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© Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition-2005
Revised Edition 2007 Author-cum-Chairperson
Dr. K. SRINIVASAN
Reader in Mathematics
Presidency College (Autonomous)
Chennai - 600 005.
Authors
Dr. E. CHANDRASEKARAN Dr. C. SELVARAJ
Selection Grade Lecturer in Mathematics Lecturer in Mathematics
Presidency College (Autonomous) L.N. Govt. College, Ponneri-601 204
Chennai - 600 005
Dr. THOMAS ROSY
Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
Dr. FELBIN C. KENNEDY Madras Christian College, Chennai - 600 059
Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
Stella Maris College, Mrs. R. JANAKI
Chennai - 600 086 P.G. Assistant in Maths
Rani Meyyammai Girls Hr. Sec. School
R.A. Puram, Chennai - 600 028
Thiru R. SWAMINATHAN
Principal Thiru S. PANNEER SELVAM
Alagappa Matriculation Hr. Sec. School P.G. Assistant in Maths
Karaikudi - 630 003 G.H.S.S., M.M.D.A. Colony
Arumbakkam, Chennai - 600 106
Thiru A.V. BABU CHRISTOPHER Mrs. K.G. PUSHPAVALLI
P.G. Assistant in Maths P.G. Assistant in Maths
St. Joseph’s H.S. School Lady Sivaswami Ayyar G.H.S. School
Chengalpattu-603 002 Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Author-cum-Reviewer
Dr. A. RAHIM BASHA
Reader in Mathematics
Presidency College (Autonomous), Chennai - 600 005.
Reviewers
Dr. M. CHANDRASEKAR
Asst. Professor of Mathematics
Anna University, Chennai - 600 025
Dr. (Mrs.) N. SELVI Thiru K. THANGAVELU
Reader in Mathematics Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
A.D.M. College for Women Pachaiyappa’s College
Nagapattinam - 611 001 Chennai - 600 030

Price : Rs.

This book has been prepared by The Directorate of School Education

on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu
This book has been printed on 60 G.S.M. Paper
Printed by Offset at :
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MATHEMATICS
HIGHER SECONDARY – SECOND YEAR
VOLUME – II

REVISED BASED ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE

TEXT BOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman

TAMILNADU
TEXTBOOK CORPORATION
COLLEGE ROAD, CHENNAI - 600 006
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PREFACE
This book is designed in the light of the new guidelines and syllabi –
2003 for the Higher Secondary Mathematics, prescribed for the Second Year,
by the Government of Tamil Nadu.
st
The 21 century is an era of Globalisation, and technology occupies the
prime position. In this context, writing a text book on Mathematics assumes
special significance because of its importance and relevance to Science and
Technology.
As such this book is written in tune with the existing international
standard and in order to achieve this, the team has exhaustively examined
internationally accepted text books which are at present followed in the reputed
institutions of academic excellence and hence can be relevant to secondary
level students in and around the country.
This text book is presented in two volumes to facilitate the students for
easy approach. Volume I consists of Applications of Matrices and
Determinants, Vector Algebra, Complex numbers and Analytical Geometry
which is dealt with a novel approach. Solving a system of linear equations and
the concept of skew lines are new ventures. Volume II includes Differential
Calculus – Applications, Integral Calculus and its Applications, Differential
Equations, Discrete Mathematics (a new venture) and Probability Distributions.
The chapters dealt with provide a clear understanding, emphasizes an
investigative and exploratory approach to teaching and the students to explore
and understand for themselves the basic concepts introduced.
Wherever necessary theory is presented precisely in a style tailored to
act as a tool for teachers and students.
Applications play a central role and are woven into the development of
the subject matter. Practical problems are investigated to act as a catalyst to
motivate, to maintain interest and as a basis for developing definitions and
procedures.
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The solved problems have been very carefully selected to bridge the gap
between the exposition in the chapter and the regular exercise set. By doing
these exercises and checking the complete solutions provided, students will be
able to test or check their comprehension of the material.
Fully in accordance with the current goals in teaching and learning
Mathematics, every section in the text book includes worked out and exercise
(assignment) problems that encourage geometrical visualisation, investigation,
critical thinking, assimilation, writing and verbalization.
We are fully convinced that the exercises give a chance for the students
to strengthen various concepts introduced and the theory explained enabling
them to think creatively, analyse effectively so that they can face any situation
with conviction and courage. In this respect the exercise problems are meant
only to students and we hope that this will be an effective tool to develop their
talents for greater achievements. Such an effort need to be appreciated by the
parents and the well-wishers for the larger interest of the students.
Learned suggestions and constructive criticisms for effective refinement
of the book will be appreciated.

K.SRINIVASAN
Chairperson
Writing Team.
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SYLLABUS
(1) APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS : Adjoint, Inverse –

Properties, Computation of inverses, solution of system of linear equations by

matrix inversion method. Rank of a Matrix − Elementary transformation on a
matrix, consistency of a system of linear equations, Cramer’s rule,

Non-homogeneous equations, homogeneous linear system, rank method.

(20 periods)

(2) VECTOR ALGEBRA : Scalar Product – Angle between two vectors, properties

of scalar product, applications of dot products. Vector Product − Right handed

and left handed systems, properties of vector product, applications of cross

product. Product of three vectors − Scalar triple product, properties of scalar

triple product, vector triple product, vector product of four vectors, scalar product

of four vectors. Lines − Equation of a straight line passing through a given point

and parallel to a given vector, passing through two given points (derivations are

not required). angle between two lines. Skew lines − Shortest distance between

two lines, condition for two lines to intersect, point of intersection, collinearity of

three points. Planes − Equation of a plane (derivations are not required), passing

through a given point and perpendicular to a vector, given the distance from the
origin and unit normal, passing through a given point and parallel to two given

vectors, passing through two given points and parallel to a given vector, passing

through three given non-collinear points, passing through the line of intersection

of two given planes, the distance between a point and a plane, the plane which
contains two given lines, angle between two given planes, angle between a line
and a plane. Sphere − Equation of the sphere (derivations are not required)

whose centre and radius are given, equation of a sphere when the extremities of the
diameter are given. (28 periods)
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(3) COMPLEX NUMBERS : Complex number system, Conjugate − properties,

ordered pair representation. Modulus − properties, geometrical representation,
meaning, polar form, principal value, conjugate, sum, difference, product,
quotient, vector interpretation, solutions of polynomial equations, De Moivre’s
theorem and its applications. Roots of a complex number − nth roots, cube
roots, fourth roots. (20 periods)

(4) ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY : Definition of a Conic − General equation of a

conic, classification with respect to the general equation of a conic, classification
of conics with respect to eccentricity. Parabola − Standard equation of a parabola
(derivation and tracing the parabola are not required), other standard parabolas,
the process of shifting the origin, general form of the standard equation, some
practical problems. Ellipse − Standard equation of the ellipse (derivation and
2 2 2 2
tracing the ellipse are not required), x /a + y /b = 1, (a > b), Other standard
form of the ellipse, general forms, some practical problems, Hyperbola −
2 2
standard equation (derivation and tracing the hyperbola are not required), x /a −
2 2
y /b =1, Other form of the hyperbola, parametric form of conics, chords.
Tangents and Normals − Cartesian form and Parametric form, equation of
chord of contact of tangents from a point (x1, y1), Asymptotes, Rectangular

hyperbola – standard equation of a rectangular hyperbola.

(30 periods)

(5) DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS – APPLICATIONS I : Derivative as a rate

measure − rate of change − velocity − acceleration − related rates − Derivative as
a measure of slope − tangent, normal and angle between curves. Maxima and
Minima. Mean value theorem − Rolle’s Theorem − Lagrange Mean Value
Thorem − Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series, l’ Hôpital’s Rule, stationary points −
increasing, decreasing, maxima, minima, concavity convexity, points of inflexion.

(28 periods)
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(6) DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS – APPLICATIONS II : Errors and approximations

− absolute, relative, percentage errors, curve tracing, partial derivatives − Euler’s

theorem. (10 periods)

(7) INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS APPLICATIONS : Properties of definite

n n
integrals, reduction formulae for sin x and cos x (only results), Area, length,

volume and surface area (22 periods)

(8) DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS : Formation of differential equations, order and

−
st
degree, solving differential equations (1 order) variable separable

homogeneous, linear equations. Second order linear equations with constant co-
mx 2
efficients f(x) = e , sin mx, cos mx, x, x . (18 periods)

(9A) DISCRETE MATHEMATICS : Mathematical Logic − Logical statements,

connectives, truth tables, Tautologies.

(9B) GROUPS : Binary Operations − Semi groups − monoids, groups (Problems and

simple properties only), order of a group, order of an element. (18 periods)

(10) PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS : Random Variable, Probability density function,

distribution function, mathematical expectation, variance, Discrete Distributions −

Binomial, Poisson, Continuous Distribution − Normal distribution

(16 periods)

Total : 210 Periods

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CONTENTS
Page No.

5. Differential Calculus Applications − I 1

5.1 Introduction 1

5.2 Derivative as a rate measure 1

5.3 Related rates 5

5.4 Tangents and Normals 10

5.5 Angle between two curves 15

5.6 Mean Value Theorem and their applications 19

5.7 Evaluating Indeterminate forms 29

5.8 Monotonic functions 35

5.9 Maximum and Minimum values and their applications 43

5.10 Practical problems involving Maximum and Minimum values 53

5.11 Concavity and points of Inflection 60

6. Differential Calculus Applications - II 69

6.1 Differentials : Errors and Approximations 69

6.2 Curve Tracing 74

6.3 Partial Differentiation 79

7. Integral Calculus and its applications 87

7.1 Introduction 87

7.2 Simple Definite Integrals 87

7.3 Properties of Definite Integrals 89

7.4 Reduction formulae 98

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7.5 Area and Volume 103

7.6 Length of a Curve 118

7.7 Surface area of a solid 118

8. Differential Equations 123

8.1 Introduction 123

8.2 Order and Degree of a Differential Equation 125

8.3 Formation of Differential Equations 126

8.4 Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 129

8.5 Second Order linear Differential Equations 140

with constant coefficients

8.6 Applications 150

9. Discrete Mathematics 156

9.1 Mathematical Logic : Introduction 156

9.2 Groups 168

10. Probability Distributions 191

10.1 Introduction 191

10.2 Random Variable 191

10.3 Mathematical Expectation 204

10.4 Theoretical Distributions 212

Objective type questions 229

Answers 245

Standard Normal Distribution Table 258

Reference Books 259

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5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS - I
5.1 Introduction :
In higher secondary first year we discussed the theoretical aspects of
differential calculus, assimilated the process of various techniques involved and
created many tools of differentiation. Geometrical and kinematical significances
for first and second order derivatives were also interpreted. Now let us learn
some practical aspects of differential calculus.
At this level we shall consider problems concerned with the applications to
(i) plane geometry, (ii) theory of real functions, (iii) optimisation problems and
approximation problems.
5.2 Derivative as a rate measure :
If a quantity y depends on and varies with a quantity x then the rate of
dy
change of y with respect to x is dx .
Thus for example, the rate of change of pressure p with respect to height
dp
h is dh . A rate of change with respect to time is usually called as ‘the rate of
change’, the ‘with respect to time’ being assumed. Thus for example, a rate of
di dθ
change of current ‘i’ is dt and a rate of change of temperature ‘θ’ is dt and so
on.
Example 5.1 : The length l metres of a certain metal rod at temperature θ°C is
given by l = 1 + 0.00005θ + 0.0000004θ2. Determine the rate of change of
length in mm/°C when the temperature is (i) 100°C and (ii) 400°C.
dl
Solution : The rate of change of length means .
dθ
Since length l = 1 + 0.00005θ + 0.0000004θ2,
dl
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008θ .
dθ
(i) when θ = 100°C
dl
= 0.00005 + (0.0000008) (100)
dθ
= 0.00013 m/°C = 0.13 mm/°C

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(ii) when θ = 400°C

dl
= 0.00005 + (0.0000008) (400)
dθ
= 0.00037 m/°C = 0.37 mm/°C
Example 5.2 : The luminous intensity I candelas of a lamp at varying voltage
V is given by : I = 4 × 10−4V2. Determine the voltage at which the light is
increasing at a rate of 0.6 candelas per volt.
dI
Solution : The rate of change of light with respect to voltage is given by dV .

Since I = 4 × 10−4V2
dI −4
dV = 8 × 10 V.
dI
When the light is increasing at 0.6 candelas per volt then dV = + 0.6. Therefore
we must have + 0.6 = 8 × 10-4 V, from which,
0.6
Voltage V = = 0.075 × 104 = 750 Volts.
8 × 10−4
Velocity and Acceleration :
y
A car describes a distance x
Distance

metres in time t seconds along a

straight road. If the velocity v is x
x
constant, then v = t m/s i.e., the t

slope (gradient) of the distance/time x

Time
graph shown in Fig.5.1 is constant.
Fig. 5.1
If, however, the velocity of the y
car is not constant then the distance /
B
Distance

time graph will not be a straight line.

It may be as shown in Fig.5.2
The average velocity over a ∆x
small time ∆t and distance ∆x is A
∆t
given by the gradient of the chord AB x
i.e., the average velocity over time ∆t Time
∆x
is .
∆t Fig. 5.2

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As ∆t → 0, the chord AB becomes a tangent, such that at point A the

dx
velocity is given by v = dt . Hence the velocity of the car at any instant is
given by gradient of the distance / time graph. If an expression for the distance x
is known in terms of time, then the velocity is obtained by differentiating the
expression.
The acceleration ‘a’ of the car is y
defined as the rate of change of
D

Velocity
velocity. A velocity / time graph is
shown in Fig.5.3. If ∆v is the change
in v and ∆t is the corresponding ∆y
∆v C
change in time, then a = . As ∆t
∆t x
∆t → 0 the chord CD becomes a Time
tangent such that at the point C, Fig. 5.3
dv
the acceleration is given by a = dt
Hence the acceleration of the car at any instant is given by the gradient of
the velocity / time graph. If an expression for velocity is known in terms of time
t, then the acceleration is obtained by differentiating the expression.
dv dx
Acceleration a = dt , where v = dt
d2x
Hence a = dt  dt  = 2
d dx
  dt
The acceleration is given by the second differential coefficient of distance
x with respect to time t. The above discussion can be summarised as follows. If
a body moves a distance x meters in time t seconds then
(i) distance x = f(t).
dx
(ii) velocity v = f ′(t) or dt , which is the gradient of the
distance / time graph.
dv d2 x
(iii) Acceleration a = dt = f ′′(t) or 2 , which is the gradient of the
dt
velocity / time graph.
Note : (i) Initial velocity means velocity at t = 0
(ii) Initial acceleration means acceleration at t = 0.
(iii) If the motion is upward, at the maximum height, the velocity is zero.
(iv) If the motion is horizontal, v = 0 when the particle comes to rest.

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Example 5.3 : The distance x metres described by a car in time t seconds is

given by: x = 3t3 − 2 t2 + 4t − 1. Determine the velocity and acceleration when
(i) t = 0 and (ii) t = 1.5 s
Solution : distance x = 3t3 − 2 t2 + 4t −1
dx
velocity v = dt = 9t2 − 4 t + 4 m/s

d2 x
acceleration a = = 18t − 4 m/s2
dt2
(i) When time t = 0
velocity v = 9(0)2 − 4(0) + 4 = 4 m/s
and acceleration a = 18(0) − 4 = −4 m/s2
(ii) when time t = 1.5 sec
velocity v = 9(1.5)2 − 4(1.5) + 4 = 18.25 m/sec
and acceleration a = 18(1.5) − 4 = 23 m/sec2
Example 5.4 : Supplies are dropped from an helicopter and distance fallen in
1
time t seconds is given by x = 2 gt2 where g = 9.8 m/sec2. Determine the
velocity and acceleration of the supplies after it has fallen for 2 seconds.
1 1
Solution : distance x = 2 gt2 = 2 (9.8) t2 = 4.9 t2 m
dx
velocity v = dt = 9.8t m/sec
d2 x
acceleration a = = 9.8 m/sec2
dt2
When time t = 2 seconds
velocity v = (9.8)(2) = 19.6 m/sec
and acceleration a = 9.8 m/sec2 which is the acceleration due to
gravity.
Example 5.5 : The angular displacement θ radians of a fly wheel varies with
time t seconds and follows the equation θ = 9t2 − 2t3. Determine
(i) the angular velocity and acceleration of the fly wheel when time
t = 1 second and
(ii) the time when the angular acceleration is zero.
Solution : (i) angular displacement θ = 9t2 − 2t3 radians.
dθ
angular velocity ω = dt = 18t – 6t2 rad/s

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When time t = 1 second,

ω = 18(1) − 6(1)2 = 12 rad/s
d 2θ 2
angular acceleration = 2 = 18 − 12t rad/s
dt
when t = 1, angular acceleration = 6 rad/ s2
(ii) Angular acceleration is zero ⇒ 18 – 12t = 0, from which t = 1.5 s
Example 5.6 : A boy, who is standing on a pole of height 14.7 m throws a stone
vertically upwards. It moves in a vertical line slightly away from the pole and
falls on the ground. Its equation of motion in meters and seconds is
x = 9.8 t − 4.9t2 (i) Find the time taken for upward and downward motions.
(ii) Also find the maximum height reached by the stone from the ground.
Solution :
(i) x = 9.8 t − 4.9 t2
At the maximum height v = 0 Max. Ht.
dx
v = dt = 9.8 − 9.8 t
s =0
v = 0 ⇒ t = 1 sec
∴ The time taken for upward
motion is 1 sec. For each position x, s =-147 Ground
there corresponds a time ‘t’. The
ground position is x = − 14.7, since
the top of the pole is taken as x = 0. Fig. 5.4
To get the total time, put x = − 14.7 in the given equation.
i.e., − 14.7 = 9.8 t − 4.9t2 ⇒ t = − 1, 3
⇒ t = − 1 is not admissible and hence t = 3
The time taken for downward motion is 3 − 1 = 2 secs
(ii) When t = 1, the position x = 9.8(1) − 4.9(1) = 4.9 m
The maximum height reached by the stone = pole height + 4.9 = 19.6 m

5.3 Related Rates :

In the related rates problem the idea is to compute the rate of change of one
quantity in terms of the rate of change of another quantity. The procedure is to
find an equation that relates the two quantities and then use the chain rule to
differentiate both sides with respect to time.
We suggest the following problem solving principles that may be followed
as a strategy to solve problems considered in this section.

