Approaches to Personality

UNIT 3 BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT Assessment (Self-Report,

Problems of Response in
Projective and behavioural
Assessment)
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Definition of Behavioural Assessment
3.2.1 The Theoretical Model Underlying the Application of Behavioural Assessment
Procedures
3.2.2 Common Characteristics and Assumption of Behavioural Assessment Methods
3.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of Behavioural Assessment
3.3 Functional Behavioural Assessment
3.3.1 Reliability and Validity Issues in Behavioural Assessment
3.3.2 Uses of Behavioural Assessment
3.3.3 Types of Behavioural Assessment
3.3.4 Process of Behavioural Change: Assessment, Treatment and Evaluation
3.4 Case Study Method
3.4.1 Purpose of Case Study Method
3.4.2 Types of Case Study Method
3.4.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Method
3.5 Interview Method
3.5.1 Meaning and Purpose of Interview Method
3.5.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Interview Method
3.6 Other Measures
3.7 Let Us Sum Up
3.8 Unit End Questions
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Suggested Readings and References

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with many methods which are behavioural in
nature. This would include the case history method, followed by the interview
method and other methods. As one deals with the case history method, we would
also be dealing with the menaing and purpose of case history method. There are
also many types of case histories which will be presented in this unit. While
dealing with this method, the strengths and weaknesses of the method will also
be put forward. The next method in behavioural assessment will be the interview
method. Defining this method, the unit will be putting for the meaning and purpose
of this method and its use in different settings. Also the advantages and
disadvantages of this interview method will also be discussed. Other measures
such as the experience sampling and biologivcal measures will also be discussed.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define and describe behavioural assessment;
• Elucidate the categories of behavioural assessment; 39
Assessment of Personality • Explain what is functional behavioural assessment;
• Explain some of the advantages and disadvantages of the case history method;
• Elucidate the types of case history method;
• Define and describe interview as a method of assessment;
• Explain the meaning and purpose of the interview method;
• Elucidate the types of interviews; and
• Analyse other methods of assessment in the behavioural category.

3.2 DEFINITION OF BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT

Behavioral assessment refers to assessing and measuring various constituents of
a behaviour that are indicative of why a certain behaviour occurs and what
cvauses that behaviour. These would include overt behaviours, feelings, and
cognitions and their controlling variables that could be both from within the
individual and outside of the individual. Behavioural assessment focuses on what
a person does rather than on what a person has or is. It is also said that behavioural
assessment is more an exploratory activity which tries to find out the range of
procedures used to understand children, adults, groups etc. This definition
emphasises a hypothesis-testing problem-solving model of assessment, the goal
of which is to identify appropriate intervention strategies in order to remediate
specified behaviour problems.

The history of behavioural assessment cannot be separated from behaviourism

as a paradigm of scientific psychology and its clinical application. Thus,
behavioural assessment began when complex human behaviours were first
considered as a subject for scientific study (e.g., Staats 1963, Bandura 1969).
Since the 1960s, four main phases have been identified.

As for the nature of behavioural assessment, it may be stated that its main goal
has been behavioural change. Therefore, all conceptual and methodological
features emerge from the attempt to define and measure a particular behavioural
problem and its causal or controlling conditions and design the best treatment.
The following five traits could be considered the essence of behavioural
assessment: functional analysis, triple response modes and multi-causality,
idiographism, multimethodism, and the experimental method.

3.2.1 The Theoretical Model Underlying the Application of

Behavioural Assessment Procedures
The theoretical underpinnings of the above concept of behavioural assessment
stem from the interaction between the person’s previous learning and the external
and organismic environments within which the person functions.

