Base
1. Rimmed
2. Semi-rimmed
3. Rimless
4. Rebated
5. Belted Case
Classification of bullet according Mechanical Constructions
1. Lead Bullet
2. Jacketed Bullet
Types of bullet according to shape
1. Pointed Bullet
2. Round nose bullet
3. Wad cutter bullet
4. Semi-wad cutter cbullet
5. Hollow point bullet
6. Boat tailed Bullet
Types of bullet according to Use
1. Ball bullet
2. Armor piercing Bullet
3. Tracer bullet
4. Incendiary bullet
5. Explosive bullets
Questioned Documents Examination
Document- is any material containing mark, signs, or symbols
either visible, partially visible that may presently or ultimately
convey a meaning to someone. It was derived from the word
document from Latin Word Documentum meaning lesson or
example or from French word docere meaning to teach.
Kinds of documents
1. Public document- notarized by a notary public with
solemnities required by law
2. Official document- issued by the government or its agent
having authority to do so
3. Private document- executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or of any person legally
authorized, by which documents, some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
4. Commercial document- executed in accordance with the cde
of commerce aor any mercantile law containing disposition of
commercial rights or obligation.
Handwriting-it is the result of a very complicated series of acts,
being used as a whole, combination of certain forms of visible
mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued and
painstaking effort. The ”visible speech”.
Kinds of Writing
1. Cursive or longhand
2. Script
3. Block
Signature- a name of a person written by him in a document as a
sign of acknowledgement.
Types of signature
1. Formal
2. Informal
3. Careless scribbles