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(1) Read the problem carefully.

(2) Draw a diagram if possible.
(3) Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are functions
of time.
(4) Express the given information and the required rate in terms of
derivatives.
(5) Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem. If
necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the
variables by substitution.
(6) Use the chain rule to differentiate both sides of the equation with
respect to t.
(7) Substitute the given information into the resulting equation and solve
for the unknown rate.
Illustration : Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon so that its volume
increases at a rate of 100 cm3/s. How fast is the radius of the balloon increasing
when the diameter is 50 cm.
Solution :
We start by identifying two things.
(i) The given information : The rate of increase of the volume of air is
100 cm3/s. and
(ii) The unknown : The rate of increase of the radius when the diameter is
50 cm.
In order to express these quantities mathematically we introduce some
suggestive notation.
Let V be the volume of the balloon and let r be its radius.
The key thing to remember is that the rates of change are derivatives. In
this problem, the volume and the radius are both functions of time t. The rate of
dV
increase of the volume with respect to time is the derivative dt and the rate of
dr
increase of the radius is dt . We can therefore restate the given and the unknown
as follows :
dV dr
Given : dt = 100 cm3/s and unknown : dt when r = 25 cm.
dV dr
In order to connect dt and dt we first relate V and r by the formula for
4
the volume of a sphere V = 3 πr3.

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In order to use the given information, we differentiate both sides of this

equation with respect to t. To differentiate the right side, we need to use chain
rule as V is a function of r and r is a function of t.
dV dV dr 4 dr dr
i.e., dt = dr . dt = 3 3πr2 dt = 4πr2 dt
dr 1 dV
Now we solve for the unknown quantity dt = .
4πr2 dt
dV
If we put r = 25 and dt = 100 in this equation,
dr 1 × 100 1
we obtain dt = 2 = 25π
4π(25)
1
i.e., the radius of the balloon is increasing at the rate of cm/s.
25π
Example 5.7 : A ladder 10 m long rests against a vertical wall. If the bottom of
the ladder slides away from the wall at a rate of 1 m/sec how fast is the top of
the ladder sliding down the wall when the bottom of the ladder is 6 m from the
wall ?
Solution : We first draw a diagram y
and lable it as in Fig. 5.5
Wall

Let x metres be the distance

from the bottom of the ladder to the
dy/dt =?

wall and y metres be the vertical 10

distance from the top of the ladder to y
the ground. Note that x and y are both dx/dt =1
x
functions of time‘t’. We are given x Ground
dx
that dt = 1 m/sec and we are asked
dy Fig. 5.5
to find dt when x = 6 m.
In this question, the relationship between x and y is given by the
Pythagoras theorem : x2 + y2 = 100
Differentiating each side with respect to t, using chain rule, we have
dx dy
2x dt + 2y dt = 0
and solving this equation for the derived rate we obtain,
dy x dx
dt = − y dt

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When x = 6, the Pythagoras theorem gives, y = 8 and so substituting these

dx dy 6 -3
values and dt = 1, we get dt = − 8 (1) = 4 m/sec.

3
The ladder is moving downward at the rate of 4 m/sec.

Example 5.8 : A car A is travelling from west at 50 km/hr. and car B is

travelling towards north at 60 km/hr. Both are headed for the intersection of the
two roads. At what rate are the cars approaching each other when car A is 0.3
kilometers and car B is 0.4 kilometers from the intersection?
Solution : x
A C
We draw Fig. 5.6 where C is the
intersection of the two roads. At a given
time t, let x be the distance from car A to C, y
z
let y be the distance from car B to C and let
z be the distance between the cars A and B
where x, y and z are measured in kilometers. B

Fig. 5.6
dx dy
We are given that dt = − 50 km/hr and dt = − 60 km/hr.

Note that x and y are decreasing and hence the negative sign. We are asked
dz
to find dt . The equation that relate x, y and z is given by the Pythagoras
theorem z2 = x2 + y2
Differentiating each side with respect to t,

we have 2z dt = 2x dt + 2y dt ⇒ dt = z x dt + y dt 
dz dx dy dz 1 dx dy
 
When x = 0.3 and y = 0.4 km, we get z = 0.5 km and we get
dz 1
dt = 0.5 [0.3 (− 50) + 0.4 (−60)] = −78 km/hr.
i.e., the cars are approaching each other at a rate of 78 km/hr.
Example 5.9 : A water tank has the shape of an inverted circular cone with base
radius 2 metres and height 4 metres. If water is being pumped into the tank at a
rate of 2m3/min, find the rate at which the water level is rising when the water
is 3m deep.

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Solution : 2m
We first sketch the cone rm
and label it as in Fig. 5.7. Let V, r
and h be respectively the volume of 4m
h
the water, the radius of the cone
and the height at time t, where
t is measured in minutes. Fig. 5.7
dV dh
We are given that dt = 2m3/min. and we are asked to find dt when h is 3m.
1
The quantities V and h are related by the equation V = 3 πr2h. But it is very
useful to express V as function of h alone.
r 2
In order to eliminate r we use similar triangles in Fig. 5.7 to write h = 4
π
⇒ r = 2 and the expression for V becomes V = 3 π 2  h = 12 h3.
h 1 h 2
 
Now we can differentiate each side with respect to t and we have
dV π 2 dh dh 4 dV
dt = 4 h dt ⇒ dt = πh2 dt
dV
Substituting h = 3m and dt = 2m3/min.
dh 4 8
we get, dt = 2 . 2= 9π m/min
π(3)
EXERCISE 5.1
(1) A missile fired from ground level rises x metres vertically upwards in
25
t seconds and x = 100t - 2 t2. Find (i) the initial velocity of the missile,
(ii) the time when the height of the missile is a maximum (iii) the
maximum height reached and (iv) the velocity with which the missile
strikes the ground.
(2) A particle of unit mass moves so that displacement after t secs is given by
x = 3 cos (2t – 4). Find the acceleration and kinetic energy at the end of 2
secs. K.E. = 1 mv2, m is mass
 2 
(3) The distance x metres traveled by a vehicle in time t seconds after the
brakes are applied is given by : x = 20 t − 5/3t2. Determine (i) the speed
of the vehicle (in km/hr) at the instant the brakes are applied and (ii) the
distance the car travelled before it stops.

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(4) Newton’s law of cooling is given by θ = θ0° e−kt, where the excess of
temperature at zero time is θ0°C and at time t seconds is θ°C. Determine
the rate of change of temperature after 40 s, given that θ0 = 16° C and
k = − 0.03. [e1.2 = 3.3201)
(5) The altitude of a triangle is increasing at a rate of 1 cm/min while the area
of the triangle is increasing at a rate of 2 cm2/min. At what rate is the
base of the triangle changing when the altitude is 10 cm and the area is
100 cm2.
(6) At noon, ship A is 100 km west of ship B. Ship A is sailing east at 35
km/hr and ship B is sailing north at 25 km/hr. How fast is the distance
between the ships changing at 4.00 p.m.
(7) Two sides of a triangle are 4m and 5m in length and the angle between
them is increasing at a rate of 0.06 rad/sec. Find the rate at which the
area of the triangle is increasing when the angle between the sides of
fixed length is π/3.
(8) Two sides of a triangle have length 12 m and 15 m. The angle between
them is increasing at a rate of 2° /min. How fast is the length of third side
increasing when the angle between the sides of fixed length is 60°?
(9) Gravel is being dumped from a conveyor belt at a rate of 30 ft3/min and
its coarsened such that it forms a pile in the shape of a cone whose base
diameter and height are always equal. How fast is the height of the pile
increasing when the pile is 10 ft high ?

5.4 Tangents and Normals (Derivative as a measure of slope)

y
In this section the applications
of derivatives to plane geometry is y =f (x)
discussed. For this, let us consider a P (x1,y1)
curve whose equation is y = f(x). No
rm
al
On this curve take a point
P(x1,y1). Assuming that the tangent
α
at this point is not parallel to the co- x
O Time
ordinate axes, we can write the
equation of the tangent line at P. Fig. 5.8

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The equation of a straight line with slope (gradient) m passing through

(x1,y1) is of the form y – y1 = m(x – x1). For the tangent line we know the slope

m = f ′(x1) = dx  at (x1,y1) and so the equation of the tangent is of the form
dy
 
y – y1= f ′(x1) (x – x1). If m=0, the curve has a horizontal tangent with equation
lim
y = y1 at P(x1,y1). If f(x) is continuous at x = x1, but x → x f ′(x) = ∞ ⇒ the
1
curve has a vertical tangent with equation x = x1.
In addition to the tangent to a curve at a given point, one often has to
consider the normal which is defined as follows :
Definition : The normal to a curve at a given point is a straight line passing
through the given point, perpendicular to the tangent at this point.
From the definition of a normal it is clear that the slope of the normal m′
1
and that of the tangent m are connected by the equation m′ = – m .
1 −1
i.e., m′ = – = dy
f ′(x1)   (x ,y )
dx  1 1
Hence the equation of a normal to a curve y = f(x) at a point P(x1,y1) is
1
of the form y – y1= – ( x – x1).
f ′(x1)
The equation of the normal at (x1,y1) is
(i) x = x1 if the tangent is horizontal (ii) y = y1 if the tangent is vertical and
–1
(iii) y – y1 = m (x – x1) otherwise.

Example 5.10: Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve y = x3
at the point (1,1).
Solution : We have y = x3 ; slope y′= 3x2.
At the point (1,1), x = 1 and m = 3(1)2 = 3.
Therefore equation of the tangent is y − y1 = m(x − x1)
y – 1 = 3(x – 1) or y = 3x – 2
1
The equation of the normal is y − y1 = − m (x − x1)
–1 1 4
y – 1 = 3 (x – 1) or y = – 3 x + 3

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Example 5.11 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve
y = x2 – x – 2 at the point (1,− 2).
dy
Solution : We have y = x2 – x – 2 ; slope, m = dx = 2x – 1.
At the point (1,–2), m = 1
Hence the equation of the tangent is y – y1 = m(x – x1) i.e., y – (–2) = x – 1
i.e., y = x – 3
–1
Equation of the normal is y – y1 = m (x – x1)
–1
i.e., y – (–2) = 1 (x – 1)
or y = – x – 1
Example 5.12 : Find the equation of the tangent at the point (a,b) to the
curve xy = c2.
Solution : The equation of the curve is xy = c2.
Differentiating w.r.to x we get,
dy
y +x dx = 0

or dx = x and m = dx 
dy –y dy –b
  (a, b)= a .
Hence the required equation of the tangent is
–b
y –b = a (x – a)
i.e., ay – ab = – bx + ab
x y
bx + ay = 2ab or a + b = 2
π
Example 5.13 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal at θ = 2 to the
curve x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 + cos θ).
dx θ
Solution : We have = a (1 + cosθ) = 2a cos2 2
dθ
dy θ θ
= – a sin θ = – 2a sin 2 cos 2
dθ
dy
dy dθ θ
Then dx = dx = – tan 2
dθ

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π
∴ Slope m = dx
dy
  θ = π/ = – tan 4 = –1
2
π π
Also for θ = 2 , the point on the curve is a 2 + a, a.
 
π
Hence the equation of the tangent at θ = 2 is
π
y – a = (–1) x − a 2 + 1
  
1 1
i.e., x + y = 2 a π + 2a or x + y – 2 a π – 2a = 0
Equation of the normal at this point is
π
y – a = (1) x − a 2 + 1
  
1
or x – y – 2 a π = 0
Example 5.14 : Find the equations of tangent and normal to the curve
16x2 + 9y2 = 144 at (x1,y1) where x1 = 2 and y1 > 0.
Solution : We have 16x2 + 9y2 = 144
(x1,y1) lies on this curve, where x1 = 2 and y1 > 0
∴ (16 × 4) + 9 y12 = 144 or 9 y12 = 144 – 64 = 80
80 80 80
y12 = 9 ∴ y1 = ± 3 . But y1 > 0 ∴ y1 = 3
 80 
∴ The point of tangency is (x1,y1) = 2 , 3
 
We have 16x2 + 9y2 = 144
dy 32 x 16 x 
Differentiating w.r.to x we get dx = – 18 y = – 9 y 

∴ The slope at
2 , 80  = dy 
 3  dx  2 , 80 
 3 
16 2 8
=– 9 × =–
80 3 5
3

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80 8
∴ The equation of the tangent is y – 3 = – (x – 2)
3 5
On simplification we get 8x + 3 5 y = 36
Similarly the equation of the normal can be found as 9 5 x – 24 y + 14 5 = 0
Example 5.15 : Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse
π
x = a cosθ, y = b sin θ at the point θ = 4 .
π π π
Solution : At θ = 4 , (x1,y1) = a cos 4 , b sin 4  = 
a b 
   2 , 2 
dx dy
= – a sin θ, = b cos θ. y
dθ dθ
dy
T
dy dθ –b P
dx = dx = a cotθ ‘θ’ =π/4
dθ x
O N
–b π –b
⇒ m = = a cot 4 = a Fig. 5.9

Thus the point of tangency is 

a b  –b
, and the slope is m = a .
 2 2 
= − a x −  or bx + ay − ab 2 = 0
b b a
The equation of the tangent is y −
2  2
= b x –
b a a 
The equation of the normal is y –
2  2 
or (ax – by) 2 – (a2 – b2) = 0.
Example 5.16 : Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola, y2 = 20 x
which forms an angle 45° with the x – axis.
Solution : We have y2 = 20x . Let (x1,y1) be the tangential point
10 10
Now 2yy′ = 20 ∴ y′ = y ie., at (x1, y1) m = y … (1)
1
But the tangent makes an angle 45° with the x – axis.
∴ slope of the tangent m=tan 45° = 1 … (2)
10
From (1) and (2) y = 1 ⇒ y1 = 10
1
But (x1,y1) lies on y2 = 20x ⇒ y12 = 20 x1

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100 = 20 x1 or x1 = 5
i.e., (x1,y1) = (5,10)
and hence the equation of the tangent at (5, 10) is
y – 10 = 1(x – 5)
or y = x + 5.
Note : This problem is suitable for equation of any tangent to a parabola
a
i.e., y = mx + m

5.5 Angle between two curves :

The angle between the curves C1 and C2 at a point of intersection P is
defined to be the angle between the tangent lines to C1 and C2 at P (if these
tangent lines exist) Let us represent the two curves C1 and C2 by the Cartesian
equation y = f(x) and y = g(x) respectively. Let them intersect at P (x1,y1) .
If ψ1 and ψ2 are the angles made by the tangents PT1 and PT2 to
C1 and C2 at P, with the positive direction of the x – axis, then m1 = tan ψ 1 and
m2 = tan ψ2 are the slopes of PT1 and PT2 respectively.
Let ψ be the angle between PT1 y
y =g (x)
and PT2. Then ψ = ψ2 – ψ1 and y =f (x) C2
C1
tan ψ = tan (ψ2 – ψ1) T1
tan ψ2 – tan ψ1
= P
1 + tan ψ1 tan ψ2
180 T2
m2 – m1 –ψ ψ2
ψ1 2
= 1+m m x
1 2 O Time
where 0 ≤ ψ < π Fig. 5.10
We observe that if their slopes are equal namely m1 = m2 then the two
curves touch each other. If the product m1 m2 = – 1 then these curves are said to
cut at right angles or orthogonally. We caution that if they cut at right angles
then m1 m2 need not be –1.
Note that in this case ψ1 is acute and ψ2 is obtuse and ψ = ψ2 − ψ1. If ψ1 is
obtuse and ψ2 is acute, then ψ = ψ1−ψ2.

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Combining together the angle between tangents can be given as ψ1∼ψ2 or

tan ψ1∼ tanψ2  m1 − m2 
tan ψ = tan(ψ1∼ψ2) = = 1 + m m 
1 + tan ψ1 tan ψ2  1 2

Example 5.17 : Find the angle between the curves y = x2 and y = (x – 2)2 at the
point of intersection.
Solution : To get the point of intersection of the curves solve the equation
y
we get x2 = (x− 2)2

y =(x-2)2
This gives x = 1. When x = 1, y = 1

y =x2
2
∴ The point of intersection is (1, 1)
dy 1 (1,1)
Now y = x2 ⇒ dx = 2x
x
⇒ m1 = dx 
dy (0,0) 2
 (1,1) = 2
Tan-1(4/3)
Fig. 5.11
y = (x – 2)2 ⇒ dx = 2(x – 2) ⇒ m2 = dx 
dy dy
  (1,1) = – 2.
If ψ is the angle between them, then
tan ψ =  1 – 4  = 
–2–2 –4 –1 4
  − 3  ⇒ ψ = tan 3
Example 5.18 : Find the condition for the curves
ax2 + by2 = 1, a1x2 + b1y2= 1 to intersect orthogonally.
Solution :
If (x1,y1) is the point of intersection, then ax12 + by12 = 1 ; a1x12 + b1y12 = 1
b1 – b a – a1
then, x12 = ab – a b , y12 = ab – a b (By Cramer’s rule)
1 1 1 1
– ax
For ax2 + by2 = 1, m1 = dx 
dy 1
  (x ,y ) = by1
1 1
– a1x1
m2 = dx 
dy
and for a1x2 + b1y2 = 1, = b y
  (x ,y ) 1 1
1 1
For orthogonal intersection, we have m1m2 = –1. This gives
2
– ax1  – a1x1  a a1x1
 by   b y  = –1 or = –1.
 1   1 1  bb1y12

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 b1 – b   a – a1 
aa1x12 + bb1y12 = 0 ⇒ aa1 ab – a b  + bb1 ab – a b  = 0
 1 1   1 1 
b1 – b a – a1
⇒ aa1 (b1 – b) + bb1 (a – a1) = 0 ⇒ bb + aa = 0
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
or b – b + a – a = 0 or a – a = b – b which is the required condition.
1 1 1 1

Example 5.19 : Show that x2 – y2 = a2 and xy = c2 cut orthogonally.

