AERODINAMIKA TEKNIK

Textbook(s) and/or other required material

Textbook:
J. D. Anderson, Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, Wiley, 1992

References:
– Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections, Dover, 1959.
– J. J. Bertin and M. L. Smith, Aerodynamics for Engineers, Prentice-Hall, 1998.
– Arnold M. Kuethe and Chuen-Yen Chow, Foundations of Aerodynamics: Bases of
Aerodynamic Design, 5th edn., Wiley, 1998.
– Barnes Warnock McCormick, Aerodynamics, Aeronautics and Flight Mechanics, Wiley,
1995.
• Course objectives
• Course Objectives: It is the instructor's intention to...
– teach students the fundamentals of potential flow.
– teach students the fundamentals of wing theory in both 2D and 3D.
– teach students some of the fundamentals of propeller theory.
– convey to the students the notion that mathematics is the only language suitable to describe the physics of
aerodynamics.
– show students the direct application and physical significance of the formalism of calculus learned during the first
years of their undergraduate education.
– convey to the students a knowledge of the limits of analytical solutions and the necessity, usefulness and accuracy of
computational methods.
– provide an opportunity for the students to improve their team-work and report-writing skills.
• Course Outcomes: Students must be able to...
– use superposition of the solutions to Laplace's equation for some simple, fundamental flows to model more
complicated ones.
– explain the concept of circulation and its relationship to the lift on an airfoil.
– use a vortex sheet and vortex filament to model a 2D airfoil and wings of finite span.
– explain the concept of lift-induced drag.
Contribution of course to meeting the professional component
• This course contributes primarily to the students' knowledge of engineering topics, but does
not provide design experience.
• The following statement indicates which of the following considerations are included in this
course: economic, environmental, ethical, political, societal, health and safety,
manufacturability, sustainability.
• Focuses primarily on the theory of wings and the lift and drag associated with airflow over
those structures. It is primarily a technical course and does not cover any of supplemental
topics (economics, environmental, etc).
Silabus
1. Fundamental principles
– Introduction
– Fundamental principles and equation
2. Inviscid, incompressible flow
– Fundamental of inviscid, incompresible flow
– Incompressible flow over airfoils
– Incompressible flow over finite wings
– 3-D incompressible flow
3. Inviscid, compressible flow
– Preliminary aspects
– Normal shock wave and related topic
– Oblique shock and expansion waves
– Compressible flow through nozzles, diffuses and wind tunnel
– Subsonic compressible flow over air foil: linear theory
4. Viscous flow
Introduction to fundamental principles and equations of viscous flow
Some special cases
Introduction to boundary layers
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Aerodynamics ?

The term of “aerodynamics” is generally used for problem arising from flight
and other topics involving the flow of air.
Ludwig Prandtl, 1949

Aerodynamics: the dynamics of gases, especially of atmosphere interaction

with moving objects.
The American Heritage Dictionary
of the English Language, 1969
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Aerodynamics , Historical examples:

• August 8, 1588: Spanish armada vs English fleet.

• 1687: Principia by Isaac Newton.
• Jean Le Rond d’Alembert (1777) and Leonhard Euler (1781):
Invconsistency of Newton’s model.
• 1901: Wilbur and Orville Wright
• 1939-1945: World War II
• 1951: H. Julian Allen , blunt reentry body.
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Classification
• Hydrodynamics : flow of liquid
• Gas dynamics : flow of gases
• Aerodynamics : flow of air

Practical objectives:
• The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat transfer
to, bodies moving through a fluid (usually air) : external
aerodynamics
• Determine of flow moving internally throught duct. We wish
to calculate and measure the flow properties inside rocket
and air-breathing jet engines and to calculate the engine
thrust: internal aerodynamics.
Fundamental principles
Introduction
Fundamental principles
Introduction
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Fundamental aerodynamic variables

1. Pressure: normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time
rate of change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on that
surface.
Consider point B in volume of fluid, the pressure at point B in the
fluid is defined as
 dF 
p  lim   dA  0
 dA 
2. Density
 dm 
  lim   dv  0
 dv 
3. Temperature
3 KE: mean kinetic energy
KE  kT k : Bolttzman constant
2
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Velocity

Fluid element velocity

Stream line
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Aerodynamics forces and moments

2 basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface, p
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface, τ
p act normal to the surface, and τ tangenttial to the surface.

The net effect of the p and τ distribution integrated over the complete body
surface is resultan aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body.

p 
M R
s V
Fundamental principles
Introduction

L= lift= component of R perpendicular to V∞ (free stream)

D=drag= component of R parallel to V∞ (free stream)
Or N=normal force=component of R perpendicular to c
A=axial force=component of R parallel to c
N
L= N cos α – A sin α (1.1)
L R
D= N sin α + A cos α (1.2) 

V 
D
A 
c
 Fundamental principles
Introduction  psu 
y

Leading edge (LE)

s A   su  x


V  Trailing edge (TE)
psl   sl 


dN u'   pu dsu cos    u dsu sin  (1.3) dN l'  pl dsl cos    l dsl sin  (1.5)

dAu'   pu dsu sin    u dsu cos  (1.4) dAl'  pl dsl sin    l dsl cos  (1.6)

 pu cos    u sin  dsu  LE  pl cos    l sin  dsl

TE TE
N  ' (1.7)
LE

 pu sin    u cos  dsu  LE  pl sin    l cos  dsl

TE TE
A 
'
(1.8)
LE
Fundamental principles
Introduction

dM u'   pu cos    u sin  xdsu   pu sin    u cos   ydsu (1.9)

dM l'   pl cos    l sin  xdsl   pl sin    l cos   ydsl (1.10)

 pu cos    u sin  x   pu sin    u cos  y dsu

TE
M '
LE  
LE

 pl cos    l sin  x   pl sin    l cos  y ydsl

TE
 (1.11)
LE
Fundamental principles
Introduction

• Free stream dynamic pressure

1 L
q   V2 Lift coefficient CL 
q S
2 CD 
D
Drag coefficient
q S
N
Normal force coefficient CN 
q S
A
Axial force coefficient CA 
q S
M
Moment coefficient CM 
q S l
2 dimensional bodies, force and moment perunit span, reference area S=c(1)=c

L' D' M'

cl  ; cd  ; cm 
q c q c q c 2

p  p
Pressure coefficient:
Cp 
q


Skin friction coefficient: cf 
q
 dx
dx  ds cos  ; dy  ds sin  ; S  cl  ds

dy

Substituting above equation into eqs. (1.7), (1.8) y

and (1.11), dividing by q and S, we obtain
ds
1 c dy  
  c dy
cn    C p ,l  C p ,u dx    c f ,u u  c f ,l l dx 
x
c 0 0
 dx dx  
c
1  c 
dx   c f ,u  c f ,l dx 
dyu dyl  c
ca     C p , u  C p ,l 
c 0 dx dx  0


1  c dyl  
c mLE  2  c p ,u  c p ,l xdx    c f ,u
c dyu
 c f ,l  xdx  
c  0 0
 dx dx  
1  c dyu  c dyl  
c 2 0  
 C p ,u  c f ,u  yu dx    C p ,l  c f ,l  yl dx 
dx  0
 dx  

cl  cn cos   ca sin 
cd  cn sin   ca cos 
 Fundamental principles
Introduction
N'
Center of Pressure '
M LE
A'
'
M LE   cp N ' sin   0 
cos   1
'
M
M '  cp   LE xcp
 cp  
'
LE L
N ' L'  N ' Center for pressure for an airfoil

N' N' N'

'
M LE M c'
A' 4
A' A'
  

c xcp
4
R at LE R at quarter –chord point R at center of pressure

c '
M '
LE   L  M c' / 4    cp L'
4
Dimensional analysis
Buckingham pi theorem

R  f  ,V , c,  , a 
Dimensional analysis is based on the obvious fact that in equation dealing with
the real physical world, each term must have the same dimensions.
  