The setting in which the behaviour occurs is of primary importance. The biological
makeup and physiological functioning help the individuals to adapt and respond
to the environment. Evaluating behaviour requires assessment of the person, the
setting, and the interaction between the two. Setting in this context refers to the
environmental circumstances that might be influencing the occurrence and
nonoccurrence of the behaviour. Environmental circumstances in turn refer to
those environmental events preceding the behaviour, both immediately and
distally, and those following the behaviour.
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3.2.2 Common Characteristics and Assumptions of Behavioural Behavioural Assessment

Assessment Methods
While there is a wide variety of techniques available for carrying out behavioural
assessment, they have certain features in common.
1) They all focus on behaviour
Both overt and covert behaviours are measured or evaluated as they occur
in specific situations. Behaviours are observed at a specific time and in a
limited location The variables and concepts with descriptions of behaviour
are taken up objectively, as assessment requires objective information, which
is more useful than inferences or subjective interpretations.
2) All behavioural assessment methods believe in Quantification
Behavior is quantified so as to allow for reliable comparisons across time
and persons and to allow for communication between persons. This leads to
greater objectivity of information.
3) All the behavioural assessment methods use trained, impartial observers
Observers are trained in the use of the various measurement techniques of
behavioural assessment, recording of the same and collecting information
in an objective manner. Observers are expected to achieve a specified
standard of consistency in their collecting data, recording the information
and interpreting the data.
4) All of them use empirically validated measures.
It is important to have consistency in the measurement across situations.
The measures should be empirically validated.
5) All of them recognize errors and try to counteract the errors or minimise
errors to the extent possible using statistical methods.
All assessment involves differing degrees of error causing unreliability of
the results. Hence it is important to minimize the errors and this is generally
carried out through statistical techniques..
6) All of these believe that the behaviour concerned occurs due to stimuli
from the environment.
Assessment is directed toward discovering the situational influences on
behaviour. The emphasis is on public events and direct observation of
behaviour in the natural environment, with behaviour being recorded at the
time of its occurrence whenever possible.
7) All these assessment techniques depend not on one but multiple sources
of information.
In addition to the behavioural assessment, a wide-range of assessment
strategies are used, including behavioural interviews, checklists, rating scales,
standardised instruments, self-reports, self-monitoring forms, and
observations, as no single test or source could give adequate information as
to why a behaviour occurs.
8) All the behavioural assessment techniques ultimately place high
emphasis on intervention.
The primary purpose of assessment is not to categorise or label a person but
to obtain information that will assist in developing effective intervention 41
Assessment of Personality strategies. The emphasis on intervention results in the application of the
behavioural assessment model to the particular person , situation etc.
9) All the behavioural assessment techniques use continuous assessment.
Assessment is continuous throughout baseline, intervention, and follow up
phases. The effectiveness of intervention strategies is continuously evaluated.
10) Each of these behavioural assessment techniques emphasises on
empirically based decision making process.
Decisions about specific assessment strategies and interventions are based
on empirical data available on the individual concerned from the person’s
self and the environment in which the person lives.
11) Most of these behavioural assessment techniques focus on individual
person rather than groups.
Assessment focuses on the individual person rather than comparisons to a
norm group. There is a recognition of individual differences in behaviour
and its determinants, leading to idiosyncratic assessment and intervention.
12) High emphasis is placed on individual differences.
Individual differences among persons are not absolute. Differences must be
seen in relative terms, with consideration given to situational and cultural
differences. It must be kept in mind that a certain behaviour considered
normal in one setting may be considered abnormal in another setting.
13) All behavioural assessment techniques not only look for causes contributing
to the problem but also try to solve the problem concerned, once the
cause is known.
The purpose of behavioural assessment is problem solving, and hence
identification of causes is extremely important so as to devise intervention
strategies to overcome the problem.
14) All the behavioural assessment techniques focus on developing adaptive
behaviour in the individual.
The focus of behavioural assessment is on developing adaptive, positive, or
desirable behaviour rather than on control and reduction of undesirable
behaviours. Hence behavioural interventions should be designed and
implemented with the benefit of the particular person concerned in mind.

3.2.3 Advantages and Limitations of Behavioral Assessment

Advantages
• Behavioral assessment provides objective data for deciding specific
instructional content and strategies for intervention.
• Behavioural assessment leads directly to the formulation of intervention
strategies.
• Behavioural assessment can be undertaken in the setting in which the
concerned behaviour occurs or in simulated conditions resembling the natural
setting.
• Behavioral assessment is tailored to the unique characteristics of the referred
person and the targeted environment.
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• The continuity of behavioural assessment facilitates determining the progress Behavioural Assessment
and evaluation of outcomes.
• Behavioural assessment has such variety of techniques that these help in
multifaceted assessment.
• Most behavioural assessment techniques can be implemented by anyone
with sufficient training and do not require advanced degrees.
Limitations of behavioural assessment
• Much of behavioural assessment methodology is not standardised.
• Differing levels of specification of the concerned behaviours may result in
inconsistent data.
• Narrow definitions of behaviour may result in less consistency in behavioural
observation.
• Behavioral assessment methodology may appear rather easy to apply.
However if the psychologist or behaviourist is not trained in the techniques,
the assessment will be defective and consequently the intervention will be
ineffective.