Solution : Let (x1,y1) be the point of intersection of the given curves
∴ x12 – y12 = a2 and x1 y1 = c2
dy dy x
x2 – y2 = a2 ⇒ 2x – 2y dx = 0 ⇒ dx = y
x1 x1
∴ m1 = dx 
dy
= y ie., m1 = y
  (x ,y ) 1 1
1 1
c2 dy c2
xy = c2 ⇒ y = x ⇒ dx = –
x2
– c2 – c2
∴ m2 = dx 
dy
= 2 i.e., m2 = 2
  (x ,y ) x1 x1
1 1
x1  – c2  – c2 – c2
∴ m1m2 = y   2  = x y = 2 = –1
 1 x  11 1 c 
⇒ the curves cut orthogonally.
Example 5.20 : Prove that the sum of the intercepts on the co-ordinate axes of
π
any tangent to the curve x = a cos4θ, y = a sin4θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2 is equal to a.

Solution : Take any point ‘θ’ as (a cos4θ, a sin4θ, )

dx y
Now = – 4a cos3θ sin θ ;
dθ
dy θ = π/2
and = 4a sin3θ cos θ
dθ (0,a)
dy sin2θ
∴ dx = –
cos2θ θ=0
x
O (a,0)
Fig. 5.12

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sin2θ
i.e., slope of the tangent at ‘θ’ is = –
cos2θ
− sin2θ
Equation of the tangent at ‘θ’ is (y − a sin4θ) = 4
2 (x − a cos θ)
cos θ
or x sin2 θ + y cos2 θ = a sin2 θ cos2 θ
x y
⇒ 2 + =1
a cos θ a sin2θ
i.e., sum of the intercepts = a cos2 θ + a sin2 θ = a

EXERCISE 5.2
(1) Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curves
π
(i) y = x2 – 4x – 5 at x = – 2 (ii) y = x – sin x cos x, at x = 2
π 1 + sinx π
(iii) y = 2 sin2 3x at x = 6 (iv) y = cos x at x = 4

(2) Find the points on curve x2– y2=2 at which the slope of the tangent is 2.
(3) Find at what points on the circle x2 + y2 = 13, the tangent is parallel to
the line 2x + 3y = 7
(4) At what points on the curve x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y + 1 = 0 the tangent is
parallel to (i) x – axis (ii) y – axis.
(5) Find the equations of those tangents to the circle x2 + y2 = 52, which
are parallel to the straight line 2x + 3y = 6.
(6) Find the equations of normal to y = x3 – 3x that is parallel to
2x + 18y – 9 = 0.
(7) Let P be a point on the curve y = x3 and suppose that the tangent line at
P intersects the curve again at Q. Prove that the slope at Q is four times
the slope at P.
(8) Prove that the curve 2x2 + 4y2 = 1 and 6x2 – 12y2= 1 cut each other at
right angles.
(9) At what angle θ do the curves y = ax and y = bx intersect (a ≠ b) ?
(10) Show that the equation of the normal to the curve
x = a cos3 θ ; y = a sin3θ at ‘θ’ is x cos θ – y sin θ = a cos 2θ.
(11) If the curve y2 = x and xy = k are orthogonal then prove that 8k2 = 1.

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5.6 Mean value theorems and their applications :

In this section our main objective is to prove that between any two points
of a smooth curve there is a point at which the tangent is parallel to the chord
joining two points. To do this we need the following theorem due to Michael
Rolle.
5.6.1 Rolle’s Theorem : Let f be a real valued function that satisfies the
following three conditions :
(i) f is defined and continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b)
(iii) f (a) = f (b)
Then there exists atleast one point c ∈ (a,b) such that f ′(c) = 0
Some observations :
Rolle’s theorem is applied to the position function s = f(t) of a moving
object.
If the object is in the same place at two different instants t = a and
t = b then f(a) = f(b) satisfying hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem.
Therefore the theorem says that there is some instant of time t = c
between a and b where f ′(c) = 0 i.e., the velocity is 0 at t = c.
Note that this is also true for an object thrown vertically upward
(neglecting air resistance).
Rolle’s Theorem applied to theory of equations : If a and b are two
roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0, then Rolle’s Theorem says
that there is atleast one root c between a and b for f ′(x) = 0.
Rolle’s theorem implies that a smooth curve cannot intersect a
horizontal line twice without having a horizontal tangent in between.
Rolle’s theorem holds trivially for the function f(x) = c, where c is a
constant on [a,b].
The converse of Rolle’s Theorem is not true ie., if a function
f satisfies f ′(c) = 0 for c ∈ (a,b) then the conditions of hypothesis
need not hold.
Example 5.21 : Using Rolle’s theorem find the value(s) of c.
(i) f(x) = 1 − x2 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) f(x) = (x − a) (b − x), a ≤ x ≤ b, a ≠ b.
1
(iii) f(x) = 2x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 3, 2≤ x ≤ 3

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Solution :
(i) The function is continuous in [−1,1] and differentiable in (−1,1).
f(1) = f (−1) = 0 all the three conditions are satisfied.
1 − 2x −x
f ′(x) = 2 2
=
1 −x 1 − x2
f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
(Note that for x = 0, denominator = 1 ≠ 0) Thus the suitable point for which
Rolle’s theorem holds is c = 0.
(ii) f(x) = (x − a) (b − x), a ≤ x ≤ b, a ≠ b.
f (x) is continuous on [a,b] and f ′(x) exists at every point of (a,b).
f(a) = f(b) = 0 All the conditions are satisfied.
∴ f ′(x) = (b − x) − (x − a)
a+b
f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ − 2x = − b − a ⇒ x = 2
a+b
The suitable point ‘c’ of Rolle’s theorem is c = 2
1
(iii) f(x) = 2x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 3, 2 ≤ x ≤ 3

f is continuous on 2 , 3and differentiable in 2 , 3

1 1
   
f(½) = 0 = f(3). All the conditions are satisfied.
f ′(x) = 6x2 − 10x − 4
1
f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ 3x2 − 5x− 2 = 0 ⇒ (3x + 1) (x −2) = 0 ⇒ x = − 3 or x = 2.

x = − 3 does not lie in 2, 3 ∴x = 2 is the suitable ‘c’ of Rolle’s theorem

1 1
 
Remark : Rolle’s theorem cannot be applied if any one of the conditions does not hold.
Example 5.22 : Verify Rolle’s theorem for the following :
(i) f(x) = x3 − 3x + 3 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) f(x) = tan x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
(iii) f(x) = | x |, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(iv) f(x) = sin2 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
(v) f(x) = ex sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
(vi) f(x) = x (x − 1) (x − 2), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

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Solution :
(i) f(x) = x3 − 3x + 3 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
f is continuous on [0,1] and differentiable in (0,1)
f(0) = 3 and f(1) = 1 ∴ f (a) ≠ f (b)
∴ Rolle’s theorem, does not hold, since f (a) = f (b) is not satisfied.
Also note that f ′(x) = 3x2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1
There exists no point c ∈ (0,1) satisfying f ′(c) = 0.
(ii) f(x) = tan x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
π
f ′(x) is not continuous in [0,π] as tan x tends to + ∞ at x = 2,
∴ Rolles theorem is not applicable.
(iii) f(x) = | x |, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
f is continuous in [−1,1] but not differentiable in (−1,1) since f ′(0) does
not exist.
∴ Rolles theorem is not applicable.
(iv) f(x) = sin2 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π
f is continuous in [0,π] and differentiable in (0,π). f(0) = f (π) = 0
(ie.,) f satisfies hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem.
f ′(x) = 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
π 3π
f ′(c) = 0 ⇒ sin 2c = 0 ⇒ 2c = 0, π, 2π, 3π, ... ⇒ c = 0, 2, π, 2 , ...
π π
since c = 2 ∈ (0,π), the suitable c of Rolle’s theorem is c = 2.

(v) f(x) = ex sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π

ex and sin x are continuous for all x, therefore the product ex sin x is
continuous in 0 ≤ x ≤ π.
f ′(x) = ex sin x + ex cos x = ex (sin x + cos x) exist in 0 < x < π
⇒ f ′(x) is differentiable in (0,π).
f(0) = e0 sin 0 = 0
f(π) = eπ sin π = 0
∴ f satisfies hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem
Thus there exists c∈ (0, π) satisfying f ′(c) = 0 ⇒ ec(sin c + cos c) = 0
⇒ ec = 0 or sin c + cos c = 0

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ec = 0 ⇒ c = − ∞ which is not meaningful here.

sin c 3π
⇒ sin c = − cos c ⇒ cos c =−1 ⇒ tan c = − 1 = tan 4
3π
⇒ c = 4 is the required point.
(vi) f(x) = x (x − 1) (x − 2), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2,
f is continuous in [0,2] and differentiable in (0,2)
f(0) = 0 = f(2), satisfying hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem
Now f ′(x) = (x − 1) (x − 2) + x (x −2) + x (x −1) = 0
1
⇒ 3x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 ⇒ x = 1 ±
3
1
The required c in Rolle’s theorem is 1 ± ∈ (0,2)
3
Note : There could exist more than one such ‘c’ appearing in the statement of
Rolle’s theorem.
Example 5.23 : Apply Rolle’s theorem to find points on curve y = − 1 + cos x,
where the tangent is parallel to x-axis in [0, 2π].
Solution :
y
f(x) is continuous in [0,2π] and π 2π
differentiable in (0,2π) x
(0,0)
f(0) = 0 = f(2π) satisfying hypothesis -1
of Rolle’s theorem.
Now f ′(x) = − sin x = 0 ⇒ sin x = 0 -2
(π,-2)
x = 0, π, 2π, . . . Fig. 5.13
x = π, is the required c in (0,2π). At x = π, y = −1 + cos π = −2.
⇒ the point (π,−2) is such that at this point the tangent to the curve is parallel
to x-axis.
EXERCISE 5.3
(1) Verify Rolle’s theorem for the following functions :
(i) f(x) = sin x, 0≤x≤π
(ii) f(x) = x2, 0≤ x ≤1
(iii) f(x) = | x − 1|,
0≤x≤2
3 3
(iv) f(x) = 4x3 − 9x, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2

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(2) Using Rolle’s theorem find the points on the curve y = x2+1, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
where the tangent is parallel to x − axis.
5.6.2 Mean Value Theorem (Law of the mean due to Lagrange) :
Many results in this section depend on one central fact called law of the
mean or mean value theorem due to Joseph – Louis Lagrange.
Theorem :Let f(x) be a real valued function that satisfies the following
conditions :
(i) f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) is differentiable on the open interval (a,b)
Then there exists at least one point c ∈ (a,b) such that
f(b) − f(a)
f ′(c) = …(1)
b−a
Some Observations :
Note that if f(a) = f(b) then the law of the mean reduces to the Rolle’s
theorem.
Interpretation of law of the mean when applied to an equation of motion
s = f(t) :
The quantity ∆s = f(b) − f(a) is the change in s corresponding to
∆t = b – a and R.H.S. of (1) is
f(b) − f(a) ∆s
= = average velocity from t = a to t = b.
b−a ∆t
The equation then tells us that there is an instant ‘c’ between a and b at
which the instantaneous velocity f ′(c) is equal to the average velocity. For
example, if a car has traveled 180 kms in 2 hours then the speedometer must
have read 90 kms/hr at least once.
The slope f ′(c)of the curve at C (c, f(c)) y
C B
f(b) − f(a)
is the same as the slope of the 2
b−a
( x)

chord joining the points A (a, f(a)) and 1 A

y =f

B (b, f(b)). Geometrically means that if the

function f is continuous on [a,b] and x
(0,0)
differentiable on (a,b) then there is atleast one
number c in (a,b) where the tangent to the
curve is parallel to the chord through A and B.
Fig. 5.14

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Remarks (1) : Since the value of c satisfies the condition a < c < b, it follows
c−a
that (c − a) < (b − a) or (< 1) = θ, (say).
b−a
c−a
i.e., = θ ⇒ c − a = θ (b − a), 0 < θ < 1.
b−a
But then c = a + θ (b − a)
∴ the law of the mean can be put in the form
f(b) − f(a) = (b − a) f ′(c)
= (b − a) f ′[a + θ (b − a)], 0 < θ < 1
and this is used in calculating approximate values of functions.
(2) Letting b − a = h, the above result can be written as
f(a + h) = f(a) + hf ′(a + θh), 0 < θ < 1
(3) If we let a = x, h = ∆x, law of the mean becomes
f(x + ∆x) = f(x) + ∆x f ′(x + θ∆x) for some θ such that 0 < θ < 1.
Example 5.24 : Verify Lagrange’s law of the mean for f(x) = x3 on [−2,2]
Solution : f is a polynomial, hence continuous and differentiable on [− 2, 2].
f(2) = 23 = 8 ; f (−2) = (−2)3 = −8
f ′(x) = 3x2 ⇒ f ′(c) = 3c2
By law of the mean there exists an element c ∈ (− 2, 2) such that
f(b) − f(a) 8 − (−8)
f ′(c) = ⇒ 3c2 = =4
b−a 4
4 2
i.e., c2 = 3 ⇒ c = ±
3
2 2
The required ‘c’ in the law of mean are and − as both lie in [−2,2].
3 3
Example 5.25 :
A cylindrical hole 4 mm in diameter and 12 mm deep in a metal block is
rebored to increase the diameter to 4.12 mm. Estimate the amount of metal
removed.
Solution : The volume of cylindrical hole of radius x mm and depth 12 mm is
given by

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V = f(x) = 12 πx2
⇒ f ′(c) = 24πc.
To estimate f(2.06) − f(2) :
4mm

12mm
By law of mean,
f(2.06) − f(2) = 0.06 f ′(c)
= 0.06 (24 πc), 2 < c < 2.06
Take c = 2.01
f(2.06) − f(2) = 0.06 × 24 π × 2.01
= 2.89 π cubic mm. Fig. 5.15
Note : Any suitable c between 2 and 2.06 other than 2.01 also will give other
estimates.
Example 5.26 : Suppose that f(0) = − 3 and f ′(x) ≤ 5 for all values of x, how
large can f(2) possibly be?
Solution : Since by hypothesis f is differentiable, f is continuous everywhere.
We can apply Lagrange’s Law of the mean on the interval [0,2]. There exist
atleast one ‘c’∈(0, 2) such that
f(2) − f(0) = f ′(c) ( 2 − 0)
f(2) = f(0) + 2 f ′(c)
= −3 + 2 f ′(c)
Given that f ′(x) ≤ 5 for all x. In particular we know that f ′(c) ≤ 5.
Multiplying both sides of the inequality by 2, we have
2f ′(c) ≤ 10
f(2) = −3 + 2 f ′(c) ≤ −3 + 10 = 7
i.e., the largest possible value of f(2) is 7.
Example 5.27 : It took 14 sec for a thermometer to rise from −19°C to 100°C
when it was taken from a freezer and placed in boiling water. Show that
somewhere along the way the mercury was rising at exactly 8.5°C/sec.
Solution : Let T be the temperature reading shown in the thermometer at any
time t. Then T is a function of time t. Since the temperature rise is continuous
and since there is a continuous change in the temperature the function is
differentiable too. ∴ By law of the mean there exists a ‘t0’ in (0, 14)
such that
T(t2) − T(t1)
= T ′(t0)
t2 − t1
Here T ′(t0) is the rate of rise of temperature at C.

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Here t2 − t1 = 14, T(t2) = 100 ; T(t1) = − 19

100 + 19 119
T ′(t0) = 14 = 14 = 8.5C/sec

EXERCISE 5.4
(1) Verify Lagrange’s law of mean for the following functions :
1
(i) f(x) = 1 − x2, [0,3] (ii) f(x) = x , [1,2]

(iii) f(x) = 2x3 + x2 − x − 1, [0,2] (iv) f(x) = x2/3, [−2,2]

(v) f(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 3x , [1,3]
(2) If f(1) = 10 and f ′(x) ≥ 2 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 how small can f(4) possibly be?
(3) At 2.00 p.m a car’s speedometer reads 30 miles/hr., at 2.10 pm it reads
50 miles / hr. Show that sometime between 2.00 and 2.10 the
acceleration is exactly 120 miles /hr2.