         1
  
K: number of fundamental dimension required to describe the physical variables
(mass, length, and time , hence K=3)

f1  p1 , p2 ,....., pN   0  f 2 1 , 2 ,......,  N K   0

1  f 3  p1 , p2 ,...... pK , pK 1 
 2  f 4  p1 , p2 ,...... pK , pK  2 
............................................
 N  K  f 5  p1 , p2 ,...... pK , p N 
 g R,  ,V , c,  , a   0
K=3; m = dimension of mass, l = dimension of length, and t = dimension of time
R   mlt 2 N-K=6-3=3
    ml 3 f 2 1 , 2 , 3   0
V   lt 1
1  f 3   ,V , c, R 
c  l N=6

   ml 1t 1  2  f 4   ,V , c,  

a   lt 1  3  f 5   ,V , c, a 

1   dVb c e R m : d+1=0
l : -3d+b+e+1=0
1   ml  lt  l e mlt 2 
3 d 1 b
t : -b-2=0
d=-1, b=-2, and e=-2

1  R 1V2 c 2
R R R
R 1     CR
1  1
 V2 c 2
1
 V2 S q S
 V2 c 2 2 2
 m : 1+j=0
 2   Vh c i 
j
l : -3+h+i-j=0
 2   ml lt  l  ml
3 1 h i
t 
1 1 j t : -h-j=0
j=-1, h=1, and i=1

 V c
2  Free stream Reynolds number


 3  V  k c r a m : k=0
s
l : 1-3k+r+s=0
3   lt ml  l  lt 
1 3 k r 1 s t : -1-s=0
k=0, s=-1, and r=0

V
3  Free stream Mach number
a

  C R  f 6 Re, M   C R  f 6 Re, M  ,  
  V c V 
f2 
R
, , 0 C L  f 7 Re, M   C L  f 7 Re, M  ,  
  V 2 S   a 
1
    C D  f 8 Re, M   C D  f 8 Re, M  ,  
2 
f 2 C R , Re, M    0 CM  f 9 Re, M   CM  f 9 Re, M  ,  
Fundamental principles
Introduction

• Flow Similarity
• 2 different flow fields over2 different bodies are dynamically similar if:
1. The streamline pattern are geometrically similar
2. The distribution of V/V∞, p/p∞, T/T∞ , etc throught the flow field are the
same when plotted against common nondimensional coordinates.
3. The force coefficients are the same

The flow will be dynamically similar if:

1. The bodies and any other solid boundaries are geometrically similar for both
flows.
2. The similarity parameters are the same for both flow.
Non-Dimensional Number Definition Significance Application

Reynolds Number, Re All branches of fluid dynamics

Mach Number, M Compressible flow

Froude Number, Fr Free surface flow

Prandtl Number, Pr Heat transfer

Ratio of Specific Heats, k Compressible flow

Roughness Ratio Turbulent flow

Aerodynamics,Hydrodynamics
Pressure Coefficient, Cp

Drag Coefficient, CD Aerodynamics,Hydrodynamics

Lift Coefficient, CL
Aerodynamics,Hydrodynamics

Skin Friction, cf
Boundary layer flow
Fundamental principles
Introduction
Net pressure force
Fluid Static
 dp 
 pdxdz    p  dy dxdz 
 dy 
y  dp 
 p  dy dxdz 1 p1,h1
 dy 
dz
dy h

dp
dxdydz 
dx dy

pdxdz 2 p2,h2 Gravity force

g dxdydz 
   dxdydz g
x

z
 = constant
p2 h2

Fluid element is stationary (in equilibrium) 

p1
dp   g  dy
h1

p2  p1   g h2  h1   gh
 dxdydz   g dxdydz   0
dp
dy p2  gh2  p1  gh1
dp   gdy
p  gh  c
Fundamental principles
Introduction

Buoyancy Force
Solid or Element of fluid
y hollow body p1

h1 dy

h2 1
l
F   p2  p1 l 1
p2
p2 h2 h1
x p2  p1   dp    gdy   gdy
p1 h1 h2

F  l 1 gdy
h1
z
h2

Buoyancy force on body = weight of fluid displaced by body

Fundamental principles
Introduction

Types of Flow

• Continuum versus Free Types of Flow

• Molecule Flow
• Inviscid versus Viscous Flow
• Incompressible versus Compressible Flow
• Mach Number Regimes
•Subsonic if M<1
•Sonic if M=1
•Supersonic if M>1
 GA(W)-1 Airfoil-Thicker For Better Structure and Lower Weight-Good Stall
Characterististics- Chamber Is Maintained Farther Rearward Which Increases Lifting Cap
More Of The Airfoil and Decreases Drag.

Low Chamber -Low Drag-High Speed-Thin Wing Section-Good For

Racing aircraft, Fighters and Interceptor Planes.

Deep Chamber-High Lift-Low Speed-Thick Wing Section-Good For

Transport, Freighters and Bomber Planes.

Deep Chamber-High Lift-Low Speed-Thin Wing Section-

Good For Transport, Freighter and Bomber Planes.
Low Lift-High Drag-Reflex Trailing Edge Wing Section.
Very Little Movement Of Center Pressure. Good Stability.

Symmetrical (Cambered Top and Bottom) Wing Section-Similar To Above.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES AND
EQUATIONS

The principle is most important, not the detail.

Theodore von Karman, 1954
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Vector

Cartesian – cylindrical transformation

cartesian
r  x2  y2
r  xi  yj  zk (Position vector)
y
A  Axi  Ay j  Az k   arctan ...........(2.6)
x
zz
cylindrical
A  Ar er  A e  Az e
Cartesian – spherical transformation

spherical r  x2  y2  z 2 ...........(2.8)

A  Ar er  A e  A e z z
  arccos  arccos
r x2  y2  z 2
x
  arccos
x2  y2
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Scalar and Vector

Scalar field Scalar and vector products

p  p1 x, y, z, t   p2 r , , z, t   p3 r , , , t 
cartesian
  1 x, y, z, t    2 r , , z, t   3 r , , , t  A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k
T  T1 x, y, z, t   T2 r , , z, t   T3 r , , , t  B  Bx i  B y j  Bz k

Vector field
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz ...........(2.9)
V  Vxi  Vy j  Vz k
i j k
Vx  V x  x , y , z , t  A  B  Ax Ay Az  i Ay B z  Az B y   j  Az B x  Ax B z   k Ax B y  Ay B x 
V y  V y  x, y , z , t  Bx By Bz
Vz  V z  x , y , z , t  ...........(2.10)

cylindrical A  Ar er  A e  Az ez spherical A  Ar er  A e  A e
B  Br er  B e  Bz ez B  Br er  B e  B e