3.3 FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT

A Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) is an attempt to look beyond the
obvious interpretation of behaviour as “bad” and determine what function it
may be serving for the individual. Truly understanding why the person behaves
the way he or she does is the first step to developing strategies to stop the
behaviour. The process usually involves documenting the individual’s behaviour
in different situations, interviewing the family members and obtaining information
about the behaviour of the individual, if necessary getting information from the
work place regarding the behaviour of the individual and many other related
sources. All these are done by a behavioural specialist, based on which the
intervention plan is drawn.

Behavioural assessment provides information that typically cannot be obtained

from traditional assessment but which is necessary for establishing effective
remedial strategies and interventions for problems exhibited by individuals.

3.3.1 Reliability and Validity Issues in Behavioural Assessment

Reliability in behavioural assessment, refers to agreement between observers
viewing the same behaviour at the same time (inter rater reliability), or a single
observer observing the same behavioural sequence on different occasions. On
the other hand validity in behavioural assessment refers to data obtained from
one measure (e.g., classroom observation) being predictive of behaviour obtained
through other measures (e.g., classroom achievement scores or teacher ratings)
in different settings, under different conditions, at different times, or by different
observers.

Multifaceted assessment is the rule in behavioural assessment, and each of the

assessment procedures utilised should provide equivalent data (convergent
validity).

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Assessment of Personality Another important consideration with respect to validity in behavioural
assessment is the extent to which information gathered through a multifaceted
assessment leads to beneficial treatment outcomes (treatment validity).

3.3.2 Uses of Behavioural Assessment

Behavioural assessment is used in many situations and for many purposes, as for
example screening, problem identification and analysis and for selection of a
good intervention programme which will be effective in resolving the problem
concerned.

The assessment continues even after the intervention is completed. Assessment

at this point is important to know how far the intervention had been effective in
resolving the problem for which the individual was assessed. Some of the issues
on which the assessment will be done are given below:
• Has the treatment been administered as planned?
• Have changes in behaviour been monitored and documented?
• If change occurred, has it been demonstrated that it is due to the treatment?
• Have treatment costs been assessed and has it been decided whether the
benefits are cost effective?
• Has a decision been made about modifying the treatment or maintaining
treatment gains if desired outcomes have been achieved?

3.3.3 Types of Behavioural Assessment

Behavioural assessment can be of different types and some of which are given
below:
1) Direct assessment
2) Analogue assessment
3) Indirect assessment
4) Idiographic assessment
5) Contextual assessment.
Let us discuss each of these in a little detail.

Direct assessment: Here the recording of a behaviour is done as it occurs in the

situation.

Analogue assessment: This involves measuring of behaviour under simulated

conditions as at times the behaviour may not occur in a natural situation.(e.g.
role play)

Indirect Assessment: Here the behaviour is not observed but inferred through
retrospective analysis.

Idiographic assessment: This describes the behavioural characteristics of the

individual concerned. For example let us say a child with a disorder called
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Here the assessment is disorder focused.

Contextual assessment: The stimuli in the environment that cause the behaviour
44 are in focus in this method of assessment.
The main tool of behavioural assessment is functional analysis. Behavioural Assessment

Behavioural problems were to be defined through the triple response mode—

motor, cognitive, physiological— and diverse potential causes—multicausality—
were to be accepted.

For example, a person’s depression should be defined through cognitive (feelings

of loneliness, attention and concentration problems), physiological (sleep
disturbance) and motor (low rate of social behaviours and physical activity)
behaviours.

This problem can be explained functionally by several conditions of the subject,

such as a reinforcement system deficit, inadequate motivational system (personal
condition), or a dysfunction in biological conditions—and usually by the
interaction of all of these factors.