Generalised Law of the Mean :

If f(x) and g(x) are continuous real valued functions on [a,b] and f and g
are differentiable on (a,b) with g ′(x) ≠ 0 everywhere on (a,b) then there exist
f(b) − f(a) f ′(c)
atleast one value of x, say x = c, between a and b such that =
g(b) − g(a) g′(c)
Remarks :
(1) This theorem is also known as Cauchy’s generalised law of the mean.
(2) Lagrange’s law of the mean is a particular case of Cauchy law of the
mean for the case g(x) = x for all x ∈ [a,b]
(3) Note that g(b) ≠ g(a), for, suppose g(b) = g(a), then by Rolle’s
theorem, g′(x) = 0 for some x in (a,b) contradicting hypothesis of the
generalized law of the mean.
Extended Law of the mean :
If f(x) and its first (n − 1) derivatives are continuous on [a,b] and if f(n)(x)
exists in (a,b), then there exist atleast one value of x, x = c say, in (a,b) such
that
f ′(a) f ′′(a) f (n−1)( a) f (n)(c)
f(b)=f(a)+ 1! (b−a)+ 2! (b−a)2+...+ (b−a)n−1+ n! (b−a)n...(1)
(n −1)!

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Remarks : (1) If in the extended law of the mean b − a = h then b = a + h

and (1) becomes
f ′(a) f ′′(a) f (n−1)( a) n − 1 f (n)(c) n
f(a + h) = f(a) + 1! h + 2! h2 + ... h + n! h ...(2)
(n −1)!
for some c ∈ (a, a + h) and this is known as Taylor’s theorem.
(2) When b is replaced by the variable x then (1) becomes
f ′(a) f (n−1)( a) f (n)(c)
f(x) = f(a) + 1! (x − a) +... (x − a)n − 1 + n! (x − a)n
(n −1)!
for some c ∈ (a, x)
(3) If n becomes sufficiently large (i.e., ; as n → ∞) in Taylors theorem, then
(2) becomes
f ′(a) f ′′(a) f (n)(a)
f(a + h) = f(a) + 1! h + 2! h2 + . . . + n! hn + ... ...(3)
provided f is differentiable any number of times. This series of expansion
of f(a + h) about the point a is usually known as Taylor’s Series.
(4) If in the extended law of the mean a is replaced by 0 and b is replaced with
the variable x, (1) becomes,
f ′(0) f ′′(0) f (n−1)(0) n − 1 f (n) (c) n
f(x) = f(0) + 1! x + 2! x2 +...+ x + n! x ___(4)
(n−1)!
for some c ∈ (0,x) and is known as Maclaurin’s theorem.
(5) If n is sufficiently large (i.e., n → ∞) in Maclaurin’s theorem, then it
f ′(0) f ′′(0)
becomes f(x) = f(0) + 1! x + 2! x2 + . . .
provided f is differentiable any number of times, This series expansion of f(x)
about the point 0 is usually known as Maclaurin’s Series.
π
Illustration : The Taylor’s series expansion of f(x) = sin x about x = 2 is
obtained by the following way.
π π
f(x) = sin x ; f 2  = sin 2 = 1
 
π π
f ′(x) = cos x ; f ′ 2  = cos 2 = 0
 
π
f ′′(x) = − sin x ; f ′′ 2  = −1
 
π
f ′′′(x) = − cos x ; f ′′′ 2  = 0
 

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π π
f ′ 2  f″ 2  2
π    π   x − π
∴ f(x) = sin x = f 2  + 1! x −2  +
  2!  2 + ...
2
π π
= 1 + 0 x −2  + 2! x − 2 + ...
(−1)
   
4
π 2 π
sin x = 1 − 2! x −2  + 4! x − 2 − ...
1 1
   
Example 5.28 :
Obtain the Maclaurin’s Series for
1) ex 2) loge(1 + x) 3) arc tan x or tan−1x
Solution :
(1) f(x) = ex ; f(0) = e0 = 1
f ′(x) = ex ; f ′(0) = 1
f ′′(x) = e x
; f ′′(0) = 1
!
1.x 1 1
f(x) = ex = 1 + 1! + 2! x2 + 3! x3 …

x x2 x3
= 1 + 1! + 2! + 3! + ... holds for all x
(2) f(x) = loge(1 + x) : f(0) = loge1 = 0
1
f ′(x) = 1 + x ; f ′(0) = 1
−1
f ′′(x) = ; f ′′(0) = −1
(1 + x)2
+1.2
f ′′′(x) = ; f ′′′(0) = 2!
(1 + x)3
−1.2.3
f ′′′′(x) = ; f ′′′′(0) = − (3!)
(1 + x)4
1 1 2! 3!
f(x) = loge(1 + x) = 0 + 1! x − 2! x2 + 3! x3 − 4! x4 − ... + ….
x2 x3 x4
x − 2 + 3 − 4 + .... −1 < x ≤ 1.

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(3) f(x) = tan−1x ; f(0) = 0

1
f ′(x) = = 1 −x2 + x4 – x6…. ; f ′(0) = 1 = 1!
1 + x2

f ′′(x) = − 2x + 4x3 – 6x5 …. ; f ′′(0) = 0

f ′′′(x) = − 2 + 12x2 – 30x4 …. ; f ′′′(0) = −2 = −(2!)
f iv(x) = 24x − 120x3 …. ; f iv(0) = 0
f v(x) = 24 − 360x2 …. ; f v(0) = 24 = 4!
1 0 2 0 4!
tan−1 x = 0 + 1! x + 2! x2 − 3! x3 + 4! x4 + 5! x5 + …

1 1
= x − 3 x3 + 5 x5 − …

holds in | x | ≤ 1.
EXERCISE 5.5
Obtain the Maclaurin’s Series expansion for :
1 π π
(1) e2x (2) cos2x (3) 1 + x (4) tan x, − 2 < x < 2

5.7 Evaluating Indeterminate forms :

Suppose f(x) and g(x) are defined on some interval [a,b], satisfying
Cauchy’s generalized law of the mean and vanish at a point x = a of this interval
f(x)
such that f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then the ratio g(x) is not defined for x = a
0
and gives a meaningless expression 0 but has a very definite meaning for
values of x ≠ a. Evaluating the limit x → a of this ratio is known as evaluating
0
indeterminate forms of the type 0.

3x −2
If f(x) = 3x − 2 and g(x) = 9x + 7, then 9x + 7 is an indeterminate form
∞
of the type as the numerator and denominator becomes ∞ in the limiting
∞
case, x tends to ∞.

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lim ex lim lim lim

We also have other limits , (x − ex), x→ 0 xx, x1/x
x→ ∞ x x→ ∞ x→ ∞
1
lim /(x−1)
and x→ 1 x which lead to other indeterminate forms of the types
0 . ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00, ∞0 and 1∞ respectively. These symbols must not be taken
literally. They are only convenient labels for distinguishing types of behaviour
at certain limits. To deal with such indeterminate forms we need a tool that
facilitates the evaluation. This tool was devised by John Bernoulli for
calculating the limit of a fraction whose numerator and denominator approach
zero. This tool today is known as l’Hôpital’s rule after Guillaume Francois
Antoinede l’Hôpital.
l’Hôpital’s rule :
Let f and g be continuous real valued functions defined on the closed
interval [a,b], f, g be differentiable on (a,b) and g′(c) ≠ 0.
f ′(c)
Then if lim f(x) = 0, lim g(x) = 0 and if lim = L it follows that
x→ c x→ c x→ c
g′(c)
f(x)
lim g(x) = L.
x→ c
Remarks :
(1) Using l’Hôpital’s method, evaluation of the limits of indeterminate
forms works faster than conventional methods. For instance, consider
sin x
lim
x→ 0
x . This limit we know is 1, which we obtained through
geometrical constructions, a laborious method.
sin x cos x
But lim x = lim 1 = cos 0 = 1
x→ 0 x→ 0
(2) Note that l’Hôpital’s rule can be applied only to differentiable
functions for which the limits are in the indeterminate form. For,
x+1 1 x+1 1
lim is 3 while if l’Hôpital’s rule is applied lim x + 3 = 1 = 1.
x→ 0
x + 3 x→ 0
Here f(x) = x + 1 g(x) = x + 3 are both differentiable but not in the
indeterminate form
(3) The conclusion of l’Hôpital’s rule is unchanged if lim f(x) = 0 and
x→ a
lim g(x) = 0 and replaced by lim f(x) = ± ∞ and lim f(x) = ± ∞.
x→ a x→ a x→ a

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(4) All other indeterminate forms mentioned above can also be reduced to
0 ∞
0 or ∞ by a suitable transformation.
We need the following result in some problems
Composite Function Theorem :
Result : If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b,
x→ a
then lim f(g(x) = f  lim g(x)
x→ a x→a 
x
Example 5.29 : Evaluate : lim tan x
x→ 0
x 0
Solution : lim tan x is of the type 0 .
x→ 0
x 1 1
∴ lim tan x = lim 2 =1=1
x→ 0 x→ 0 sec x
1
sin x
Example 5.30 : Find lim if exists
−11
x → + ∞ tan x

1
Solution : Let y = x As x → ∞, y → 0
1
sin x
sin y 0
lim 1 = lim −1 = 0
−1
x → + ∞ tan x y → 0 tan y

= lim  1  = 1 = 1
cos y 1
y→0 2
1 + y 
log(sin x)
Example 5.31 : lim 2
π (π − 2x)
x→ /2
0
Solution : It is of the form 0
1
log(sin x) sin x cos x
lim 2 =
lim
π (π − 2x) π 2(π − 2x) × (−2)
x→ /2 x→ /2

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cotx 0
= lim =
π − 4(π − 2x) 0
x→ /2
− cosec2x −1
= lim =
π −4×−2 8
x→ /2
Note that here l’Hôpital’s rule, applied twice yields the result.
x2
Example 5.32 : Evaluate : lim
x→∞
ex

x2 ∞
Solution : lim x is the type ∞
x→∞
e

x2 2x 2 2
lim x = lim x = lim x = ∞ =0
x→∞
e x→∞
e x→∞
e

Example 5.33 : Evaluate : lim cosec x − x 

1
x→ 0  

Solution : lim cosec x − x  is of the type ∞ − ∞.

1
x→ 0  
x − sin x 0
lim cosec x −
1
= lim sin x − x  = lim x sinx = 0
1 1
x→ 0  x  x→ 0   x→ 0
1 − cos x  0
= 0 type = lim
sinx
lim
x→ 0
sin x + x cos x   x→ 0 cos x + cos x − x sin x
0
=2 = 0
sin x
Example 5.34 : Evaluate : lim (cot x)
x→ 0
sin x
Solution : lim (cot x) is of the type ∞0.
x→ 0
sin x
Let y = (cot x) ⇒ log y = sin x log (cot x)
lim (log y) = lim sin x log (cot x)
x→ 0 x→ 0
log (cot x) ∞
= lim is of the type
x→ 0
cosec x ∞

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Applying l’Hôpital’s rule,

1
cotx (− cosec2 x)
log (cot x)
lim lim
x→ 0
cosec x = x→ 0 −cosec x cot x

sin x 1 0
= lim cos x × cos x = 1 = 0
x→ 0

i.e., lim log y = 0

x→ 0

By Composite Function Theorem, we have

0 = lim log y = log  lim y ⇒ lim y = e0 = 1
x→ 0 x→ 0  x→ 0

Caution : When the existence of lim f(x) is not known, log  lim f(x)  is
x→ a x→ a 
meaningless.
sinx
Example 5.35 : Evaluate lim x
x→ 0 +
sinx
Solution : lim x is of the form 00.
x→ 0 +
sinx
Let y = x ⇒ log y = sin x log x.
Note that x approaches 0 from the right so that log x is meaningful
log x
i.e., log y = cosec x

log x −∞
lim log y = lim which is of the type .
x→ 0 + x→ 0 +
cosec x ∞

Applying l’Hôpital’s rule,

1
log x x
lim = lim
x→ 0 +−cosec x cot x
x→ 0 +
cosec x

− sin2x
= lim x cos x of the type 0
0
x→ 0 +  

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2 sin x cos x
= lim = 0
x→ 0 + sin x − cos x
x
ie., lim logy = 0
x→ 0 +
By Composite Function Theorem, we have
0 = lim log y = log lim y ⇒ lim y = e0 = 1
x→ 0 + x→ 0 + x→ 0 +
Example 5.36 :
The current at time t in a coil with resistance R, inductance L and subjected
−Rt 
E 
to a constant electromotive force E is given by i = R  1− e L  . Obtain a
suitable formula to be used when R is very small.
Solution :
 −Rt 
lim E  1− e L  0
R→0
i = lim R (is of the type 0.)
R→0
−Rt
t
E× L e L
Et Et
= lim 1 = L ⇒ lim i = L is the suitable formula.
R→0 R→0
EXERCISE 5.6
Evaluate the limit for the following if exists,
sin πx tan x − x
(1) lim (2) lim
x→ 2 2 −x x→ 0 x − sinx
sin −1x x n − 2n
(3) lim (4) lim
x→ 2 x − 2
x→ 0
x

− 2 tan−1 x 
2 1 1
sin x x2  
(5) lim 1/x (6) lim 1
x→∞ x→∞ x
logex cotx
(7) lim x (8) lim cot 2x
x→ ∞ x→0
1
(9) lim x2 logex. (10) lim x x−1
x→0+ x→1

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cos x lim
(11) lim (tanx) (12) x→0+ xx
π −
x→ /2
1
lim /x
(13) x → 0 (cos x)

5.8 Monotonic Functions :

Increasing, Decreasing Functions
Differential calculus has varied applications. We have already seen some
applications to geometrical, physical and practical problems in sections 5.2, 5.3
and 5.4 In this section, we shall study some applications to the theory of real
functions.
In sketching the graph of a y
function it is very useful to Positive y =f(x)
Gradient
B Negative
know where it raises and where (slope) Gradient
Positive
it falls. The graph shown in (slope) D
Gradient
Fig. 5.16 raises from A to B, C (slope)
falls from B to C, and raises
again from C to D.
The function f is said to be A
increasing on the interval [a,b], φ ψ
x
decreasing on [b,c], and O a x1 x2 b c d
increasing again on [c,d]. We
use this as the defining property Fig. 5.16
of an increasing function.
Definition : A function f is called increasing on an interval I if
f(x1) ≤ f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I. It is called decreasing on I if f(x1) ≥ f(x2)
whenever x1 < x2 in I.
A function that is completely increasing or completely decreasing on I is
called monotonic on I.
In the first case the function f preserves the order.
i.e., x1 < x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≤ f(x2) and in the later case the function f reverses the
order i.e., x1 < x2 ⇒ f(x1) ≥ f(x2). Thanks to the order preserving property,
increasing functions are also known as order preserving functions. Similarly,
the decreasing functions are also known as order reversing functions.
Illustrations :
(i) Every constant function is an increasing function.
(ii) Every identity function is an increasing function.

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(iii) The function f(x) = sin x is not an increasing function on R; but

π
f(x) = sin x is increasing on 0, 2 .
 
(iv) The function f(x) = 4 – 2x is decreasing
π
(v) The function f(x) = sin x is decreasing in the interval 2, π
 
Note that f is increasing is equivalent to (− f) is decreasing.
Do you agree that each constant function is both increasing and
decreasing?
Caution : It is incorrect to say that if a function is not increasing, then it is
decreasing. It may happen that a function is neither increasing nor decreasing.
For instance, if we consider the interval [0,π], the function sin x is neither
π π
increasing nor decreasing. It is increasing on 0, 2 and decreasing on 2, π.
   