A  B  Ar Br  A B  Az Bz ...........(2.11) A  B  Ar Br  A B  A B ...........(2.13)
er e ez er e e
A  B  Ar A Az A  B  Ar A A ...........(2.14)
...........(2.12)
Br B Bz Br B B
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Gradient of Scalar Field

Scalar field y
p  p1 x, y, z   p2 r, , z   p3 r , , 
p

x, y 
Direction of the
y maximum change n
in p at the point (x,y)
p s
p3  const.
x, y  Isolines of
x

p2  const. Pressure
dp
p1  p2  p3  p.n ...........(2.15)
p1  const. ds
(directional derivative
x in s direction)

The gradient of p,p at a given point in space is defined Cartesian

as a vector such that: p  p  x, y , z 
1. Its magnitude is the maximum rate of change of p per
p p p
unit length of the coordinate space at the given point. p  i  j  k ...........(2.16)
2. Its direction is that of the maximum rate of change of p x y z
at the given point.
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Gradient of Scalar Field

Cylindrical

p  pr , , z 
p 1 p p
p  er  e  ez ...........(2.17)
r r  z

Spherical
p  pr , ,  
p 1 p 1 p
p  er  e  e ...........(2.18)
r r  r sin  
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Divergence of a Vector Field

Vector field
V  V x, y, z   V r, , z   V r, , 
The divergence of a vector is ascalar quantity.

Cartesian cylindrical

V  V  x , y , z   Vx i  V y j  Vz k V  V r , , z   Vr er  V e  Vz ez
Vx Vy Vz 1  1 V Vz
 V    ...........(2.19)   V  rV   
r r r  z
r
x y z
...........(2.20)
spherical
V  V r , ,    Vr er  V e  V e
1  2  1 V
 V  2
r r
r Vr  
1
r sin  
V sin   
r sin  
...........(2.21)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Curl of a Vector Field

V  V x, y, z   V r, , z   V r, , 

The curl of V is a vector quantity.

Cartesian
V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
i j k
    V Vy   Vx Vz   Vy Vx 
 V   i z    j     k    ...........(2.22)
x y z  y z   z x   x y 
Vx Vy Vz

Cylindrical Spherical
V  Vr er  V e  Vz ez V  Vr er  V e  V e
er re ez er re r sin  e
1    1   
 V   V  2
r r  z r sin  r  
Vr rV Vz Vr rV r sin  V
...........(2.23) ...........(2.24)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Line Integrals

Vector field A  Ax, y, z   Ar, , z   Ar , , 

A curve C in space connecting point a and b, ds is elemental length of the curve.
n is unit vector tangent to the curve.
n
Defined the vector ds=n ds. Line integral
b of A along curve C from point a to b is
ds
A b
a
A  ds
C
a
ds A
If the curve C is closed, the line integral is given by

 A  ds
C

C
Counterclockwise direction around C is considered positive
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Surface Integrals

Closed surface S
Volume V
n p
dS
dS
S
C n
The three-dimensional surface area S Volume V enclosed by the closed surface S
is bounded by the closed curve C

Define a vector elemental area dS=n dS. In term of dS, the surface
Integral over the surface S can be difined in three ways
Closed surface:
 p d = surface integral of a scalar p over the open surface S
S p dS
s S (the result is a vector)

s  A  d = surface integral of a vector A over the open surface S A  dS

(the result is a scalar) S
S
= surface integral of a vector A over the open surface S  A  dS
s  A  d (the result is a vector) S
S
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Volume integral

 is a scalar field in space, volume integral over the volume V of the quantity
 is

 dV = volume integral of a scalar
V
over the
volume V (the result is a scalar)
A is a vector field in space, volume integral over the volume V of the


quantity A is
AdV = volume integral of a vector A over the
V volume V (the result is a vector)

Relation between line, surface and volume integral

 A  ds      A  dS
C S
(Stokes theorem) A : vector filed ...........(2.25)

 A  dS     AdV (divergence theorem)

...........(2.26)
S V

 p  dS   pdV
S V
(gradient theorem) p: scalar field ...........(2.27)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Model of the fluid

Finite control volume approach

Control surface S
S
V
Control
volume V

Finite control volume moving with the fluid

Finite control volume fixed in space such that the same fluid particles are
with the fluid moving throught it always in the same control volume

Infinitesimal fluid element approach

Volume dV
Volume dV

Infinitesimal fluid element moving along a

Infinitesimal fluid element fixed in space stream line with the velocity V equal to the
with the fluid moving throught it local flow velocity at each point.
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Physical Meaning of The Divergence Of Velocity

Moving control volume, an infinitesimal

element of the surface dS moving at the
n local velocity V. The change in the volume of
the control volume ∆V, due to just the
dS V movement of dS over a time increament ∆t is
V equal to the volume of the long, thin cylinder
Vt V(t
with base area dS and altitude ).n
S
V  Vt   n dS  Vt   dS ...........(2.28)

DV   Vt   dS (surface integral)

Total change in volume of the whole volume:
S
  Vt   dS   V  dS
DV 1 ...........(2.29)
Divided by ∆t :
Dt t S S

  V  dS     V dV
Divergence theorem DV ...........(2.30)
Dt S V
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Physical Meaning of The Divergence Of Velocity

DV 
    V dV
DV
V V     V dV ...........(2.31)
Dt V Dt V

V is small enough such that divergence of V essentially the same value throught
V
DV  1 DV 
   V V   V   ...........(2.32)
Dt V Dt

Divergence of V is physically the time rate of change of the volume of moving

fluid element per unit volume.
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Continuity Equation

Mass flow
Vn
Consider the fluid element with velocity V
dt
that pass through area A
A(edge view) V volume  Vn dt A
V dt mass   Vn dt A ...........(2.33)

 Vn dt A m
Mass flux   Vn
Mass flow: m   Vn A
dt A

...........(2.34) ...........(2.35)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Continuity Equation

Physical principle: Mass can be neither created nor destroyed

Net mass flow out of control Time rate of decrease of mas

=
Volume through surface S inside control volume V
dS
dS V BC ...........(2.36)
V
dV Elemental mass flow across thew area dS is
S Vn dS  V  dS + outflow and - inflow

Net mass flow out of the entire control surface S isB   V  dS

S
...........(2.37)

dV
The mass contained within the elemental volume dV is

Total mass inside control volume is  dV

V

The time rate of decrease of mass inside control volumeCis   dV
t V ...........(2.38)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Continuity Equation

B   V  dS B=C
S

 
C    dV S V  dS   t  dV
t V V


 dV   V  dS  0 ...........(2.40)
t V S
The continuity equation
in integral form
Control volume is fixed in space, the limit integration are also fixed, so

 

t V
dV  
S
V  dS  
V
t
dV   V  dS  0
S
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Continuity Equation

Applying the divergence theorem

 V  dS     VdV
For steady flow
S V
...........(2.41)
Substitusi



dV     V dV  0  V  dS  0 ...........(2.44)
V
t V
S

and
  
  t     V dV  0   V   0 ...........(2.45)
V  
...........(2.42)