Since behavioural problems should be described through the triple response mode,
that is through motor, cognitive, physiological modes, other methods of
assessment than observation of overt behaviour and other informants (than the
subject) should be considered. In other words, multi methodism is one of the
most important characteristics of behavioural assessment.

Behavioral assessment provides the basis for behavioural change, and behavioural
change requires treatment, and treatment demands experimental manipulations
and evaluation This is why, throughout the history of behavioural assessment,
the experimental method has been a constant among its basic characteristics.

3.3.4 Process of Behavioural Change: Assessment, Treatment,

and Evaluation
One of the most important features of behavioural assessment is its role in
behaviour modification or behavioural change. In order to change the behaviour,
the first step is to make an assessment as to why a behaviour occurs as it is. Once
assessment is made, the cause becomes known and one can formulate the
treatment intervention and evaluate as to whether the intervention brought about
the desired change.

Behavioural assessment has several challenges to face, it is presently applicable

only in the clinical field. It has to be made applicable to other fields also.
Behavioural assessment needs measurement instruments and improved
measurement devices.

Assessment involves a process of decision-making that is well known in terms

of the operations undertaken. Nevertheless, this process is not prescriptive. We
might expect that in future standards or guidelines for the assessment process
will be developed and supported by scientific associations. Not only disorders
should be assessed but we must have assessment instruments that could measure
normal behaviour and propose successful living.

3.4 CASE STUDY METHOD

The case study method is one of the important types of research method which is
non-experimental or descriptive research. It is not a specific technique, but is
one way of organising social data for the purpose of viewing reality. It tends to 45
Assessment of Personality preserve the unitary character of a social object being studied. It tends to examine
a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, a family, a social group, a
social institution or even a community (Good & Hatt, 1981; Best & Kahn, 1992).

The detailed study of a single individual’s behaviour over an extended period of

time is called a case history or case study. This approach is used frequently in
clinical and medical settings in order to diagnose and treat people who have
psychological problems.

As such, case histories usually deal with abnormal or troubled people whose
lives are studied during psychotherapy or diagnosis (Runyan, 1982). The clinician
seeks to achieve an understanding of the person’s life experiences and behaviour
patterns through a variety of procedures, including the person’s own recollections,
interviews with others who know the person, autobiographical and biographical
documents, and any available information from psychological tests.

The clinician, usually searches clues in the past or present life to determine the
causes of the person’s difficulties. Case history provides a primary data enabling
the clinician to establish effective strategies to treat emotional disorders. Fredrick
le Play (1806-1882) had, for the first time, introduced case history method into
social sciences research in the studies of family budgets. Herbert Spencer, an
English sociologist (1820-1882) was the first to use the case materials in his
ethnographic studies. William Healy, a psychiatrist, for the first time adopted the
case study method in his work with juvenile delinquents.

Case histories made by clinicians working with patients have played an important
role in the development of certain personality theories and clinical thinking in
general. Freud’s psychodynamic theory is almost entirely based on intensive
study of single cases. Freud and his fellow psychoanalysts spent years probing
deeply into all sorts of behaviour: early childhood recollection of dreams,
fantasies, physical illnesses, love-hate relationships. Along with gaining rich
insights into the uniqueness of persons, Freud used case studies to support his
theoretical claims. Carl Rogers also relied heavily on case studies of psychotherapy
clients in formulating his phenomenological approach to personality.

3.4.1 Purpose of Case Study Method

The purpose of the case study method is to understand the important aspects of
the life cycle of a unit. Case study analyses deeply and interprets the interactions
between the different factors that influence the change or growth of unit. Thus, it
is a basically a longitudinal approach which studies the units over a period of
time. A review of literature in this field suggests that case studies are not confined
to the study of individuals and their important behavioural characteristics, rather,
case studies have been made of all types of communities and of all types of
individuals. Whatever the type of individual or community is, the element of of
typicalness, rather than uniqueness, is the focus of attention in case study.