There are other functions that are even worse. They are not monotonic on any
subinterval also. But most of the functions that we consider are not so bad.
Usually, by looking at the graph of the function one can say whether the
function is increasing or decreasing or neither. The graph of an increasing
function does not fall as we go from left to right while the graph of a decreasing
function does not rise as we go from left to right. But if we are not given the
graph, how do we decide whether a given function is monotonic or not ?
Theorem 1 gives us a criterion to do just that.
Theorem 1 : Let I be an open interval. Let f : I → R be differentiable. Then
(i) f is increasing if and only if f ′(x) ≥ 0 for all x in I.
(ii) f is decreasing if and only if f ′(x) ≤ 0 for all x in I.
Proof : (i) Let f be increasing and x ∈ I. Since f is differentiable f ′(x) exists and
lim f(x + h) – f(x)
is given by f ′(x) = h→0 h . If h > 0, then x + h > x and since f is
increasing, f(x + h) ≥ f(x). Hence f(x + h) – f(x) ≥ 0.
If h < 0, then x + h < x and f (x + h) ≤ f(x). Hence f(x + h) − f(x) ≤ 0
So either f(x + h) – f(x) and h are both non-negative or they are both
non – positive.
f(x + h) – f(x)
Therefore h is non-negative for all non-zero values of h and
f(x + h) – f(x)
lim h must also be non-negative. Thus, f ′(x) ≥ 0
h→0

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Conversely, let f ′(x) ≥ 0, for all x in I. Let x1 < x2 in I. We shall prove

that f(x1) ≤ f(x2).
f(x2) – f(x1)
By the Law of mean, x – x = f ′(c) , for x1 < c < x2
2 1
f(x2) – f(x1)
Since, f ′(c) ≥ 0, we have x – x ≥ 0. Also x2 – x1> 0 ( ∴ x1 < x2)
2 1
Thus f(x2) – f(x1) ≥ 0 or f(x1) ≤ f(x2). Hence f is increasing
(ii) can be proved in a similar way. It can also be deduced by applying result
(i) to the function (– f).
Geometrical interpretation : The above theorem expresses the following
geometric fact. If on an interval I = [a,b] a function f(x) increases, then the
tangent to the curve y = f(x) at each point on this interval forms an acute angle ϕ
with the x-axis or (at certain points) is horizontal (See Fig.5.16), the tangent of
this angle is not negative. Therefore f ′(x) = tan ϕ ≥ 0. If the function f(x)
decreases on the interval [b,c] then the angle of inclination of the tangents form
an obtuse angle (or, at some points, the tangent is horizontal) ; the tangent of
this angle is not positive f ′(x) = tan ψ ≤ 0.
From the class of increasing functions we can separate out functions which
are strictly increasing. The following definition gives the precise meaning of the
term strictly increasing function.
Definition : f : I → R is said to be strictly increasing if x1 < x2 implies that f(x1)
< f(x2). We can similarly say that a function defined on I is strictly decreasing
if x1 < x2 implies f(x1) > f(x2)
For example, a constant function is not strictly increasing, nor is it strictly
decreasing (Fig. 5.17). The greatest integer function f(x)= x too, is increasing
(Fig. 5.18), but not strictly increasing, where as the function f(x) = x is strictly
increasing (Fig. 5.19).
y y y
x
=

3
x)
f(

1 f(x) =1 -2 1 x
x O
1 3
0 -2

Fig. 5.17 Fig. 5.18 Fig. 5.19

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Theorem 2 :
(i) Let f ′ be positive on I. Then f is strictly increasing on I.
(ii) Let f ′ be negative on I. Then f is strictly decreasing on I.
The proof of the theorem is easy and is left as an exercise.
Corollary : f is strictly monotonic on the interval I, if f ′ is of the same sign
through out I.
You may have noticed that there is a difference between the statement of
Theorem 1 and Theorem 2.
“f is increasing if and only if f ′ is non – negative”
“ If f ′ > 0, then f is strictly increasing”.
Can we have if and only if in Theorem 2 also ?
The answer is no as shown in the following example.
Illustration : Define f : R→ R by f(x) = x3.
Suppose x1 < x2, Then x2 – x1 > 0 and x12 + x22 > 0
This implies x23 – x13 = (x2 – x1) (x22 + x12 + x1 x2)
1
= (x2 – x1) 2 [(x12 + x22)+ (x1 + x2)2] > 0
⇒ x13 < x23
Thus whenever x1 < x2, f(x1) < f(x2).
Hence f(x) = x3 is strictly increasing.
But its derivate f ′(x) = 3x2 and f ′(0) = 0.
Hence its derivate f ′ is not strictly positive.
Note: If a function changes its signs at different points of a region (interval)
then the function is not monotonic in that region. So to prove the
non- monotonicity of a function, it is enough to prove that f ′ has different signs
at different points.
Example 5.37 : Prove that the function f (x) = sin x + cos2x is not monotonic on
π
the interval 0, 4 .
 
Solution : Let f(x) = sin x + cos 2x
Then f ′(x) = cos x – 2sin 2x
Now f ′(0) = cos 0 – 2 sin 0 = 1 – 0 = 1 > 0
π π π
and f ′4 = cos 4 – 2 sin 2 4
     
1
= –2×1<0
2

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π π
Thus f ′ is of different signs at 0 and 4 Therefore f is not monotonic on 0, 4
 
Example 5.38 : Find the intervals in which f(x) = 2x3 + x2 −20x is increasing
and decreasing.
Solution : f ′(x) = 6x2 + 2x – 20 = 2(3x2 + x − 10) = 2 (x + 2) ( 3x −5)
Now f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ x = − 2, and x = 5/3. The values − 2 and 5/3 divide the real
line (the domain of f(x)) into intervals (−∞, −2), (− 2, 5/3)and (5/3, ∞) .

−∞ -2 0 5/3 ∞
Fig. 5.20
Interval x +2 3x – 5 f ′(x) Interval of inc / dec
− ∞ < x < –2 – – + Increasing on (– ∞, –2]
− 2 < x < 5/3 + − − decreasing on [− 2, 5/3]
5/3 < x < ∞ + + + increasing on [5/3, ∞)
Note (i) : If the critical numbers are not included in the intervals, then the
intervals of increasing (decreasing) becomes strictly increasing (strictly
decreasing)
Note : (ii) The intervals of inc / dec can be obtained by taking and checking a
sample point in the sub-interval.
Example 5.39 : Prove that the function f(x) = x2 − x + 1 is neither increasing nor
decreasing in [0,1]
Solution : f (x) = x2 − x + 1
f ′(x) = 2x − 1

f ′(x) ≥ 0 for x ≥ 2 i.e., x ∈ 2 , 1 ∴ f(x) is increasing on 2 , 1

1 1 1
   
Also f ′(x) ≤ 0 for x ≤ 2 ⇒ x ∈ 0, 2. Also f ′(x) is decreasing on 0, 2
1 1 1
   
Therefore in the entire interval [0,1] the function f(x) is neither increasing
nor decreasing.
Example 5.40 : Discuss monotonicity of the function
f(x) = sin x, x ∈ [0, 2π]

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π 3π
Solution : f (x) = sin x and f ′(x) = cos x = 0 for x = 2 , 2 in [0,2π] Now
π 3π
f ′(x) ≥0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 and 2 ≤ x ≤ 2π. Therefore f(x) = sin x is increasing on
0, π and 3π, 2π i.e., sin x is increasing on 0, π  ∪ 3π , 2π
 2 2   2 2 
π 3π
Also, f ′(x) ≤ 0 for 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 . Therefore f(x) = sin x is decreasing on
π , 3π 
2 2 
x −2
Example 5.41 : Determine for which values of x, the function y = x + 1 ,
x ≠ −1 is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.
Solution :
x −2 dy (x + 1) 1 − (x −2) 1 3
y = x + 1 , x ≠ −1 dx = 2 = > 0 for all x ≠ − 1.
(x + 1) (x +1)2
∴ y is strictly increasing on R − {−1}.
Example 5.42 : Determine for which values of x, the function
f(x) = 2x3 − 15x2 + 36x + 1 is increasing and for which it is decreasing. Also
determine the points where the tangents to the graph of the function are parallel
to the x axis.
Solution : f ′(x) = 6x2 − 30x + 36 = 6(x − 2) (x − 3)
f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ x = 2, 3. Therefore the points 2 and 3 divide the real line
into (− ∞, 2), (2, 3) (3, ∞).
Interval x −2 x–3 f ′(x) Intervals of inc / dec
−∞<x<2 – – + increasing on (– ∞, 2]
2<x<3 + − − decreasing on [2, 3]
3<x<∞ + + + increasing on [3, ∞)
The points where the tangent to the graph of the function are parallel to the
x − axis are given by f ′(x)= 0, ie., when x = 2, 3 Now f(2) = 29 and f(3) = 28.
Therefore the required points are (2, 29) and (3, 28)

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Example 5.43 :
Show that f(x) = tan−1 (sin x + cos x), x > 0 is a strictly increasing function
π
in the interval 0, 4 .
 
Solution : f(x) = tan−1(sin x + cos x).
1 cos x − sin x
f ′(x) = 2 (cos x − sin x) = 2 + sin 2x > 0
1 + (sin x + cos x)
π
since cos x−sin x > 0 in the interval 0, 4
 
and 2 + sin 2x > 0)
π
∴ f(x) is strictly increasing function of x in the interval 0 , 4 
 
EXERCISE 5.7
(1) Prove that ex is strictly increasing function on R.
(2) Prove that log x is strictly increasing function on (0, ∞)
(3) Which of the following functions are increasing or decreasing on the
interval given ?

(ii) 2x2 + 3x on − 2 , 2 
1 1
(i) x2 – 1 on [0,2]
 
(iii) e−x on [0,1] (iv) x(x − 1) (x + 1) on [−2, −1]
π
(v) x sin x on 0, 4 
 
(4) Prove that the following functions are not monotonic in the intervals
given.
(i) 2x2 + x − 5 on [−1,0] (ii) x (x − 1) (x + 1) on [0,2]
π
(iii) x sin x on [0,π] (iv) tan x + cot x on 0, 2 
 
(5) Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing.
(i) f(x) = 20 − x − x2 (ii) f(x) = x3 − 3x + 1
(iii) f(x) = x3 + x + 1 (iv) f(x) = x −2sin x, [0, 2π]
(v) f(x) = x + cos x in [0, π] (vi) f(x) = sin4 x + cos4 x in [0, π/2]

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Inequalities :
Example 5.44 :
Prove that ex > 1 + x for all x > 0.
Solution : Let f(x) = ex − x − 1 ⇒ f ′(x) = ex − 1 > 0 for x > 0
i.e., f is strictly increasing function. ∴ for x > 0, f(x) > f(0)
i.e., (ex − x − 1) > (e0 − 0 − 1) ; ex > x + 1
Example 5.45 :
Prove that the inequality (1 + x)n > 1+nx is true whenever x > 0 and n > 1.
Solution : Consider the difference f(x) = (1 + x)n − (1 + nx)
Then f ′(x) = n(1 + x)n−1 − n = n[(1 + x)n−1 − 1]
Since x > 0 and n − 1 > 0, we have (1 + x)n−1 > 1, so f ′(x) > 0.
Therefore f is strictly increasing on [0, ∞).
For x > 0 ⇒ f(x) > f(0) i.e., (1 + x)n − (1 + nx) > (1 + 0) − (1 + 0)
i.e., (1 + x)n − (1 + nx) > 0 i.e., (1 + x)n > (1 + nx)
π
Example 5.46 : Prove that sin x < x < tan x, x∈0, 2
 
Solution :
Let f(x) = x − sin x y x =π/2
y =tan x

π
f ′(x) = 1 − cos x > 0 for 0 < x < 2
x
y=

∴ f is strictly increasing.
For x > 0, f(x) > f(0) y =sin x
⇒ x − sin x > 0 ⇒ x > sin x … (1) 0 π/2
x
Let g(x) = tan x − x
π
g′(x) = sec2x − 1 = tan2x > 0 in 0, 2
Fig. 5.21
 
∴ g is strictly increasing
For x > 0, f(x) > f(0) ⇒ tan x − x > 0 ⇒ tan x > x … (2)
From (1) and (2) sin x < x < tan x

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EXERCISE 5.8
(1) Prove the following inequalities :
x2 x3
(i) cos x > 1 − 2 , x > 0 (ii) sin x > x − 6 , x > 0

(iii) tan−1 x < x for all x > 0 (iv) log (1 + x) < x for all x > 0.

5.9 Maximum and Minimum values and their applications :

“For since the fabric of the Universe is most perfect and the work of a
most wise creator, nothing at all takes place in the Universe in which some rule
of maximum or minimum does not appear”
Leonard Euler
Some of the most important y
R

(slope)
)
P

(slope
applications of differential calculus are
ve
optimization problems, in which we are Negati

ient
nt
nt
Gradie
Gradie

e Grad
required to find the optimal (best) way of e)
(slop
doing something. In many cases these
e

Positiv
Positiv

problems can be reduced to finding the

maximum or minimum values of a
Q
function. Many practical problems x
O
require us to minimize a cost or maximize
an area or somehow find the best possible Fig. 5.22
outcome of a situation.
Let us first explain exactly what we mean by maximum and minimum values.
In fig 5.22 the gradient (rate
y Maximum
of change) of the curve changes
Point
from positive between O and P Point of
Maximum Inflexion
to negative between P and Q and Point
positive again between Q and R.
At point P, the gradient is zero
and as x increases, the gradient
(slope) of the curve changes x
from positive just before P to O Minimum
Point
negative just after. Such a point
Fig. 5.23
is called a maximum point and
appears as the ‘crest of a wave’.

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At point Q, the gradient is

y
also zero and as x increases the
gradient of the curve changes
from negative just before Q to
positive just after. Such a point is
called a minimum point and f (d)
appears as ‘the bottom of a
f (a)
valley’. Points such as P and Q x
are given the general name, aO b c d e
turning points. Fig. 5.24
It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of which is
the same. Such a point is given the special name of a point of inflection as
shown in Fig 5.23.
Definition : A function f has an absolute maximum at c if
f(c) ≥ f(x) for all x in D, where D is the domain of f. The number f(c) is called
maximum value of f on D. Similarly f has an absolute minimum at c if
f(c) ≤ f(x) for all x in D and the number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on
D. The maximum and minimum values of f are called extreme values of f.:
Fig.5.24 shows the graph of a function f with absolute maximum at d and
absolute minimum at a. Note that (d, f(d)) is the highest point on the graph and
(a, f(a)) is the lowest point.
In Fig. 5.24 if we consider only values of x near b, for instance, if we
restrict our attention to the interval (a,c) then f(b) is the largest of those values
of f(x) and is called a local maximum value of f. Likewise f(c) is called a local
minimum value of f because f(c) ≤ f(x) for x near c, in the interval (b,d). The
function f also has a local minimum at e. In general we have the following
definition.
Definition : A function f has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c
if there is an open interval I containing c such that f(c) ≥ f(x) for all x in I.
Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if there is an open interval I containing c
such that f(c) ≤ f(x) for all x in I.
Illustrations : (1) The function f(x)=cos x takes on its (local and absolute)
maximum value of 1 infinitely many times since cos 2nπ = 1 for any integer and
−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1 for all x. Like wise cos (2n + 1)π = −1 is its (local and absolute)
minimum value, n is any integer.

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(2) If f(x) = x2, then f(x) ≥ f(0) y

y = x2
because x2 ≥ 0 for all x. Therefore
f(0) = 0 is the absolute (and local)
minimum value of f. This
corresponds to the fact that the
origin is the lowest on the parabola
x
y = x2 See Fig.5.25 However, there O
is no highest point on the parabola Min. value =0; No Max.
and so this function has no
maximum value. Fig. 5.25
y
8
6 y =x3
(3) If f(x) = x3 then from the graph
4
of f(x) shown in Fig 5.26, we see 2
that this function has neither an -4 -2 0 x
2 4
absolute maximum value nor an -2
No Minimum
absolute minimum value. In fact it -4 No Maximum

has no local extreme values either. -6

-8

Fig. 5.26
(4) Consider the function y
4 3 2
f(x) = 3x − 16x + 18x ; −1 ≤ x ≤ 4. (-1,37) 40
(4,32)
The graph is shown in Fig. 5.27. 30
We can see that f(1) = 5 is a local 20
maximum, whereas the absolute maximum 10 (1,5)
is f(−1)=37. Also f(0) = 0 is a local minimum
x
and f(3)= −27 is both local and absolute -1 0 1 2 3
-10 (2,-8)
minimum.
-20
We have seen that some functions have
extreme values, while others do not. The -30 (3,-27)
following theorem gives conditions under
which a function is guaranteed to possess Fig. 5.27
extreme values.

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The Extreme value theorem : If f is continuous on a closed interval [a,b]

then f attains an absolute maximum value f(c) and an absolute minimum value
f(d) at some number c and d in [a,b]
The next two examples show that a function need not possess extreme
values if either of the hypotheses (continuity or closed interval) is omitted from
the extreme value theorem.
y
(5) Consider the function
x2 , 0≤x<1 1
f(x) = 
0 , 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
The function is defined on the
closed interval [0,2] but has no
maximum value. Notice that the x
0 1
range of f is the interval [0,1). The
function takes on value close to 1
but never attains the value 1. Fig. 5.28
This is because the hypotheses of f to be continuous fails. Note that x = 1 is a
point of discontinuity, for,
Lim Lim Lim
x→ 1 −
f(x) = x→ 1 − (x2) = 1 ; x→ 1 + f(x) = 0

(6) The function f(x) =x2, 0 < x < 2 y

is continuous on the interval (0,2)
but has neither a maximum nor a 4
minimum value. The range of f is
the interval (0,4). The values 0 and f (x) =x2, 0<x<2
4 are never taken on by f. This is No Maximum
because the interval (0,2) is not No Minimum

closed.
x
0 2
Fig. 5.29
If we alter the function by including either end point of the interval (0,2)
then we get one of the situations shown in Fig. 5.30, Fig. 5.31, Fig. 5.32 In
particular the function f(x) = x2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is continuous on the closed interval
[0,2]. So the extreme value theorem says that the function has an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum.

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y y
y
4 4
4

f2 (x) =x2, 0≤x<2 f3 (x) =x2, 0≤x≤2

f1 (x) =x2, 0<x≤2
Maximum f1 (2) =4 No Maximum Maximum f3 (2) =4
No Minimum Minimum f2 (0) =0
Minimum f3 (0) =0

x x x
O 2 0 2 0 2
Fig. 5.30 Fig. 5.31 Fig. 5.32
Inspite of the above examples we point out that there are functions which
are neither continuous nor differentiable but still attains minimum and
maximum values. For instance, consider
 1 , x is irrational
f(x) = 
 0 , x is rational
(This function is known as characteristic function on the set of irrational
numbers)
This function is nowhere differentiable and everywhere discontinuous. But
the maximum value is 1 and the minimum value is 0.
The extreme value theorem says that a continuous function on a closed
interval has a maximum value and minimum value, but it does not tell us how to
find their extreme values.
Fig. 5.33 shows the graph of a y
function f with a local maximum at (c, f (c))
c and a local minimum at d. It
appears that at the maximum and
minimum points the tangent line is (d, f (d))
horizontal and therefore has slope
zero. We know that the derivative
is the slope of the tangent line, so it x
O c d
appear that f ′(c) = 0 and f ′(d) = 0. Fig. 5.33
The following theorem shows that this is always true for differentiable
functions.
Fermat’s Theorem : If f has a local extremum (maximum or minimum) at c
and if f ′(c) exists then f ′(c) = 0.
The following examples caution us that we cannot locate extreme values
simply by setting f ′(x) = 0 and solving for x.