   V   0 ...........(2.43)
t

The continuity equation

in partial differential form
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Momentum Equation

d
Newton's second law : F  mV  ...........(2.47)
dt

Physical principle Force = time rate of change of momentum

Force:
1. Body force: gravity, electromagnetic, acting on the fluid volume.
2. Surface force: pressure, shear stress, acting on the control surface.
f net body force per unit mass, the body force on the elemental volumedV,
fdV
Body force   fdV ...........(2.48)
V
elemental surface force due to pressure   pdS
Pressure force   pdS ...........(2.49)
S

F   fdV   pdS  Fviscous ...........(2.50)

V S
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Momentum Equation

Time rate of change of momentum = G + H

G: net flow of momentum out of control volume across surface S
H: time rate of change of momentum due to unsteady fluctuations of flow properties
inside volume V

G   V  dSV

S d
mV   G  H   V  dSV   VdV
 dt t V
H 
t V
VdV S

...........(2.54)
d
mV   F
dt


 VdV    V  dSV  - pdS   fdV  Fviscous
t V S S V
...........(2.55)
Momentum equation in integral form
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Momentum Equation

Gradient theorem
  pdS   pdV ...........(2.56)
S V

substitusi

 VdV   V  dSV  - pdV   fdV  Fviscous (vector eq.)
t V S V V ...........(2.57)
V  ui  vj  wk
the x component
u  p
V t dV  S  V  dSu  - V x dV   f x dV  Fx viscous (scalar eq.)
V ...........(2.58)

Divergence theorem

 V  dSu  uV  dS     uVdV

S S V
...........(2.59)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Momentum Equation

substitusi
  u      uV   p  f  F  dV  0

V
 t x
x x viscous

...........(2.60)

 u  p
    uV    f x  Fx viscous  0
t x

 u  p
    uV     f x  Fx viscous ...........(2.61a)
t x
Momentum eq. in
 v  p
    vV     f y  Fy viscous ...........(2.61b) differential form
t y Navier-Stokes Eq.

 w p
    wV     f z  Fz viscous ...........(2.61c)
t z
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Momentum Equation

For steady, inviscid flow and no body forces, equation become

 V  dSV  - pdS

S S
...........(2.62)

p
   uV    ...........(2.63a)
x

p
   vV    ...........(2.63b) Euler Equation
y

p
   wV    ...........(2.63c)
z
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Energy Equation

Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it can only change in fo
g  w  e (First law of thermodynamics)...........(2.76)

B1= rate of heat added to fluid inside control volume from surroundings
B2= rate of work done on fluid inside control volume B1  B2  B3
B3=rate of change of energy of fluid as it flows through control volume ...........(2.77)
  V2   V2 
B1   qdV  Q viscous B3     e  dV    V  dS e  
t V  2  S  2 
V

B2   pV  dS    f  V dV  W viscous

S V

 qdV  Q viscous

  pV  dS    f  V dV  W viscous
V S V ...........(2.86)
  2
V   2
V 
t 
  
 e  dV     e  V  dS
V  2  S  2 
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Energy Equation

Partial differential form

  V 2    V2  
   e         e  V  q     pV    f  V   Q viscous
'
 W viscous
'

t   2    2  
...........(2.87)
For steady, inviscid flow, adiabatic andno body forces, equation become

 V2 
S

S   e  2 V  dS   pV  dS ...........(2.88)

  V2  
     e  V     pV  ...........(2.89)
  2  
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Substantial Derivative
Velocity field, V  ui  vj  wk, where
y
1 V1 u  u  x, y, z, t 
Fluid element v  v x, y, z, t 
at time t=t1
j w  w x, y, z, t 
x
k i Density field,     x, y, z, t 
2

Same fluid
V2 point 1, density is 1   x1, y1, z1, t1 
point 2, density is  2   x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 
element
at time t=t2
z
     
Taylor series,  2  1    x2  x1      y2  y1     z2  z1     t2  t1   higher - order terms
 x 1  y 1  z 1  t 1

Dividing by t2-t1, and ignoring the higher-order terms,

 2  1  x  x    y  y  z  z 
   2 1    2 1    2 1    .........(2.92)
t2  t1  x 1 t2  t1  y 1 t2  t1  z 1 t2  t1  t 1

 2  1
D
limit  Instantaneous time rate D
 Substantial derivative
t 2 t1 t  t Dt Of change of density Dt
2 1
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Substantial Derivative

x2  x1
limit u
t 2 t1 t 2  t1 D     ........(2.93)
u v w 
x y z t
y2  y1 Dt
limit v
t 2 t1 t 2  t1 D    
 u v  w ........(2.94)
z 2  z1 Dt t x y z
limit w Substantial derivative in
t 2 t1 t 2  t1 cartesian coordinates
  
i  j k
x y z

D 
  V    ........(2.95)
Dt t
example
DT T T T T T
    V T  u v w ........(2.96)
Dt t t x y z
Local derivative Convective derivative
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Fundamental Equation in Term of the Substantial Derivative

X componen of momentum eq.

 u  p
Vector identity :     uV     f x  Fx viscous
t x
   V     V  V   ........(2.97)
...........(2.61a)
Continuity eq.  u  u 
 u ...........(2.100)
 t t t
    V   0 ........(2.43)    uV     u  V 
t
  u   V    V   u ...........(2.101)
 V      V  0 .....(2.98)
t Substituting into (2.61a)
D u 
   V  0 .....(2.99)  u  u   V    V   u
Dt t t
p
Substantial derivative of continuity eq.    f x  Fx viscous
x
u  p
  u      V    V   u    f x  Fx viscous ...........(2.102)
t  t  x
u p
=0 (Continuity eq.)   V  u    f x  Fx viscous
t x
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Fundamental Equation in Term of the Substantial Derivative

u p
  V  u    f x  Fx viscous
t x
u p
   V  u     f x  Fx viscous ...........(2.103)
 t  x
Du
Dt

Du p
    f x  Fx viscous ...........(2.104a)
Dt x
In similar manner, equations (2.61b) and (2.61c)
p
   f y  Fy viscous
Dv
 ...........(2.104b)
Dt y
Dw p
    f z  Fz viscous ...........(2.104c)
Dt z
Energy equation



D e 2
V 2

 q     pV    f  V   Q viscous
'
 W viscous
'
...........(2.105)
Dt
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Pathlines and streamlines of a flow

Velocity vector
Pathline for element A
V

Element A Streamlines
Element A at some
later time Streamlines
Element B
1
V y
x
Element B at some
later time z
V 2
V
Pathlines ds
Pathlines for two different fluid elements 1
passing through the same point in space; Streamlines
unsteady flow F(x,y,z)=0
Sme pathline for
all fluid element
Going through point 1

For stedy flow, streamlines and pathlines are the sa

Fundamental Principles and Equations
Pathlines and streamlines of a flow

Streamline: f(x,y,z)=0, Streamline equation ?

wdy  vdz  0 ..........(2.108a)
ds be a directed element of the streamline,
V is parallel to ds. udz  wdx  0 ..........(2.108b)

ds  V  0 ..........(2.106)
vdx  udy  0 ..........(2.108c)