Though case study is a detailed description and analysis of a particular individual’s

personality, it is also an immensely important research strategy. A single case-
study suggests a deep insight about human behaviour, but usually one case does
not provide a firm basis for deriving general principles of behaviour. However,
if a number of case studies are accessible for scrutiny, researchers may be able to
identify threads of consistency among them and draw some general conclusions.
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The case study method may also be used to study the lives of normal individuals. Behavioural Assessment
A group led by Henry Murray (Murray et al., 1938) at the Harvard Psychological
Clinic provides a rare but compelling model for the intensive study of individual
lives over a substantial period of time. The Harvard “personologists” focused on
in depth assessments of a small group of college males. The objective was to
learn about the basic needs, conflicts, values, attitudes, and patterns of social
interaction evident among these young men. The assessment techniques included
several self-report personality questionnaires and projective tests administered
at different times. In addition to this, assessment of these students involved
gathering extensive biographical data and autobiographical sketches, putting them
into small-scale experiments, and conducting stress interviews where they were
focused to answer embarrassing questions or were challenged to defend some of
their deeply held values. Finally, the students were studied in small group settings
so that the observers could ascertain their public styles of interpersonal interaction.

The methods used by Murray and his colleagues covered many topics and facets
of each student’s life and produced a rich narrative account of each student as a
whole in his natural setting. To better assess each student’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions, Murray assembled a group of experienced psychologists who shared
their insights of each student at a staff conference or “diagnostic council”. In this
council, different researchers from different background who had studied the
same student would offer their respective clinical impressions about the student.
Debate followed and eventually a conclusion about how best to characterise the
student’s personality was reached by majority vote.

The eclectic approach adopted by Harvard personologists to the study of

personality influenced an entire generation of researchers by directing their
attention to the whole person, to the importance of environment, and to the need
for comprehensive assessment. Robert White’s Lives in Progress (1975), a
longitudinal study of three relatively normal individuals, illustrates the importance
of the case history as a strategy well-suited for conducting personality research.

3.4.2 Types of Case Study Method

Based upon the number of individuals, the case study may be of two types – the
individual case study, and the community case study. In individual case study the
social unit consists of one individual or person. Since there is only one individual
involved, it emphasises analysis in depth. Such an individual case study is
significant in developing some hypothesis to be tested but is not helpful in making
broad generalisations. The community case study is one in which the social unit
is not a person, rather, a family or social group. Such case study is a thorough
observation and analysis of a group of people who are living together in a particular
geographical territory. The community case study tries to deal with different
elements of the community life such as location, prevailing economic activity,
climate and natural resources, historical development, social structure, life values,
health education, and the like.

On the basis of the purpose a case study may be subdivided into two categories-
deviant case analysis and isolated clinical case analysis. In the former, the
researcher starts with the difference already found between two people or groups
of persons and his task is to read backward to deduce the condition that might
have produced the difference (Warwick & Osherson, 1973).
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Assessment of Personality In the latter, the emphasis is upon the individual units with respect to some
analytical problem. Such study is popular in psychoanalysis. Freud’s study of
little Hans is a well-known case which can be cited as an example o isolated
clinical case analysis. Freud’s theories of psychoneurosis were formulated through
accumulation of many isolated clinical case studies of the individuals.

3.4.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Method

The advantage of case study method is that it provides an account of the
complexities and idiosyncrasies of an individual’s personality that is not possible
from other strategies. If the goal is to study processes going in one or few persons
and to learn how persons cope with life experiences, then case history is the
most appropriate strategy. Also, case histories are the only way rare instances of
a phenomenon can be studied.

But one should also keep in mind the shortcomings encountered while studying
only one individual. The chief disadvantage of case studies is that the researcher
can never be totally certain about cause-and-effect relationships. Researchers
cannot control factors that might affect the events or outcomes that they observe;
it is always possible that causes other than those they infer may be operating.
Second, because a case study examines only one person, its results have limited
generalisability. Just because one person behaves in a certain way does not mean
all people behave that way. Third, the data obtained by the case history method
may be retrospective or second-hand in nature and thus distorted by time. Lastly,
even if the accuracy of such data can be verified, the conclusions drawn about
the individual may reflect the personal biases of the investigator.