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y
(7) The function f(x) = | x | has its y =- x y =x
(local and absolute) minimum value at
0, but that value cannot be found by
setting f ′(x) = 0 because f ′(x) does
not exist. x
O y =|x|
Fig. 5.34
(8) The function f(x) = 3x − 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 y
has its maximum value when x = 1 but (1,2)
2
f ′(1) = 3 ≠ 0. This does not contradict y =3x – 1
Fermat’s Theorem. Since f(1) = 2 is not a 1 0≤x≤1
local maximum. x
-1 0 1 2
Note that the number 1 is not
contained in an open interval in the -1 (0,-1)
domain of f.
Fig. 5.35
Remark : The above examples demonstrate that even when f ′(c) = 0 there
need not be a maximum or minimum at c. Further more, there may be an
extreme value even when f ′(c) ≠ 0 or when f ′(c) does not exist.
y
(9) If f(x) = x3. Then f ′(x) = 3x2,
8
so f ′(0) = 0.
6 y =x3
But f has no maximum or minimum
4
at 0 as you can see from its graph.
(observe that x3 > 0 for x > 0 and x3 < 0 2
-2 0
for x < 0). x
2 4
The fact that f ′(0) = 0 simply means -2

that the curve y = x3 has a horizontal -4

tangent at (0,0). Instead of having a -6
maximum or minimum at (0, 0) the curve -8
crosses its horizontal tangent there.
Fig. 5.36
Fermats’ theorem does suggest that we should atleast start looking for
extreme values of f at the numbers c where f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) does not exist.
Definition : A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f
such that either f ′(c) = 0 or f ′(c) does not exist.

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Stationary points are critical numbers c in the domain of f, for which f ′(c)= 0.
3
/
Example 5.47 : Find the critical numbers of x 5 (4 − x)
3 8
/ /
Solution : f(x) = 4 x 5 − x 5
12 −2/5 8 3/5
f ′(x) = 5 x − 5 x
4 −2/
= 5 x 5 (3 − 2x)
3
Therefore f ′(x) = 0 if 3 − 2x = 0 i.e., if x = 2 . f ′(x) does not exist when
3
x = 0. Thus the critical numbers are 0 and 2 .
Note that if f has a local extremum at c, then c is a critical number of f, but
not vice versa.
To find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a
continuous function f on a closed interval [a,b] :
(1) Find the values of f at the critical numbers, of f in (a,b).
(2) Find the values of f(a) and f(b)
(3) The largest of the values from steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum
value, the smallest of these values is the absolute minimum value.
Example 5.48 : Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the
1
function. f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 , − 2 ≤ x ≤ 4
1
[
Solution : Note that f is continuous on ; − 2 , 4 ]
f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1
f ′(x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x (x − 2)

1 2 3
-1/2 0 4

Fig. 5.37
Since f ′(x) exists for all x, the only critical numbers of f are x = 0, x = 2.
Both of these critical numbers lie in the interval − 2 , 4 . Value of f at
1
 
these critical numbers are f(0) = 1 and f(2) = −3.

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The values of f at the end points of the interval are

1 1 3 1 2 1
f −2 = −2
( ) ( ) −3 −2
( ) +1=8

and f(4) = 43 − 3 × 42 + 1 = 17
Comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is
f(4) = 17 and the absolute minimum value is f(2) = − 3.
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an end point, whereas
the absolute minimum occurs at a critical number.
Example 5.48(a): Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of
f(x) =x − 2sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.
Solution : f(x) =x − 2 sin x, is continuous in [0, 2π]
f ′(x) = 1 − 2 cos x
1 π 5π
f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ cos x = 2 ⇒ x = 3 or 3
The value of f at these critical points are
π π π π
f 3  = 3 − 2 sin 3 = 3 − 3
 

f  3  = 3 − 2 sin 3
5π 5π 5π
 
5π
= 3 + 3

≈ 6.968039
The values of f at the end points are f(0) = 0 and f(2π) = 2 π ≈ 6.28
π π
Comparing these four numbers, the absolute minimum is f 3  = 3 − 3 and
 
the absolute maximum is f  3  = 3 + 3 . In this example both absolute
5π 5π
 
minimum and absolute maximum occurs at the critical numbers.
Let us now see how the second derivatives of functions help determining
the turning nature (of graphs of functions) and in optimization problems.
The second derivative test : Suppose f is continuous on an open interval
that contains c.
(a) If f ′(c) = 0 and f ′′(c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) If f ′(c) = 0 and f ′′(c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.

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Example 5.49 : Discuss the curve y = x4 − 4x3 with respect to local extrema.
Solution : f(x) = x4 − 4x3
f ′(x) = 4x3 − 12x2 , f ′′(x) = 12x2 − 24x
To find the critical numbers we set f ′(x) = 0 and obtain x = 0 and x = 3. To
use the second derivative test we evaluate the sign of f ′′ at these critical
numbers.
f ′′(0) = 0, f ′′(3) = 36 > 0. Since f ′(3) = 0 and f ′′(3) > 0, f(3) = − 27 is a local
minimum value and the point (3, −27) is a minimum point. Since f ′′(0) = 0 the
second derivative test gives no information about the critical number 0. But
since f ′(x) < 0 for x < 0 and also for 0 < x < 3, the first derivative test tells us
that f does not have a local extremum at 0.
We summarise the above discussion as follows :
Procedure for finding and distinguishing stationary points.
dy
(i) Given y = f(x) determine dx (i.e., f ′(x))
dy
(ii) Let dx = 0 and solve for the critical numbers x.
(iii) Substitute the values of x into the original function y = f(x) to find the
corresponding y-coordinate values. This establish the co-ordinates of
the stationary points. To determine the nature of the stationary points,
d2y
(iv) Find and substitute into it the values of x found in (ii).
dx2
If the result is :
(a) positive − the point is a minimum one
(b) negative − the point is a maximum one
(c) zero − the point cannot be an extremum (minimum or maximum)
OR
(v) Determine the sign of the gradient (slope f ′(x) of the curve just before
and just after the stationary points. If the sign change for the gradient
of the curve is
(a) positive to negative − this point is a maximum one
(b) negative to positive − this point is a minimum one
Example 5.50 : Locate the extreme point on the curve y = 3x2 − 6x and
determine its nature by examining the sign of the gradient on either side.

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Solution : Following the above procedure

dy
(i) Since y = 3x2 − 6x, dx = 6x − 6
dy
(ii) At a stationary point, dx = 0, hence x = 1

(iii) When x = 1, y = 3(1)2 − 6(1) = − 3. Hence the coordinates of the

stationary point is (1, − 3).
dy
If x is slightly less than 1, say 0.9, then dx = 6(0.9) − 6 = − 0.6 < 0.
dy
If x is slightly greater than 1, say 1.1 then dx = 6(1.1) − 6 = 0.6 > 0.

Since the gradient (slope of the curve) changes its sign from negative to
positive (1, − 3) is a minimum point.
Example 5.51 :
Find the local minimum and maximum values of f(x) = x4 − 3x3 + 3x2 − x
Solution : f(x) = x4 − 3x3 + 3x2 − x
f ′(x) = 4x3 − 9x2 + 6x − 1
At a turning point, f ′(x) = 0 gives 4x3 − 9x2 + 6x − 1 = 0
1
(x − 1)2 (4x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 1, 1, 4

1 1 − 27
When x = 1, f(1) = 0 and when x = 4, f 4 = 256
 
1 − 27
Hence the coordinates of the stationary points are (1, 0) and 4 , 256 
 
f ′′(x) = 12x − 18x + 6 = 6(2x − 3x + 1) = 6(x − 1) (2x − 1)
2 2

When x = 1, f ′′(1) = 0. Thus the second derivative test gives no

information about the extremum nature of f at x = 1.
1 − 27
When x = 4 , f ′′ 4 = 4 > 0, hence 4 , 256  is a minimum point.
1 1 9
   
Caution :
No function will attain local maximum / minimum at the end points of its
domain.

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EXERCISE 5.9
(1) Find the critical numbers and stationary points of each of the following
functions.
(i) f(x) = 2x − 3x2 (ii) f(x) = x3 − 3x + 1
x+1
(iii) f(x) = x4/5 (x − 4)2 (iv) f(x) = 2
x +x+1
(v) f(θ) = sin2 2θ in [0, π]
(vi) f(θ) = θ + sin θ in [0, 2π]
(2) Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on the
given interval :
(i) f(x) = x2 − 2x + 2, [0,3]
(ii) f(x) = 1 − 2x − x2, [−4,1]
(iii) f(x) = x3 − 12x + 1, [−3,5]

(iv) f(x) = 9 − x2 , [−1,2]

x
(v) f(x) = x + 1, [1,2]

(vi) f(x) = sin x + cos x, 0, π

 3
(vii) f(x) = x − 2 cos x, [−π, π]
(3) Find the local maximum and minimum values of the following :
(i) x3 − x (ii) 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x (iii) x4 − 6x2
(iv) (x2 − 1)3 (v) sin2 θ , [0, π] (vi) t + cos t

5.10 Practical problems involving maximum and minimum values :

The methods we have learnt in this section for finding extreme values have
practical applications in many areas of life. A business person wants to
minimise costs and maximise profits. We also solve such problems as
maximising areas, volumes and profits and minimising distances, times and
costs. In solving such practical problems, the greatest challenge is often to
convert the word problem into maximum – minimum problem by setting up the
function that is to be maximised or minimised.

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As a problem solving technique we suggest the following principles.

(1) Understand the problem : The first step is to read the problem
carefully until it is clearly understood. Ask yourself what is the
unknown? What are the given quantities? What are the given conditions?
(2) Draw diagram : In most problems it is useful to draw a diagram and
identify the given and required quantities on the diagram.
(3) Introduce notation : Assign a symbol to the quantity to be maximised or
minimised, say Q. Also select symbols (a,b,c …,x, y, z) for the other
unknown quantities and lable the diagram with these symbols.
(4) Express Q in terms of some other symbols from step 3.
(5) If Q has been expressed as a function of more than one variable in
step 4, use the given information to find relationship (in the form of
equation) among these variables. Then use these equations to
eliminate all but one of these variables in the expression for Q.Thus Q
will be given as a function of one variable x, say, Q = f(x). Write the
domain of this function.
(6) Use the methods discussed to find the absolute maximum or minimum
value of f.
Remarks :
(1) If the domain is a closed interval then we apply the absolute max/min
property to maximize / minimize the given function (see 5.52, 5.58).
(2) If the domain is an open interval then we apply either first derivative
test (5.53) or second test for finding local max / min. Instead of first
derivative one can also apply second derivative test if the second test
exist. Similarly instead of second derivative test one can also apply
first derivative test.
(3) All these cases ultimately lead us to the absolute max / min only.
Example 5.52 : A farmer has 2400 feet of fencing and want to fence of a
rectangular field that borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river.
What are the dimensions of the field that has the largest area ?
Solution : y
We wish to maximize the area A
of the rectangle. Let x and y be the x x
width and length of the rectangle (in
feet). Then we express A in terms of
x and y as A = xy
Fig. 5.38

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We want to express A as a function of just one variable, so we eliminate y

by expressing it in terms of x. To do this we use the given information that the
total length of the fencing is 2400 ft. Therefore 2x + y = 2400
Hence y = 2400 − 2x and the area is A= x (2400 – 2x) = 2400 x − 2x2
Note that x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 1200 (otherwise A < 0). So the function that we
wish to maximize is
A (x) = 2400 x − 2x2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1200.
A′(x) = 2400 − 4x, so to find the critical numbers we solve the equation
2400 − 4x = 0 which gives x = 600. The maximum of A must occur either at this
critical number or at an end point of the interval.
Since A(0) = 0, A(600) = 7,20,000 and A(1200) = 0, thus the maximum
value is A (600) = 720,000. When x = 600, y = 2400 − 1200 = 1200
Hence the rectangular field should be 600 ft wide and 1200 ft long.
Note : This problem also be done by using second derivative test (local). In this
case x > 0 and y > 0.
Example 5.53 :
Find a point on the parabola y2 = 2x that is closest
y
to the point (1,4)
Solution : Let (x,y) be the point
4 (1,4)
on the parabola y2 = 2x. The
distance between the points (1,4)
y2 = 2x
and
(x,y)
(x,y) is d = (x −1)2 + (y − 4)2 .
x
0
2 y2 1 2
(x,y) lies on y = 2x ⇒ x = 2 ,
y2
so d2= f(y) = ( 2 − 1)2 + (y − 4)2 Fig. 5.39

(Note that the minimum of d occurs at the same point as the minimum of d2)
y2 
Now f ′(y) = 2  2 − 1 (y) + 2 (y − 4)
 
= y3 − 8 = 0 at a critical point.
y3 − 8 = 0 ⇒ y = 2 (since y2 + 2y + 4 = 0 is not possible)

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Observe that f ′(y) < 0 when y < 2 and f ′(y) > 0 when y > 2, so by the
first derivate test, for absolute extrema, the absolute minimum occurs when
y2
y = 2. The corresponding value of x is x = 2 = 2. Thus the point on y2 = 2x
closest to (1,4) is (2,2).
Note : This problem also be done by using second derivative test
Example 5.54 :
Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semi circle
of radius r.
Solution :
x2 +y2 =r2
Let θ be the angle made by OP P(r cos θ, r sin θ)
with the positive direction of x–axis. r
Then the area of the rectangle A is θ x
A(θ) = (2 r cosθ) (r sinθ)
= r2 2 sin θ cos θ = r2 sin 2θ Fig. 5.40
Now A(θ) is maximum when sin 2θ is maximum. The maximum value of
π π π
sin 2θ = 1 ⇒ 2θ = 2 or θ = 4 . (Note that A′ (θ) = 0 when θ = 4 )
π π
Therefore the critical number is 4. The area A4 = r2.
 
Note : The dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a
r
semicircle are 2r ,
2
π π
Aliter : A ′(θ) = 2r2 cos 2θ = 0 ⇒ 2θ = 2 ; θ = 4
π π
A ′′(θ) = −4r2 sin 2 θ < 0, for θ = 4 ⇒ θ = 4 gives the
π
maximum point and the maximum point is 4 , r2
 
From the above problem, we understand that the method of calculus gives
the solution faster than the algebraic method.
Example 5.55 : The top and bottom margins of a poster are each 6 cms and the
side margins are each 4 cms. If the area of the printed material on the poster is
fixed at 384 cms2, find the dimension of the poster with the smallest area.
Solution : Let x and y be the length and breadth of printed area, then the area
xy = 384

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Dimensions of the poster area are x +8

(x + 8) and (y + 12) respectively. 6 cms
Poster area A = (x + 8) (y + 12)
x
= xy +12x + 8y + 96 4 4
y y +12
= 12x + 8y + 480
= 12x + 8  x  + 480
384 6 cms
 
1 Fig. 5.41
A′ = 12 − 8 × 384 × 2
x
1
A″ = 16 × 384 × 3
x
A′ = 0 ⇒ x = ± 16
But x > 0
∴ x = 16
when x = 16, A′′ > 0
∴ when x = 16, the area is minimum
∴ y = 24
∴ x + 8 = 24, y + 12 = 36
Hence the dimensions are 24cm and 36 cm.
Example 5.56 : Show that the volume of the largest right circular cone that can
8
be inscribed in a sphere of radius a is 27 (volume of the sphere).
Solution : Given that a is the radius of
the sphere and let x be the base radius of a
the cone. If h is the height of the cone,
then its volume is c
y α
1 2
V = 3 πx h O x
1
= 3 π x2 (a + y) …(1) Fig. 5.42
where OC = y so that height h = a + y.
From the diagram x2 + y2 = a2 (2)
Using (2) in (1) we have
1
V = 3 π (a2 − y2) (a + y)

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For the volume to be maximum :

1
V ′=0 ⇒ 3 π [a2 − 2ay − 3y2] = 0
⇒ 3y = +a or y = −a
a
⇒ y = 3 and y = − a is not possible
2 a
Now V″ = − π 3 (a + 3y) < 0 at y = 3
a
∴ the volume is maximum when y = 3 and the maximum volume is

1 8a2 1 8 4 3 8
3 π × 9 (a + 3 a) = 27 (3 πa ) = 27 (volume of the sphere)
Example 5.57 : A closed (cuboid) box with a square base is to have a volume
of 2000 c.c. The material for the top and bottom of the box is to cost Rs. 3 per
square cm. and the material for the sides is to cost Rs. 1.50 per square cm. If the
cost of the materials is to be the least, find the dimensions of the box.
Solution : Let x, y respectively denote the length of the side of the square base
and depth of the box. Let C be the cost of the material
Area of the bottom = x2
Area of the top = x2
Combined area of the top and bottom = 2x2
Area of the four sides = 4xy
Cost of the material for the top and bottom = 3(2x2)
Cost of the material for the sides = (1.5) (4xy) = 6xy
Total cost C = 6x2 + 6xy …(1)
2
Volume of the box V = (area) (depth) = x y=2000 …(2)
12000
Eliminating y from (1) & (2) we get C(x) = 6x2 + x …(3)

where x > 0, ie., x ∈ (0,+ ∞) and C(x) is continuous on (0, + ∞).

12000
C ′ (x) = 12x −
x2
C ′ (x) = 0 ⇒ 12x3 − 12000 = 0 ⇒ 12(x3 − 103) = 0
⇒ x = 10 or x2 + 10x + 100 = 0

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x2 + 10x + 100 = 0 is not possible

∴ The critical numbers is x = 10.
24000 24000
Now C ″(x) = 12 + 3 ; C ″(10) = 12 + 1000 = 36 > 0
x
∴ C is minimum at (10,C(10)) = (10, 1800) ∴ the base length is 10cm and
2000
depth is y = 100 = 20 cm.