Cartesian coordinates
Differential equation for
ds  dxi  dyj  dzk the streamline
V  ui  vj  wk
i j k
ds  V  dx dy dz
u v w

 iwdy  vdz  judz  wdx 

 k vdx  udy   0 ..........(2.107)
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Pathlines and streamlines of a flow

V v
y  f  x

u
dy v

dx u

Streamline in two dimensional Streamltube in three-dimensional

cartesian space cartesian space

dy v
 ..........(2.109)
dx u

vdx  udy  0
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Kinematic of fluid motion
Consider a two-dimensional fluid element, a square ABCD for simplicity. when the fluid
flows this element is subject to various forces and as a result undergoes a complex motion
and a possible deformation as indicated in the figure, and assumes a shape like A`B`C`D`.
It appears that the complex deformation of the element can be split into four basic
constituents :
1. Translation
2. Linear Deformation
3. Rotation
4. Angular Deformation
 Fundamental Principles and Equations
Kinematic of fluid motion  u 
 dy t
 y 
B
 1
y dy
 u  K   C
u   dy  v dx t
 y  A
2  
 x 
B
dy
 v  dx
v A C v   x dx
 
Fluid element at timet  t
u

dx
Fluid element at time t
x
Distance in y direction that A moves during time increament t  v t
 v 
Distance in y direction that C moves during time increament t   v  dx t
 x 
 v   v 
Net displacement in y direction of C relative to A   v  dx t  v t   dx t
 x   x 
Fundamental Principles and Equations
Kinematic of fluid motion

v x dx t v u x dy t u

tan  2   t ............(2.110) tan     t
dx x 1
dy y
since  2 is a small angle, tan  2   2 ............(2.112)
v ............(2.111) since - 1 is a small angle
 2  t
x u
1   t ............(2.113)
Consider line AB. The x cmponent of the y
velocity at point A at time t is u.
d1 1 u
velocity of point B at time t  limit 
t y
 
dt t 0

u  u y dy ............(2.114)
d 2  2 v
net displacement in the x direction of B  limit 
relative to A over time increament ti dt t 0 t x

u ydyt ............(2.115)

Fundamental Principles and Equations
Kinematic of fluid motion

angular ve locity in xy plane, is defined    V ............(2.120)

1  d1 d 2 
z     ............(2.116) Curl of thr velocity
2  dt dt  vorticity
1  v u 
 z     ............(2.117)
2  x y 
Angular velocity of the fluid element in 3-D space
y 
   xi   y j   z k
1  w v   u w   v u  
    i     j    k 
2  y z   z x   x y  
j
............(2.118)
vorticity,  2 i x
k
 w v  u w  v u 
    i     j    k
 y z   z x   x y  z
............(2.119)
  V  0 at every point in a flow, the flow is called rotational,
this implies that the fluid elements have a finite angular ve locity.

  V  0 at every point in a flow, the flow is called irrotational,

this implies that the fluid elements have no angular ve locity.
if the flow is two - dimensiona l (x - y plane), then from eq (2.119)
 v u 
   , k    k ............(2.121)
 x y 
if the flow is irrotational,   0
 v u 
    0 ............(2.122)
 x y 

Is condition of irrotational for two-dimensional flow

from fig. 2.28
   2   1  ............(2.123)

By definition , the strain of the fluid element

as seen in the xy plane is the change in  In the yz and xz plane
Strain  -    2  1 z v
............(2.124)  yz   ............(2.126b)
y z
time rate of strain
u w
d d 2 d1  xz   ............(2.126c)
 xy     ............(2.125) z x
dt dt dt
 u u u 
substituting (2.114) and (2.115)  x y z 
 v v v 
v u  
 xy   ............(2.126a)  x y z 
x y  w w w 
 x x z 

 circulation
Circulatio n

c     V  ds
C

from Stokes' theorem

ds V     V  ds      V   ds
C
s
FUNDAMENTALS OF INVISCID,
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
 Bernoulli’s Equation
Inviscid flow, no body forces, momentum equation given by eq. (2.104a) becomes
substituting into eq. (3.3),
Du p
 
u u u 1 p
Dt x u dx  u dy  u dz   dx
u u u u p x y z  x
  u  v  w   .............(3.1)
t x y z x .............(3.4)
For steady flow  u u u  1 p
u dx  dy  dz    dx
 x y z   x
u u u 1 p .............(3.2)
u v w  .............(3.5)
x y z  x
du
multiply by dx,
1 p
u u u 1 p udu   dx
u dx  v dx  w dx   dx .......(3.3)  x
x y z  x
1 p
d u 2   
1
dx .............(3.6)
Consider the flow along a streamline in 3-D space. 2  x
The equation of streamline is given by eq. (2.108a to c) for y and z component
1 p
d v 2   
1
udz  wdx  0 .............(2.108b) dy .............(3.7)
2  y
vdx  udy  0 .............(2.108c) 1 p
d w2   
1
dz .............(3.8)
2  z
Bernoulli’s Equation
adding eq. (3.6) through (3.8)   constant,
1  p p p 
p2 V2
1
d u 2  v 2  w2     dx  dy  dz   dp     VdV
  x
p1 V1
2 y z 
 V22 V12 
.............(3.9) p2  p1      
 2 2 
however,
1 1
u 2  v 2  w2  V 2 .............(3.10) p1  V12  p2  V22 .............(3.13)
2 2
p p p
dx  dy  dz  dp .............(3.11) Bernoulli’s equation
x y z
1
substituting eq. (3.10) and (3.11) into (3.9), p  V 2  const along streamline
2
d V 2   
1 dp
2  .............(3.14)
Bernoulli’s equation for irrotional flow
dp   VdV .............(3.12)
1
p  V 2  const throughout the flow
2
Euler’s equation
.............(3.15)
The venturi and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel
1 2 along the wall,
A  A x  V  dS  0
V1 V2
1 2  V  dS  0
wall
.............(3.18)
A1 A2

at station 1

Quasi-one-dimensional flow in a duct  V  dS    A V

A1
1 1 1 .............(3.19)

Integral form of the continuity eq.,

at station 2


t V
dV   V  dS  0 ...........(2.39)
S  V  dS   2
A2 V2 .............(3.20)
A2
for steady flow
Substituting (3.18) to (3.20) into (3.17)
 V  dS  0
S
.............(3.16)
 1 A1V1   2 A2 V2  0  0
apply tothe duct, 1 A1V1   2 A2 V2 .............(3.21)

 V  dS   V  dS   V  dS  0 incompressible flow,
A1 A2 wall
A1V1  A2 V2 .............(3.22)
.............(3.17)
The venturi and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel

Throat V12 
2
p  p   V 2
.............(3.23)
 2 1 2

V1 V2
A1
p1 p2 V2  V1 .............(3.24)
A1 A2 A2
2
 A1  2
V1   p2  p1     V1 .............(3.25)
2 2
 A 
Pressure is a  2
p minimum at
the throat
2 p1  p2 
V 
  
2
.............(3.26)
1
 A1 A2  1 2

x
The venturi and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel
model fan
V1 V3
V2
1 3
 2 , A2
A1 A3