Despite these shortcomings, case histories can be rich source of information

about a particular phenomenon. In fact, case study can be considered as a
preliminary research strategy that can offer intriguing hypothesis about human
personality. Researches can ten examine these hypotheses with more rigorous
experimental procedures.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define case history method.
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2) Give a general overview of the merits and demerits of case history
method.
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 Behavioural Assessment
3.5 INTERVIEW METHOD
3.5.1 Meaning and Purpose of Interview Method
The interview is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of collecting
information about persons. In the interview, the personologist obtains information
from the person being evaluated by asking relevant questions and listening to
answers. The interviewer and respondent engage in a face-to-face dialogue for
the purpose of achieving a specific goal. In fact, the way in which an interview is
conducted depends on the particular objective or goal in question. An employment
interview, for instance, seeks to assess the personality characteristics of the job
applicant.

A research interview aims to gather information about a person concerning a

specific research topic under investigation. A clinical interview has its goal the
diagnosis of a patient’s problem and the type of therapy technique that may be
most appropriate for the given diagnosis. Interviews are also used to measure
specific aspects o personality.

Psychoanalysis uses one type of interview to probe supposedly underlying aspects

of personality. But in modern research special types of interviews, in which
individuals are asked questions assumed to be related to specific traits, are often
used instead. For instance, interviews are used to measure the Type A behaviour
pattern, an important aspect of personality related to personal health. Persons
high on this pattern are always in a hurry and they hate being delayed. Thus,
questions asked during the interview focus on this tendency; for instance: “What
do you do when you are stuck on the highway behind a slow driver?”

There is a variety in the degree to which interviews may be structured or

unstructured. In the former type of interview, questions are carefully worded
and skillfully presented in a prescribed order. For instance: “How long have you
been married?” “How many children do you have?” “Do you believe that children
should be allowed to do whatever they want?” “If you had a teenager would you
allow him or her to quit school and take a part time job?” As you can see, the
most personal and threatening questions appeared last.

The strategy behind asking general and innocuous questions first is that they
should be at least threatening for respondents and pave the way for divulging
more intimate more information once they have developed a sense of trust toward
the interviewer.(White & Speisman,1982).

In an unstructured interview, questions are framed in such a way as to allow the

person considerable latitude in responding. The interviewer may say, “You feel
that your spouse really lets you down,” or “That must have been a very stressful
experience.” The respondent is free to reveal whatever information s\he desires
to such questions. In turn, the interviewer may abandon a certain line of
questioning if it seems to be generating no useful information and some other
area of questioning. Compared to a structured interview, an unstructured interview
allows the personologist more flexibility to probe the respondent’s thoughts and
feelings in the context of give-and-take exchange.

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Assessment of Personality 3.5.2 Strengths and Weaknesses of Interview Method
Interview method when used by a highly skilled interviewer can produce
extremely valuable information regarding the individual’s personality and life
situations. The ability to communicate effectively with others, perceptions of
self and significant others, level of anxiety, plans for future, and job satisfaction
are a few examples of data that can be obtained from a well conducted interview.

A well planned interview can also be profitably used in hypothesis testing research.
At the same time, issues of reliability and validity may arise in the event that
respondents are free to say about their past and present life experiences.
Structuring the kinds of questions asked of the person is one way to make interview
information more valid and reliable. That is why the structured format tends to
be preferred in the research setting, whereas the unstructured format tends to be
preferred by clinical psychologists in the therapeutic setting.

The interview technique provides a rich source of personality data. But such
data is highly subjective and may reflect the theoretical biases of the interviewer.
Also, the impact of the of the interviewer’s personality can subtly influence how
truthful and disclosing the person will be in an assessment setting. This can
result in the withholding or distorting of information vital to the purpose of an
interview.

Lastly, an assessment interview, especially when supplemented by more objective

sources of data, is one the most basic and indispensable of all assessment
techniques.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Differentiate between structured interview and unstructured interview
as a measure o personality assessment.
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2) What are some of the advantages offered by interview method?
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3.6 OTHER MEASURES

Apart from the above cited methods, there are also other less significant techniques
existing to assess personality.
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i) Experience sampling method: With the advent of electronic pagers now Behavioural Assessment
allows researchers to beep individuals at random or pre-established times
during the day in order to obtain descriptions of their behaviour at these
times? This experience sampling method (Stone, Kessler, &
Haythornthwaite, 1991) can often reveal much about stable patterns of
individual behaviour; and these constitute an important aspect of personality.
ii) Biological measures: In recent years several biological measures of
personality have also been developed. Some of these use positron emission
tomography (PET) scans to see if individuals show characteristic patterns
of activity in their brains- patterns that are related to differences in their
overt behaviour. Other measures focus on hormone levels, for instance, the
question of whether highly aggressive persons have different levels of certain
sex hormones than other persons. Some results suggest that this may indeed
may be the case(Harris et al., 1996).
It may be concluded that there are many tools for measuring personality. None
are perfect, but together they provide psychologists with many useful techniques
for investigating the stable patterns of behaviour that make each of us a unique
human being.