Example 5.58 :
A man is at a point P on a bank of a straight river, 3 km wide, and wants to
reach point Q, 8 km downstream on the opposite bank, as quickly as possible.
He could row his boat directly across the river to point R and then run to Q, or
he could row directly to Q, or he could row to some point S between Q and R
and then run to Q. If he can row at 6 km/h and run at 8 km/h where should he
land to reach Q as soon as possible ?
Solution :
3km
Let x be the distance from R to S. Then the P √( R
x2
running distance is 8 − x and the distance +9 x
)
distance
PS = x2 + 9 . We know that time = rate . S

8-x
Then the rowing time
x2 + 9 (8 −x) Q
Rt = 6 and the running time rt = 8
Fig. 5.43
x2 + 9 (8 −x)
Therefore the total time T = Rt + rt = 6 + 8 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 8.

Notice that if x = 0, he rows to R and if x = 8 he rows directly to Q.

x 1
T ′(x) = 0 ⇒ T ′(x) = 2
− 8 = 0 for critical points.
6 x +9

4x = 3 x2 + 9
16x2 = 9 (x2 + 9)
7x2 = 81

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9 9
⇒ x= since x = − is not admissible.
7 7
9
The only critical number is x = . We calculate T at the end point of the
7
9
domain 0 and 8 and at x = .
7

T(0) = 1.5, T 
9  7 73
= 1 + 8 ≈ 1.33, and T(8) = 6 ≈ 1.42
 7 
9
Since the smallest of these values of T occurs when x = , the man
7
9
should land the boat at a point km (≈ 3.4 km) down stream from his starting
7
point.
EXERCISE 5.10
(1) Find two numbers whose sum is 100 and whose product is a maximum.
(2) Find two positive numbers whose product is 100 and whose sum is
minimum.
(3) Show that of all the rectangles with a given area the one with smallest
perimeter is a square.
(4) Show that of all the rectangles with a given perimeter the one with the
greatest area is a square.
(5) Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be
inscribed in a circle of radius r.
5
(6) Resistance to motion, F, of a moving vehicle is given by, F = x + 100x.
Determine the minimum value of resistance.

5.11 Concavity (convexity) and points of inflection :

Figure 5.44 (a), (b) shows the graphs of two increasing functions on [a, b].
Both graphs join point A to point B but they look different because they bend in
different directions. How can we distinguish between these two types of
behaviour? In fig. 5.44 (c), (d) tangents to these curves have been drawn at
several points. In (a) the curve lies above the tangents and f is called concave
upward (convex downward) on [a, b]. In (b) the curve lies below the tangents
and g is called concave downward (convex upward) on [a, b]

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y
B y
B

f g
A
A
x
0 a b x
0 a b

Fig. 5.44 (a) Fig. 5.44 (b)

y y
B B

A
A
x x
0 0
Fig. 5.44(c) Fig. 5.44 (d)
Definition :
If the graph of f lies above all of its tangents on an interval I, then it is
called concave upward (convex downward) on I. If the graph of f lies below all
of its tangents on I, it is called concave downward (convex upward) on I.
Let us see how the second derivative helps to determine the intervals of
concavity (convexity). Looking at Fig.5.44(c), you can see that, going from left
to right, the slope of the tangent increases. This means that the derivative f ′(x)
is an increasing function and therefore its derivative f ′′(x) is positive. Likewise
in Fig.5.44 (d) the slope of the tangent decreases from left to right, so f ′(x)
decreases and therefore f ′′(x) is negative. This reasoning can be reversed and
suggests that the following theorem is true.
The test for concavity (convexity) :
Suppose f is twice differentiable on an interval I.
(i) If f ′′(x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave upward
(convex downward) on I.
(ii) If f′′(x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave downward
(convex upward) on I.

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Definition : A point P on a curve is called a point of inflection if the curve

changes from concave upward (convex downward) to concave downward
(convex upward) or from concave downward (convex upward) to concave
upward (convex downward) at P.
That is the point that separates the convex part of a continuous curve from
the concave part is called the point of inflection of the curve.
It is obvious that at the point of inflection the tangent line, if it exists, cuts
the curve, because on one side the curve lies under the tangent and on the other
side, above it. The following theorem says under what situation a critical point
of f′ becomes a point of inflection.
Theorem :
Let a curve be defined by an equation y = f(x). If f ′′(x0) = 0 or
f ′′(x0) does not exist and if the derivative f ′′(x) changes sign when passing
through x = x0, then the point of the curve with abcissa x = x0 is the point of
inflection. Equivalently the point (x0, f(x0)) is a point of inflection of the graph
of f if there exists a neighbourhood (a, b) of x0 such that
f ′′(x) > 0 for every x in (a, x0) and f ′′(x) < 0 for every x in (x0, b) or vice versa.
y of x0, f ′′(a) andyf ′′(b) differ in sign.y
That yis in the neighbourhood
A B
A B

x x x x
O O O O

Fig. 5.45
Remark :
We caution the reader that points of inflections need not be critical points
and critical points need not be points of inflections. However x = x0 is a critical
point such that f ′(x) does not change its sign as f(x) passes through x0, then
x0 is a point of inflection and for points of inflections x0, it is necessary that
f ′′(x0) = 0. If f ′′(x) does not change its sign even if f ′′(x0) = 0 then x0 cannot be
a point of inflection. Thus the conjoint of the above discussion is that for points
of inflections x0, f ′′(x0) = 0 and in the immediate neighbourhood (a, b) of x0, f
′′(a) and f ′′(b) must differ in sign.

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If x = x0 is a root of odd order − simple, triple, etc. of the function

f ′(x) = 0, then x = x0 yields a maximum or minimum. If x = x0 is a root of even
order, x = x0 yield a point of inflection with a horizontal tangent. These
concepts are made clear in the following illustrative example y = x3.
y′ = 3x2 and y ′′ = 6x.
Here y′(0) = 0 and y′′(0) = 0 and x = 0 happens to be a critical point of both
y and y′. Clearly y′ (x) > 0 for x < 0 and x > 0. Thus y′ does not change its sign
as f(x) passes through x = 0.
That is y′ (− 0.1) > 0 and y′(0.1) > 0 i.e., in the neighbourhood (− 0.1, 0.1)
of 0, y′ does not change its sign. Thus the first derivative test confirms that
(0, 0) is a point of inflection.
Again y′′(0) = 0, y′′(− 0.1) < 0 y
y =x3
and y′′(0.1) > 0. Here y′′ changes its
sign as y(x) passes through x = 0. In Concave
upward Convex
this case the second derivative
downward
(concavity) test also confirms that (0,
0) is a point of inflection. Note that (0, 0 x
3 Convex
0) separates the convex part of y = x upward
from the concave part.
Note also that y′(x) = 3x2 and
Concave
x = 0 is a double root of y′(x) = 0. The downward
root order test also confirms that (0, 0)
is a point of inflection with x-axis as
the horizontal tangent at (0, 0) Fig. 5.46
Example 5.59 :
Determine the domain of concavity (convexity) of the curve
y = 2 − x2.
Solution : y = 2 − x2
y′ = − 2x and y′′ = − 2 < 0 for x ∈ R
Here the curve is everywhere concave downwards (convex upwards).
Example 5.60 :
Determine the domain of convexity of the function y = ex.
Solution : y = ex ; y′′ = ex > 0 for x
Hence the curve is everywhere convex downward.

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Example 5.61 : Test the curve y = x4 y

for points of inflection. y =x4
4 16
Solution : y=x
y′′ = 12x2 = 0 for x = 0 12
and y′′ > 0 for x < 0 and x > 0 8
Therefore the curve is concave
4
upward and y′′ does not change sign
as y(x) passes through x = 0. Thus the 0 x
curve does not admit any point of -2 -1 1 2
inflection. Fig. 5.47
Note : The curve is concave upward in (− ∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
Example 5.62 : Determine where the curve y = x3 − 3x + 1 is cancave upward,
and where it is concave downward. Also find the inflection points.
Solution :
f(x) = x3 − 3x + 1 -∞ x =0 ∞
f ′(x) = 3x − 3 = 3(x − 1)
2 2
Fig. 5.48
Now f ′′(x) = 6x
Thus f ′′(x) > 0 when x > 0 and f ′′(x) < 0 when x < 0.
The test for concavity then tells us that the curve is concave downward on
(− ∞, 0) and concave upward on (0, ∞). Since the curve changes from concave
downward to concave upward when x = 0, the point (0, f(0)) i.e., (0, 1) is a
point of inflection. Note that f ′′(0) = 0
Example 5.63 :
Discuss the curve y = x4 − 4x3 with respect to concavity and points of
inflection.
Solution :
f(x) = x4 − 4x3 ⇒ f ′(x) = 4x3 − 12x2
f ′′(x) = 12x2 − 24x = 12x (x − 2)
Since f ′′(x) = 0 when x = 0
or 2, we divide the real line into -∞ 0 2 ∞
three intervals.
Fig. 5.49
(− ∞, 0), (0, 2), (2, ∞) and complete the following chart.

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Inerval f ′′(x) = 12x (x − 2) concavity

(− ∞, 0) + upward
(0, 2) − downward
(2, ∞) + upward
The point (0, f(0)) i.e., (0, 0) is an inflection point since the curve changes
from concave upward to concave downward there. Also (2, f(2)) i.e., (2, − 16) is
an inflection point since the curve changes from concave downward to concave
upward there.
Note : The intervals of concavity can be obtained by taking and checking a
sample point in the sub-interval.
Example 5.64 : Find the points of inflection and determine the intervals of
2
convexity and concavity of the Gaussion curve y = e−x
2
Solution : y′ = − 2xe−x ; y′′ = 2e−x (2x2 − 1)
2

(The first and second derivatives exist everywhere). Find the values of x
for which y′′ = 0
2
2e−x (2x2 − 1) = 0
-∞ -1/√2 0 1/√2 ∞
1 1
x=− , or x =
2 2
Fig. 5.50
1 1
when x < − we have y′′ > 0 and when x > − we have y′′ < 0
2 2
The second derivative changes sign from positive to negative when passing
1 1
through the point x = − . Hence, for x = − , there is a point of inflection
2 2
 1 − 
1
on the curve; its co-ordinates are − , e 2
 2 
1 1
When x < we have y′′ < 0 and when x > we have y′′ > 0 . Thus
2 2
1
there is also a point of inflection on the curve for x = ; its co-ordinates are
2
1 − 
1
 , e 2. (Incidentally, the existence of the second point of inflection follows
 2 
directly from the symmetry of the curve about the y-axis). Also from the signs
of the second derivatives, it follows that

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1
for − ∞ < x < − the curve is concave upward ;
2
1 1
for − <x< the curve is convex upward ;
2 2
1
for < x < ∞ the curve is concave upward.
2
Example 5.65 :
Determine the points of inflection if any, of the function
y = x3 − 3x + 2
Solution : y = x3 − 3x + 2
dy 2
dx = 3x − 3 = 3(x + 1) (x − 1)
d2y
= 6x = 0 ⇒ x = 0
dx2
d2y
Now (− 0.1) = 6(− 0.1) < 0 and
dx2
d2y
(0.1) = 6(0.1) > 0. In the neighbourhood (− 0.1, 0.1)
dx2
of 0, y′′ (− 0.1) and y′′(0.1) are of opposite signs. Therefore (0, y (0)) i.e.,
(0, 2) is a point of inflection.
Note : Note that x = 0 is not a critical point since y′ (0) = − 3 ≠ 0.
Example 5.66 :
Test for points of inflection of the curve y = sinx, x ∈ (0, 2π)
Solution : y′ = cosx
y′′ = − sinx = 0 ⇒ x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ± 2, ...
since x ∈(0, 2π), x = π corresponding to n = 1.
Now y′′ (.9π) = − sin (.9π) < 0 and
y′′(1.1π) = − sin (1.1 π) > 0 since sin (1.1π) is negative
The second derivative test confirms that (π, f(π)) = (π, 0) is a point of
inflection.

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Note : Note that x = π is not a stationary point since y′(π) = cos π = − 1 ≠ 0.

In fact y = sin x admits countable number of points of inflections in the range
(− ∞, ∞), each of which is given by (nπ, 0), n = 0, ± 1, ±2, … and in none of the
cases, y′(nπ) = (− 1)n vanishes. This shows that points of inflections need not be
stationary points.
EXERCISE 5.11
Find the intervals of concavity and the points of inflection of the following
functions :
(1) f(x) = (x − 1)1/3
(2) f(x) = x2 − x
(3) f(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x
(4) f(x) = x4 − 6x2
(5) f(θ) = sin 2θ in (0, π)
(6) y = 12x2 − 2x3 − x4

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Testing a differentiable function for maximum and minimum with a first

derivative
This gives us the following diagram of possible cases.
Signs of derivative f ′(x) when passing through Character of critical
critical point x0 point
x < x0 x = x0 x > x0
+ f ′ (x0) = 0 or is − Maximum point
discontinuous
− f ′ (x0) = 0 or is + Minimum point
discontinuous
+ f ′(x0) = 0 or is + Neither maximum nor
discontinuous minimum (function
increases). But is a point
of inflection.
− f ′(x0) = 0 or is − Neither maximum nor
discontinuous minimum (function
decreases) But is a point
of inflection.
Second derivative test
This gives us the following diagram of possible cases.
Character of
Signs of derivative f ′′(x) at the critical point of f(x) or f ′(x)
the point
x = x0
f ′(x0) f ′′(x0)
Critical point Maximum
0 −
of f point
Critical point Minimum
0 +
of f point
x < x0 f ′′(x0) x > x0
Point of
+ 0 or ≠ 0 0 −
Inflection
Point of
− 0 or ≠ 0 0 +
inflection
+ 0 or ≠ 0 0 + Unknown
− 0 or ≠ 0 0 − Unknown

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6. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
APPLICATIONS-II

6.1 Differentials : Errors and Approximation

dy
We have used the Liebnitz notation dx to denote the derivative of
y with respect to x but we have regarded it as a single entity and not as a ratio.
In this section we give the quantities dy and dx separate meanings in such a way
that their ratio is equal to the derivative. We also see that these quantities, called
differentials, are useful in finding the approximate values of functions.
Definition 1 : Let y = f(x) be a differentiable function. Then the quantities
dx and dy are called differentials. The differential dx is an independent variable
that is dx can be given any real number as the value. The differential dy is then
defined in terms of dx by the relation
dy = f ′(x) dx (dx ≈ ∆x)
Note :
(1) The differentials dx and dy are both variables, but dx is an independent
variable, where as dy is a dependent variable – it depends on the
values of x and dx. If dx is given a specific value and x is taken to be
some specific number in the domain of f, then the numerical value of
dy is determined.
(2) If dx ≠ 0 we can divide both sides of dy = f ′(x) dx by dx to obtain
dy dy
dx = f ′(x). Thus dx now is the ratio of differentials.
Example 6.1 : If y = x3 + 2x2 (i)find dy
(ii) find the value of dy when x = 2 and dx = 0.1
Solution :
(i) If f(x) = x3 + 2x2, then f ′(x) = 3x2 + 4x, so dy = (3x2 + 4x) dx
(ii) Substituting x = 2 and dx = 0.1, we get dy = (3 × 22 + 4 × 2)0.1 = 2.

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6.1.1 Geometric meaning of differentials :

Let P(x,f(x)) and Q(x + ∆x, f(x +∆x)) be y R

points on the graph of f and set Q

dy
dx = ∆x. The corresponding change in y is ∆y
y =f (x) P S
∆y = f(x + ∆x) − f(x)
dx = ∆x
The slope of the tangent line PR is the
derivate f ′(x). Thus the directed distance 0
x
x x + ∆x
from S to R is f ′(x) dx = dy. Fig. 6.1
Therefore dy represents the amount that the tangent line rises or falls
whereas ∆y represents the amount that the curve y = f(x) rises or falls when x
changes by an amount dx.
dy lim ∆y ∆y dy
Since dx = ∆x → 0 , we have ≈ ….(1) when ∆x is small.
∆x ∆x dx
Geometrially, this says that the slope of the secant line PQ is very close to
the slope of the tangent line at P when ∆x is small. If we take dx = ∆x, then (1)
becomes ∆y ≈ dy ….(2) which says that if ∆x is small, then the actual change
in y is approximately equal to the differential dy. Again this is geometrically
evident in the case illustrated by Fig. 6.1. The actual change in y is referred as
absolute error.
The actual error in y is ∆y ≈ dy.
∆y Actual change in y
The quantity y = Actual value of y is called relative error and the
∆y
quantity  y  × 100 is called percentage error.
 