Settling nozzle Test section diffuser

chamber

A1
V2 
2
V1  A2  2
V2   p1  p2     V2
2 2
A2 .............(3.27)
 A 
A2  1
V3  V2 .............(3.31)
A3 .............(3.28)
2 p1  p2 
  
1 1 1 V22 
p1  V12  p2  V22  p3  V32  1  A2 A1 2
2 2 2
.............(3.29) .............(3.32)

V22 
2
p  p   V 2
.............(3.30)
 1 2 1
Pitot Tube
Total pressure Static pressure
A

V1
B

VB  0
p B  po

1 1
pA  VA2  pB  VB2
2 2
1
p1  V12  p0  0
2 .............(3.32)
static press  dynamic pressure  total pressure

2 p0  p1  .............(3.34)
V1 

 Condition on Velocity For
Pressure coefficient Incompressible Flow
p  p
Cp  .............(3.36) incompressible flow,
q
where V  0 .............(3.39)

1 continuity equation,
q    V2
2 
   V  0 .............(2.43)
incompressible flow, t
1 1 incompressible flow,   constant
p    V2  p   V 2
2 2 0    V  0
1
 
p  p   V2  V 2 .............(3.37)
2
V  0 .............(3.39)

substituting into (3.36),

p  p 2
1
 
V2  V 2 
Cp  
q 1
V2
2
V2
Cp  1 2 .............(3.38)
V
Governing Equation For Irrational, Incompressible
Flow: Laplace’s Equation

incompressible flow, cartesian coordinates,     x, y, z 

V  0 .............(3.39)
 2  2  2
   2  2  2  0 .............(3.41)
2

irrational flow, a velocity potential , x y z

V   .............(2.145)
cylindrical coordinates,    r, , z 
incompressible and irrational,
1     1  2  2
     0 
2
r  2  2 0
r r  r  r  2
z
 2  0 .............(3.40) .............(3.42)
Laplace’s Equation

spherical coordinates,    r, ,  

1   2         1  
 2  
 r  r sin     sin      0
r 2 sin  r        sin    
.............(3.43)
Governing Equation For Irrational, Incompressible
Flow: Laplace’s Equation
2  D, incompressible flow, stream function, 2  D, incompressible flow, irrational

u .............(2.141a)
y
v u
  0 .............(2.122)
v .............(2.141b) x y
x
substituting (2.141a and b) into (2.122),
u v
V   0 .............(3.44)
x y        
       0
substituting (2.141a and b) into (3.44), x  x  y  y 

         2  2  2  2
      0
  0 x 2 y 2
.............(3.46)
x  y  y  x  x  y yx
.............(3.45)

Conclusions:
1. Any irrotational, incompressible flow has a velocity potential and stream function
(for 2-D) that both satisfy Laplace’s Equation.
2. Conversely, any solution of Laplace’s equation represents the velocity potential or
stream function (2-D) for an irrotational, incompressible flow.
 Boundary Conditions
y
V

 x

V V
 
yb  f  x 

 at the wall,
V V  n     n  0 .............(3.48a)
at infinity, 
0 .............(3.48b)
  n
u   V .............(3.47a)
x y or
   .............(3.48c)
v   0 .............(3.47b) 0
y x S
or
Boundary conditions on velocity at infinity
  
dyb v .............(3.48e)
dx  u  surface
Boundary conditions on velocity at the wall
 Uniform Flow:1st Elementary Flow
  cont

curve C 
h y  u  V
r y
l V  .............(3.54a)
x and

  cont  v  0
x .............(3.54b)
then

 u  V .............(3.49a)   V y .............(3.55)
x
and
Stream function for an incompressible
 uniform flow.
v0 .............(3.49b)
y
in polar coordinates, x  r cos  and y  r sin 
from eq (3.49a),   V x  f  y  ........(3.50)
  V r cos  .............(3.56)
from eq (3.49b),   const  g  x )  .......(3.51)
and
then
  V x  const. .............(3.52)
  V r sin .............(3.57)
  V x .............(3.53)
Velocity potential for a uniform flow
Uniform Flow:1st Elementary Flow
circulatio n in a uniform flow,

    V  dS .............(2.127)
C

consider close curve C

 V  dS  V l  0h  V l  0h  0
C
 

0 .............(3.58)

V  const.
    V  dS  V   dS  V  0  0
C C

0

      V   dS .............(2.128)
S

uniform flow is irrational,   V  0,

0
Source/Sink Flow: 2nd Elementary Flow
c
Vr  ...............3.59a)
r
V  0 ...............3.59b)

total mass flow

2 2
    Vr rd l  rlVr  .d
m .....3.60)
0 0

volume flow rate


m
v   2rlVr .....3.60)

volume flow rate per unit length
v
   2rVr .....3.61)
l

Vr  .....3.62)
2r
Source/Sink Flow: 2nd Elementary Flow
 the stream function
c
2 1  
velocity potential  Vr  .....3.68)
r  2r
  
 Vr  .....3.63)   V  0 .....3.69)
r 2r r
1 
 V  0 .....3.64)
r  integratin g w/ respect to
Integrating respect to r 
    f  r .....3.70)
 2
 ln r  f   .....3.65)
2
integratin g w/ respect to r
integratin g respect to
  const  f   .....3.71)
  cont  f  r  .....3.66)

   .....3.72)
2

 ln r .....3.67)       V   dS  0
2
S
Combination of a uniform flow w/ a source and sink
velocity field
1  
Vr   V cos   .....3.76)
r  2r

V    V sin  .....3.77)
r
stagnation points
stream function 
V cos   0 .....3.78)
 2r
  V r sin    .....3.74)
2 V sin   0 .....3.79)
streamline solving for r and  , we find that one

  V r sin     const. .....3.75) stagnation point exists, located at
2
  
r,θ   
 , 
 2V 
substituting stagnation pont into eq. (3.75)
 
  V sin     const
2V 2

   const
2
Hence, the streamline that goes through
the stagnation point is described by

   const. This streamline is shown as curve
2
ABC in fig. 3.17
 stagnation points are located such that
b
OA  OB  b 2  .....3.81)
V
The equation of the streamline is given by

  V r sin   1   2   const .....3.82)
2

stagnation streamline

stream function   1   2   at point A

    1   2  0 at point B
  V r sin   1   2 .....3.80)
2 2 stagnation streamline

  V r sin   1   2  V r sin  

1 

 2  0 .....3.83)
2
2 2
 Doublet flow
a source of strength  and a sink of strength - 
separatedby a distance l. At any point P in the flow
the stream function is

 

2

1   2   

2
 .....3.84)

as l  0 while l rem ainconstant, we obtain a special

flow pattern defined as doublet.

lim it   
  l 0   d  .....3.85)
 2 
  l  const
 : doublet strength
 P

d
r
b lim it   l sin  
  l 0  

a  2 r  l cos  
  l  const
 
l or
a  l sin 
b  r  l cos 
lim it   sin  
  l 0  
a  2 r  l cos  
d    l  const
b
Hence or
a l sin   sin 
d   .....3.86)   .....3.87)
b r  l cos  2 r
Substituti ng eq. 3.86 into 3.85
Doublet flow

the velocity potential

 cos 
 .....3.88)
2 r
the stream linefor doublet flow
 sin 
   const  c
2 r
or

r sin  .....3.89)
2c
 Nonlifting flow over a circular cilinder
the stream function
 sin 
  V r sin  
2 r
or
  