3.7 LET US SUM UP

The case study or case history method seeks to provide an in-depth account of an
individual’s personality. Its primary focus is to diagnose and treat a person’s
suffering from emotional problems. Also, case histories have played a role in the
development of certain personality theories and the study of normal persons
over many years.

Several assessment techniques may be used in conducting a case history, including

biographical and autobiographical sketches, personality and projective tests,
interviews, and information provided by others who know the person reasonably
well. Although case histories are valuable source of insights about people, several
shortcomings faced in studying one person at a time were noted.

Case histories do not identify factors that might cause the events observed, the
results obtained are o limited generalisability, and the data collected may be
subject to personal bias and difficult to verify in terms of accuracy.

Principal features of unstructured and structured interviews are that in the former,
the interviewer can “dig deeper”, and get a deeper understanding of the
respondents questions. While in the latter, there is a systematic procedure for
collecting information and hence, the reported validities of such interviews is
greater than the former type of interviews.

The other measures of personality assessment that the psychologists are currently
using are experience sampling and biological measures.

3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

Describe the case history method for assessing personality. What are some of the
strengths and limitations of case history method?
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Assessment of Personality How does structured interview differ from unstructured interview? Point out the
major sources of error in interview.
Briefly describe the current methods being used by psychologists for personality
assessment.
What other measures of personality do psychologists currently use?

3.9 GLOSSARY
Case study method : Research strategy whereby a particular person is
studied in great detail.
Hypothesis : A single prediction about the relationship between two
or more variables that is logically derived from a
theory.
Structured interview : An interview that follows a set format, thus allows a
person little or no freedom to digress from the
information sought by the interviewer. An
unstructured interview, by contrast, allows the person
maximum freedom to divulge information in a more
spontaneous manner.

3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Goode, W.J., & Hatt, P.K. (1981).Methods in Social Research. Singapore:
McGraw Hill Company.

Murray,H.A., Barrett,W.G., & Homburger,E. (1938).Explorations in Personality.

New York: Oxford University Press.

Warwick, D.P. & Osherson, S. (1973). Comparative Research Methods.

Englewood Cliffs Prentice Hall.

References
Best, J.W. & Kahn,J.V.(1992). Research in Education, New Delhi: Prentice Hall
of India Private Limited (eighth Indian print).

Harris,J.A., Rushton, J.P.,Hampson, E.,& Jackson, D.N.(1996). Salivary

testosterone and self-report aggressive and pro-social personality characteristics
in men and women. Aggressive Behaviour, 22,321-331.

Runyan,W.M. (1982).Life histories and psychobiography: Explanations in theory

and method. New York: Oxford University Press.

Stone, A.A., Kesseler,R.C.,& Haythornthwaite, J.A.(1991). Measuring daily

events and experiences: Decisions for the researchers. Journal of Personality,
59, 575 – 607.

White, R.W. (1975). Lives in progress: A study of the natural growth of personality
(3rd.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

White, K.M. & Spiesman, J.C. (1982). Research approaches to personality.

Monterey, C.A.: Brookes/Cole.
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Anastasi, A. (1968).Psychological testing.London: Macmillan Company. Behavioural Assessment

Ciccarelli, S.K.,& Meyer, G.E.(2009). Psychology. South Asian Edition. Pearson,

New Delhi.

Freeman, F.S.(1962). Theory and practice of psychological testing.New York:

Holt, Rinehart and Winston (Indian Edition).

Hjelle, L.A., Zieglar, D.J.(1992). Personality theories. Basic assumptions,

research, and applications.3rd ed.McGraw Hill.

Singh, A.K.(1997). Tests, measurements and research methods in behavioural

sciences. Bharti Bhawan, Patna.

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