  V r sin  1  
  2 
 2 V  r 
.....3.91)

let R 2   2V , eq 3.91 can be written as

 2
  V r sin   1  2 
R
.....3.92)
 r 

velocity field

1   2
 V r cos   1  2 
1 R
Vr 
r  r  r 

 2
Vr  1  2  V cos  
R
 r  .....3.93)

  2 R 2  R 2  
V     V r sin   3  1  2 V sin  
r    
 r  r  
 2
V   1  2  V sin  
R
 r 
 .....3.94)
the location of stagnation points
 2
1  R  V cos    0 .....3.95)
 2  
 r 
 2
1  R  V sin    0 .....3.96)
 2  
 r 
equation of stream line that passes through the stagnation points is
 2 .....3.97)
  V r sin   1  2   0
R
 r 


R .....3.98)
2V

Velocity distributi on on the surface

of the of the cy linderis given by
eq. 3.93 and 3.94 with r  R
Vr  0 .....3.99)

V  2V sin  .....3.100)

pressure coefficient equation 1.15 and 1.16 become

 V 
C p  1   

2
.....3.38) cn 
1 c

c 0
 
C p,l  C p,u dx .....3.102)
 V 
combining equation 3.100 and 3.38
ca 
 
1 TE
c LE

C p,u  C p,l dy .....3.103)
C p  1  4 sin 2  .....3.101)
 Vortex flow
const
V  .....3.104)
r
circulation around a given circularstream lineof

radius r,

   V  dS  V 2r 
C
or

V   .....3.105)
2r
and

C .....3.106)
2
vortex flow is irrotational except at the origin.
com bining eq. 3.106 and 2.137

2C 
   V  dS
S
.....3.107)

Both   V and dS are in the sam edirection,

both perpendicular to the plane of flow

2πC 
   V  dS     V dS
S S
.....3.108)

Let r  0

   V dS    V dS .....3.109) r  0,dS  0,
S hence eq3.110 become
com bining eq 3.108 and 3.109
V  
2πC    V dS
2πC .....3.110)
or V 
dS
the velocity potential for vortex flow

 Vr  0 .....3.111a)
r
1  
 V   .....3.111b)
r  2r
integrating eq. 3.111a and b
Γ
φ  .....3.112)
2π

the stream function for vortex flow

1  .....3.113a)
 Vr  0
r 
 
  V   .....3.113b)
r 2r
integrating eq. 3.113a and b
Γ
  ln r .....3.114)
2π
 Lifting Flow Over A Cylinder
non lifting flow over a cy linder
radius R
 2
 1  V r sin   1  2  .....3.92)
R
 r 


the stream function for vortex w/ strength 

Γ
2  ln r  constant .....3.115)
2π
   1  2
and, constant   ln R .....3.116)
2  2

  V r sin   1  2 
 R  r
Γ r ln
2  ln .....3.117)  
r  2 R
2π R 

.....3.118)
velocity field
 R 2
Vr  1  2 V r cos  .....3.119)
 
 r 
 R 2

V   1  2 V sin   .....3.120)
  2r
 r 
stagnation points
 R 2
Vr  1  2 V r cos   0 .....3.121)
 r 

 R 2

 
V   1  2 V sin   0 .....3.122)
 r  2r

from eq. 3.121, r  R, substituti ng this result into eq. 3.122
and solving for  , we obtain
  
θ  arcsin   

.....3.123)
 4V R 
velocity on the surfaceof the cy linder,r  R

V  V  2V sin  
2R
pressure coefficient
2 2
 V    
C p  1     1    2 sin  
 


 V   2RV  converting eq. 3.127 to
or .....3.125)
polar coord
 2
 2 sin    
 y  R sin  , dy  R cos  d
C p  1  4 sin  
2
  

 RV  2RV  
  .....3.128)
.....3.126)

 C 
TE substituti ng eq. 3.128 into 3.127
1
cd  ca  p,u  C p,l dy and c  2 R
c
LE
1 0
or
TE TE
cd 

2 
C p,u cos d 

 
0

1 1 1
cd  C p,u dy 
p,l cos d
C p,l dy C
c c 2 
LE LE .....3.127) .....3.129)
C p,u , C p,l  C p

1  1 2
cd  
2 0 
C p cos  d 
2  
C p cos  d

1  2
cd 
2  C
0
p cos  d .....3.130)
substituti ng eq. 3.126 into 3.130 and noting that
2
 cos  d  0
0
.....3.131a)
2
0
sin  cos  d  0
2
.....3.131b)

2
and
 sin  cos  d  0
0
.....3.131c)

we im m edietely obtain
cd  0
.....3.132)
 c c

 
1 1
cl  cn  C p,l dx  C p,u dx substituti ng eq. 3.126 into
c c
0 0 .....3.133) 3.136 and noting that
2
converting to polar coord
x  R cos  , dx   R sin  d .....3.134)
 0
sin  d  0 .....3.137a)

2
substituti ng eq. 3.134 into 3.133
2 0
 sin  d  0
0
3
.....3.137b)

 
1 1  2
cl  
2 
C p,l sin  d 
2 
C p,u sin  d
.....3.135)
and
 sin  d  0
0
2

1  2 .....3.137b)
c 
l 2  C
0
p sin  d .....3.136)

we immedietely obtain

cl  .....3.138)
RV
lift perunit span L'
1
L'  q Scl   V2 Scl .....3.139)
2
1 
S  2 R1, L'   V 2 R
2
2 RV
L'   V  .....3.140)

The lift per unit span is directly proportional to circulation

Kutta-Joukowski theorem
The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem and The
Generation of Lift
Incompressible Flow
over Airfoils
Airfoils: Introduction
• In this chapter, an introduction to airfoils and airfoil theory is followed by the
application of potential flow methods to the analysis of airfoils.

The purpose of this section is to discuss the relation between airfoil geometry and
airfoil performance. To do this we will discuss the methods that are used to
compute the distribution of pressures over the airfoil surface. Then we will discuss
the relation between these pressures and the airfoil performance.
History of Airfoil Development
• The earliest serious work on the
development of airfoil sections began in the
late 1800's. Although it was known that flat
plates would produce lift when set at an
angle of incidence, some suspected that
shapes with curvature, that more closely
resembled bird wings would produce more
lift or do so more efficiently. H.F. Phillips
patented a series of airfoil shapes in 1884
after testing them in one of the earliest
wind tunnels in which "artificial currents of
air (were) produced from induction by a
steam jet in a wooden trunk or conduit."
Octave Chanute writes in 1893, "...it seems
very desirable that further scientific
experiments be be made on concavo-
convex surfaces of varying shapes, for it is
not impossible that the difference between
success and failure of a proposed flying
• machine will depend upon the
sustaining effect between a plane
surface and one properly curved
to get a maximum of 'lift'.“
• At nearly the same time Otto
Lilienthal had similar ideas. After
carefully measuring the shapes of
bird wings, he tested the airfoils
shown here (reproduced from his
1894 book, "Bird Flight as the
Basis of Aviation") on a 7m
diameter "whirling machine".
Lilienthal believed that the key to
successful flight was wing
curvature or camber. He also
experimented with different nose
radii and thickness distributions.
• Airfoils used by the Wright Brothers closely resembled
Lilienthal's sections: thin and highly cambered. This
was quite possibly because early tests of airfoil
sections were done at extremely low Reynolds
number, where such sections behave much better than
thicker ones. The erroneous belief that efficient airfoils
had to be thin and highly cambered was one reason
that some of the first airplanes were biplanes.
The use of such sections gradually diminished over the
next decade.
• A wide range of airfoils was developed, based primarily on
trial and error. Some of the more successful sections such
as the Clark Y and Gottingen 398 were used as the basis for
a family of sections tested by the NACA in the early 1920's.
In 1939, Eastman Jacobs at the NACA in Langley, designed and tested the first
laminar flow airfoil sections. These shapes had extremely low drag and the
section shown here achieved a lift to drag ratio of about 300.

A modern laminar flow section, used on sailplanes, illustrates that the concept is
practical for some applications. It was not thought to be practical for many years after
Jacobs demonstrated it in the wind tunnel. Even now, the utility of the concept is not
wholly accepted and the "Laminar Flow True-Believers Club" meets each year at the
homebuilt aircraft fly-in.
• One of the reasons that modern airfoils look quite different from one another and
designers have not settled on the one best airfoil is that the flow conditions and
design goals change from one application to the next. On the right are some
airfoils designed for low Reynolds numbers.
At very low Reynolds numbers (<10,000 based on chord length) efficient airfoil
sections can look rather peculiar as suggested by the sketch of a dragonfly wing.
The thin, highly cambered pigeon wing is similar to Lilienthal's designs. The Eppler
193 is a good section for model airplanes. The Lissaman 7769 was designed for
human-powered aircraft.
Unusual airfoil design constraints can sometimes arise, leading to some unconventional
shapes. The airfoil here was designed for an ultralight sailplane requiring very high
maximum lift coefficients with small pitching moments at high speed. One possible
solution: a variable geometry airfoil with flexible lower surface.

The airfoil used on the Solar Challenger, an aircraft that flew across the English
Channel on solar power, was designed with an totally flat upper surface so that
solar cells could be easily mounted.

The wide range of operating conditions and constraints, generally makes the use of an existing, "catalog" section, not
best. These days airfoils are usually designed especially for their intended application. The remaining parts of this
chapter describe the basic ideas behind how this is done.
 Airfoil Geometry
Airfoil geometry can be characterized by the coordinates of the upper and
lower surface. It is often summarized by a few parameters such as: maximum
thickness, maximum camber, position of max thickness, position of max
camber, and nose radius. One can generate a reasonable airfoil section given
these parameters. This was done by Eastman Jacobs in the early 1930's to
create a family of airfoils known as the NACA Sections.
The NACA 4 digit and 5 digit airfoils were created by superimposing a simple
meanline shape with a thickness distribution that was obtained by fitting a
couple of popular airfoils of the time:

y = ±(t/0.2) * (.2969*x0.5 - .126*x - .3537*x2 + .2843*x3 - .1015*x4)

The camberline of 4-digit sections was defined as a parabola from the leading
edge to the position of maximum camber, then another parabola back to the
trailing edge.

•NACA 4-Digit Series:

• 4 4 1 2
•max camber position max thickness
•in % chord of max camber in % of chord
• in 1/10 of c
After the 4-digit sections came the 5-digit sections such as the famous NACA
23012. These sections had the same thickness distribution, but used a
camberline with more curvature near the nose. A cubic was faired into a
straight line for the 5-digit sections.

•NACA 5-Digit Series:

• 2 3 0 1 2
•approx max position max thickness
•camber of max camber in % of chord
•in % chord in 2/100 of c

The 6-series of NACA airfoils departed from this simply-defined family.

These sections were generated from a more or less prescribed pressure
distribution and were meant to achieve some laminar flow.
•NACA 6-Digit Series:
•6 3, 2 - 2 1 2
•Six- location half width ideal Cl max thickness
•Series of min Cp of low drag in tenths in % of chord
• in 1/10 chord bucket in 1/10 of Cl
 Airfoil Pressure Distributions
The aerodynamic performance of airfoil sections can be studied most easily
by reference to the distribution of pressure over the airfoil. This distribution is
usually expressed in terms of the pressure coefficient:

Cp is the difference between local static pressure and freestream static

pressure, nondimensionalized by the freestream dynamic pressure. (See
discussions of Cp and the Bernoulli equation.)

What does an airfoil pressure distribution look like? We generally plot Cp vs.
x/c.

x/c varies from 0 at the leading edge to 1.0 at the trailing edge. Cp is plotted
"upside-down" with negative values (suction), higher on the plot. (This is
done so that the upper surface of a conventional lifting airfoil corresponds to
the upper curve.)

The Cp starts from about 1.0 at the stagnation point near the leading edge...
It rises rapidly (pressure decreases) on both the upper and lower
surfaces.....and finally recovers to a small positive value of Cp near the trailing
edge.

Various parts of the pressure distribution are depicted in the figure below and
are described in the following sections.

Upper Surface
The upper surface pressure is lower (plotted higher on the usual scale)
than the lower surface Cp in this case. But it doesn't have to be.
Lower Surface
The lower surface sometimes carries a positive pressure, but at many design
conditions is actually pulling the wing downward. In this case, some suction
(negative Cp -> downward force on lower surface) is present near the midchord.

Pressure Recovery
This region of the pressure distribution is called the pressure recovery region.
The pressure increases from its minimum value to the value at the trailing edge.
This area is also known as the region of adverse pressure gradient. As discussed
in other sections, the adverse pressure gradient is associated with boundary
layer transition and possibly separation, if the gradient is too severe.

Trailing Edge Pressure

The pressure at the trailing edge is related to the airfoil thickness and shape
near the trailing edge. For thick airfoils the pressure here is slightly positive (the
velocity is a bit less than the freestream velocity). For infinitely thin sections Cp
= 0 at the trailing edge. Large positive values of Cp at the trailing edge imply
more severe adverse pressure gradients.
CL and Cp
When the chord is taken as 1 unit, the section lift coefficient is related to the
Cp by:

(It is the area between the curves with Cpu = upper surface Cp and recall
Cl = section lift / (q c) )

Stagnation Point
The stagnation point occurs near the leading edge. It is the place at which
V = 0. Note that in incompressible flow Cp = 1.0 at this point. In
compressible flow it may be somewhat larger.
 Airfoil Pressures and Performance
The shape of the pressure distribution is directly related to the airfoil
performance as indicated by some of the features shown in the figure below.

Most of these considerations are related to the airfoil boundary layer characteristics which we will take up
later, but even in the inviscid case we can draw some conclusions. We may compute the maximum local
Mach numbers and relate those to lift and thickness; we can compute the pitching moment and decide if
that is acceptable.

Whether we use the inviscid pressures to form qualitative conclusions about the section, or use them as
input to a more detailed boundary layer calculation, we must first investigate the close relation between the
airfoil geometry to these pressures.
Airfoil Characteristic
Vortex sheet
The Kutta Condition
The Kutta Condition