The approximation given by (2) can be used in computing approximate
values of functions. Suppose that f(a) is a known number and an approximate
value is calculated for f(a + ∆x) where dx is small, since f(a + ∆x) = f(a) + ∆y,
(2) gives, f(a + ∆x) ≈ f(a) + dy….(3)
Example 6.2 : Compute the values of ∆y and dy if y = f(x) = x3 + x2 − 2x + 1
where x changes (i) from 2 to 2.05 and (ii) from 2 to 2.01
Solution :
(i) We have f(2) = 23 + 22 − 2(2) + 1 = 9
f(2.05) = (2.05)3 + (2.05)2 − 2(2.05) + 1 = 9.717625.
and ∆y = f(2.05) − f(2) = 0.717625.
In general dy = f ′(x) dx = (3x2 + 2x − 2)dx
When x = 2, dx = ∆x = 0.05 and dy = [(3(2)2+2(2)−2] 0.05 = 0.7

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(ii) f(2.01) = (2.01)3 − (2.01)2 − 2(2.01) + 1 = 9.140701

∴ ∆y = f(2.01) − f(2) = 0.140701
When dx = ∆x = 0.01, dy = [3(2)2 + 2(2) − 2]0.01 = 0.14
Remark : The approximation ∆y ≈ dy becomes better as ∆x becomes smaller
in Example 6.2. Also dy was easier than to compute ∆y. For more complicated
functions it may be impossible to compute ∆y exactly. In such cases the
approximation by differentials is especially useful.
3
Example 6.3 : Use differentials to find an approximate value for 65.
1 −2
3 3 1 3
Solution : Let y = f(x) = x = x. Then dy = 3 x. dx

Since f(64) = 4. We take x = 64 and dx = ∆x = 1

−2
1 1 1
This gives dy = 3 (64) 3 (1) = 3(16) = 48

3 1
∴ 65 = f(64 + 1) ≈ f(64) + dy = 4 + 48 ≈ 4.021

3
Note : The actual value of 65 is 4.0207257... Thus the approximation by
differentials is accurate to three decimal places even when ∆x = 1.
Example 6.4 : The radius of a sphere was measured and found to be 21 cm with
a possible error in measurement of atmost 0.05 cm. What is the maximum error
in using this value of the radius to compute the volume of the sphere ?
4
Solution : If the radius of the sphere is r, then its volume is V = 3 π r3. If the
error in the measured value of r is denoted by dr = ∆r, then, the corresponding
error in the calculated value of V is ∆V. which can be approximated by the
differential dV = 4πr2 dr.
When r = 21 and dr=0.05, this becomes dV = 4π(21)2 0.05 ≈ 277.
The maximum error in the calculated volume is about 277 cm3.
Note : Although the possible error in the above example may appear to be
rather large, a better picture of the error is given by the relative error, which is
computed by dividing the error by the total volume.
∆V dV 277
V ≈ V ≈ 38,808 ≈ 0.00714

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dr 0.05
Thus a relative error of r = 21 ≈ 0.0024 in the radius produces a
relative error of about 0.007 in the volume. The errors could also be expressed
as percentage errors of 0.24% in the radius and 0.7% in the volume.
Example 6.5 : The time of swing T of a pendulum is given by T = k l where k
is a constant. Determine the percentage error in the time of swing if the length
of the pendulum l changes from 32.1 cm to32.0 cm.
1
Solution : If T = k l = k l2
1 − 
1
Then dl = k 2 × l 2 =
dT k 
  2 l  and dl = 32.0 − 32.1 = −0.1 cm
Error in T = Approximate change in T.
∆T ≈ dT =  dl  dl = 
dT k 
(−0.1)
  2 l 
k
(−0.1)
 ∆T  2 l
Percentage error = T × 100 % = × 100 %
  k l
−0.1 −0.1
=  2l  × 100 % = 2(32.1)  × 100%
   
= − 0.156%
Hence the percentage error in the time of swing is a decrease of 0.156%.
Aliter : T = k l
1
Taking log on both sides, log T = log k + 2 log l
1 1 1
Taking differential on both sides, T dT = 0 + 2 l × dl
∆T 1 1 1
i.e, T ≈ T dT = 0 + 2 l × dl
∆T 1 dl
T × 100 = 2 × l × 100
1 (−0.1)
= 2 × 32.1 × 100
= − 0.156%
ie., the percentage error in the time of swing is a decrease of 0.156.
Caution : Differentiation is carried out with the common understanding that the
function involved admit logarithmic differentiation.

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Example 6.6 : A circular template has a radius of 10 cm (± 0.02). Determine the

possible error in calculating the area of the templates. Find also the percentage
error.
dA
Solution : Area of circular template A = πr2, hence dr = 2πr, Approximate
change in area ∆A ≈ (2πr)dr. When r = 10 cm and dr = 0.02
∆A = (2π 10) (0.02) ≈ 0.4π cm2 i.e, the possible error in calculating the
template area is approximately 1.257 cm2
0.4π 
Percentage error ≈   × 100 = 0.4%
π(10)2 
Example 6.7 : Show that the percentage error in the nth root of a number is
1
approximately n times the percentage error in the number .
1
n
Solution : Let x be the number. Let y = f(x) = (x)
1
Then log y = n log x
1 1 1
Taking differential on both sides, we have y dy = n × x dx
∆y 1 1 1
i.e., y ≈ y dy = n . x dx
∆y
∴ y × 100 ≈ n  x × 100
1 dx
 
1
= n times the percentage error in the number.
Example 6.8 : Find the approximate change in the volume V of a cube of side x
meters caused by increasing the side by 1%
Solution : The volume of the cube of side x is,
V = x3 ; dV = 3x2 dx
When dx = 0.01x, dV = 3x2 × (0.01x) = 0.03 x3 m3.
EXERCISE 6.1
(1) Find the differential of the functions
4
(i) y = x5 (ii) y = x (iii) y = x4 + x2 + 1
x−2
(iv) y = 2x + 3 (v) y = sin 2x (vi) y = x tan x

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(2) Find the differential dy and evaluate dy for the given values of x and dx.
1
(i) y = 1 − x2 , x = 5, dx = 2

(ii) y = x4 − 3x3+ x −1, x = 2, dx = 0.1.

(iii) y = (x2 + 5)3, x = 1, dx = 0.05

(iv) y = 1 − x , x = 0, dx = 0.02
π
(v) y = cos x, x = 6 dx = 0.05

(3) Use differentials to find an approximate value for the given number
1
(i) 36.1 (ii) 10.1

3 4
(iii) y = 1.02 + 1.02 (iv) (1.97)6
(4) The edge of a cube was found to be 30 cm with a possible error in
measurement of 0.1 cm. Use differentials to estimate the maximum
possible error in computing (i) the volume of the cube and (ii) the
surface area of cube.
(5) The radius of a circular disc is given as 24 cm with a maximum error in
measurement of 0.02 cm.
(i) Use differentials to estimate the maximum error in the calculated
area of the disc.
(ii) Compute the relative error ?
6.2 Curve Tracing :
The study of calculus and its applications is best understood when it is
studied through the geometrical representation of the functions involved. In
order to investigate the nature of a function (graph) it is not possible to locate
each and every point of the graph. But we can sketch the graph of the function
and know its nature by certain specific properties and some special points. To
do this we adopt the following strategies.
(1) Domain, Extent, Intercepts and origin :
(i) Domain of a function y = f(x) is determined by the values of x for
which the function is defined.

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(ii) Horizontal (vertical) extent of the curve is determined by the intervals

of x (y) for which the curve exists.
(iii) x = 0 yields the y − intercept and y = 0 yields the x – intercept
(iv) If (0,0) satisfies the given equation then the curve will pass through
the origin.
(2) Symmetry : Find out whether the curve is symmetrical about any line with
the help of the following rules :
The curve is symmetrical about
(i) the x-axis if its equation is unaltered when y is replaced by − y
(ii) the y-axis if its equation is unaltered when x is replaced by − x.
(iii) the origin if it is unaltered when x is replaced by − x and y is replaced
by − y simultaneously.
(iv) the line y = x if its equation is unchanged when x and y are replaced by
y and x.
(v) the line y = − x if its equation is unchanged when x and y are replaced
by − y and − x.
(3) Asymptotes (parallel to the co-ordinate axes only) :
If y → c, c finite [x → k, k finite] whenever x → ± ∞ [y → ± ∞] then the
line y = c [x = k] is an asymptote parallel to x − axis [y – axis].
(4) Monotonicity : Determine the intervals of x for which the curve is
decreasing or increasing using the first derivates test.
(5) Special points (Nature of bending) :
Determine the intervals of concavity and inflection points using the first
and second derivatives test.
Illustrative Example :
Example 6.9 : Trace the curve y = x3 + 1
Solution :
(1) Domain, Extent, intercepts and origin :
The function is defined for all real values of x and hence the domain is the
entire interval (−∞, ∞). Horizontal extent is −∞ < x < ∞ and vertical extent is
− ∞ < y < ∞. Clearly x = 0 yields the y intercept as + 1 and y = 0 yields the
x intercepts as −1. It is obvious that the curve does not pass through (0,0).

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(2) Symmetry Test : The symmetry test shows that the curve does not possess
any of the symmetry properties.
(3) Asymptotes : As x → c (for c finite) y does not tend to ± ∞ and vice versa.
Therefore the curve doest not admit any asymptote.
(4) Monotonicity : The first derivative test shows that the curve is increasing
throughout (−∞,∞) since y′ ≥ 0 for all x.
y
(5) Special points : The curve is
concave downward in (−∞, 0) and 8
concave upward in (0, ∞) since
6 y =x3 +1
y′′ = 6x < 0 for x < 0 4
y′′ = 6x > 0 for x > 0 and 2
-6 -4 -2 0
y′′ = 0 for x = 0 yields (0,1) x
2 4
as the inflection point -2
-4
-6
-8

Fig. 6.2
Example 6.10 : Trace the cure y2 = 2x3.
Solution :
(1) Domain, extent, Intercept and Origin :
When x ≥ 0, y is well defined. As x → ∞, y → ± ∞,
The curve exists in first and fourth quadrant only
The intercepts with the axes are given by :
x = 0, y = 0 and when y = 0, x = 0
Clearly the curve passes through origin.
(2) Symmetry : By symmetry test, we have, the curve is symmetric about
x – axis only.
(3) Asymptotes : As x → + ∞, y → ± ∞, and vice versa.
∴ the curve does not admit asymptotes.
(4) Monotonicity : For the branch y = 2 x3/2 of the curve is increasing since
dy 3/2
dx > 0 for x > 0 and the branch y = − 2x of the curve is decreasing
dy
since dx < 0 for x > 0

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(5) Special points : (0,0) is not a point of inflection.

y
This curve is called a semi – cubical
parabola.
Note :
x
(0, 0) admits a pair of tangents (0,0)
which coincide, resulting in a special
point, called cusp.
Fig. 6.3
Example 6.11 : Discuss the curve y2 ( 1 + x) = x2 (1 − x)
for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution :
(i) Existence : The function is not well defined when x >1 and x ≤ −1 and the
curve lies between −1 < x ≤ 1.
(ii) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about the x − axis only.
(iii) Asymptotes : x = −1 is a vertical asymptote to the curve parallel to
y − axis.
(iv) Loops : (0,0) is a point through which the curve passes twice and hence a
loop is formed between x = 0 and x = 1.
y
x =-1

(0,0)
x
(1,0)
(-1,0)

Fig. 6.4

Example 6.12 : Discuss the curve a2 y2 = x2 (a2 − x2), a > 0

for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution :
(i) Existence :
The curve is well defined for (a2 − x2) ≥ 0 i.e., x2 ≤ a2 i.e., x ≤ a and x ≥ − a

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(ii) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about x-axis, y – axis, and hence
about the origin.
(iii) Asymptotes : It has no asymptote.
(iv) Loops : For −a < x < 0 and 0 < x < a, y2 > 0 ⇒ y is positive and
negative ∴ a loop is formed between x = 0 and x = a and another loop is
formed between x = −a and x = 0.
y

(0,0) x
-a a

Fig. 6.5
Example 6.13 : Discuss the curve y = (x − 1) (x − 2)2.
2
for (i) existence (ii) symmetry (iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
Solution :
(i) Existence :
The curve is not defined for x − 1 < 0, ie., whenever x < 1, the R.H.S. is
negative ⇒ y2 < 0 which is impossible. The curve is defined for x ≥ 1.
(ii) Symmetry : The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
(iii) Asymptote : The curve does not admit asymptotes.
(iv) Loops : Clearly a loop is formed between (1, 0) and (2, 0).
y

x
0 1 2 3

Fig. 6.6
EXERCISE 6.2
(1) Trace the curve y = x3
Discuss the following curves for (i) existence (ii) symmetry
(iii) asymptotes (iv) loops
(2) y2 = x2 (1 − x2) (3) y2 (2 + x) = x2 (6 − x)
(4) y2 = x2 (1 − x) (5) y2 = (x − a) (x − b)2 ; a, b > 0, a > b.

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6.3 Partial Differentiation :

A nation’s economy (E) depends on many factors. An yield (Y) of a crop
also depends on various factors such as rain, soil, manure etc., Similarly the
character (C) of a child is formed by its parent’s characters, environment etc., In
plane geometry, area (A) and volume (V) also depend on the dimensions like
length, breadth and height. In all the above cases either economy or yield or
character or area or volume depends on more than one variable (factor). If any
small change is effected in any of the variables (factors), it becomes necessary
to know what changes will be caused in the respective dependent variable E or
Y or C or A or V. These small changes can take place in all the variables
(independent) simultaneously or in some of them while others are not subjected
to any change. The study of these changes in the dependent variable while a
corresponding change is made in one or more of the independent variables,
keeping the remaining independent variables fixed leads to what is known as
partial differentiation.
For clarity, let us consider the h g
area (A) of a rectangle of length x ∆x
d c f
and breadth y. Then A = xy = f(x,y).
Note that ‘A’ depends on two x A
independent variables x and y. a b e
y
A = xy = area of abcd ∆y
Fig. 6.7
Suppose a small change is made in y ie., y + ∆y instead of y, then the new
area A′ = x(y + ∆y). Note that x is fixed still there is change in the area A.
Similarly, if we interchange roles of x and y in the above we get
new area abgh = A′′ = (x + ∆x)y.
Note that change in both x and y will also cause change in area A. In this
case the area is (x +∆x) (y + ∆y) = area of aeih.
But we shall restrict ourselves to the discussion of the change in one
variable fixing the rest. We may consider functions of two or three independent
variables only.
We can also discuss the continuity problems and the limit process for
functions depending on more than one variable similar to that of their
counterpart in single variable differential calculus.

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Partial Derivatives :
Let (x0,y0) be any point in the domain of definition of f(x,y). Let u = f(x, y)
We define partial derivative of u with respect to x at the point (x0,y0) as the
ordinary derivative of f(x,y0) with respect to x at the point x = x0.
∂u 
= dx f(x,y0)
d
∂x  (x , y )
i.e.,
x=x
0 0 0

lim f(x0 + h, y0) − f(x0,y0)

= h→0 h , (denoted by fx or ux at (x0, y0))

provided the limit exists.

Similarly, partial derivatives of u = f(x,y) with respect to y at the point
(x0,y0) is
∂u 
= dy f(x0,y)
d

∂y  (x , y ) y=y
0 0 0

lim f(x0, y0 + h) − f(x0,y0)

= h→0 h (denoted by fy or uy at (x0, y0))

provided the limit exists.

A function is said to be differentiable at a point (at all points on a domain)
if its partial derivatives exist at that point (at all points of a domain). The
process of finding partial derivatives is called partial differentiation.
Remark :
Throughout we shall consider only continuous functions of two or three
variables possessing continuous first order partial derivatives.
Second Order Partial Derivatives : When we differentiate a function
u = f(x,y) twice we obtain its second order derivatives, defined by,
∂2f ∂  ∂f  ∂2f ∂  ∂f 
2 = ∂x  
∂x 
; 2 = ∂y   and
∂y 
∂x ∂y
∂2f ∂  ∂f  ∂  ∂f  ∂2f
∂x ∂y
=  
∂x ∂y 
=  
∂y ∂x 
=
∂y ∂x
denoted respectively

as fxx or uxx, fyy or uyy and fxy = fyx or uxy = uyx

Note that since the function and its partial derivaties are continuous the
order of differentiation is immaterial (A result due to Euler)

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Chain rule (function of a function rule) of two variables :

If u = f(x,y) is differentiable and u = f (x,y) dependent variable
x and y are differentiable functions of
t, then u is a differentiable function ∂u / ∂x ∂u / ∂y
of t and
x y
du ∂f dx ∂f dy
dt = ∂x dt + ∂y dt dx / dt dy / dt
Tree diagram to remember the
t independent variable
chain rule : (2 variables)
Fig. 6.8
Chain rule (function of a function rule) of three variables :
If u = f(x,y, z) is differentiable u dependent variable
and x, y, z are differentiable functions
of t, then u is a differentiable ∂u / ∂x ∂u / ∂z
function of t and ∂u / ∂y
du ∂f dx ∂f dy ∂f dz x y z
dt = ∂x dt + ∂y dt + ∂z dt
dy / dt

Tree diagram to remember the dx / dt dz / dt

chain rule : (3 – variables)
t independent variable
Fig. 6.9
Chain rule for partial derivatives :
If w = f(u,v), u = g(x,y), ; v = h (x,y) then
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
= + ; = +
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y

w = f (u,v) w = f (u,v)

∂w / ∂u ∂w / ∂v ∂w / ∂u ∂w / ∂v

u v u v

∂u / ∂x ∂v / ∂x ∂u / ∂y ∂v / ∂y

x y
Fig. 6.10

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Homogeneous functions :
A function of several variables is said to be homogeneous of degree n if
multiplying each variables by t (where t > 0) has the same effect as multiplying
the original function by tn. Thus, f(x,y) is homogeneous of degree
n if f(tx, ty) = tn f(x,y)
Euler’s Theorem :
∂f ∂f
If f(x,y) is a homogeneous function of degree n, then x +y = nf
∂x ∂y
Remark : Euler’s theorem can be extended to several variables.
∂u ∂u ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u
Example 6.14 : Determine : , , 2, 2, and
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂y∂x
if u(x,y) = x4 + y3 + 3x2 y2 + 3x2y
∂u ∂u
Solution : = 4x3 + 6xy2 + 6xy ; = 3y2 + 6x2y + 3x2
∂x ∂y
∂2u 2 2 ∂2u
= 12x + 6y + 6y ; = 6y + 6x2
∂x2 ∂y2
∂2u ∂2 u
= 12 xy + 6x ; = 12xy + 6x
∂x ∂y ∂y∂x
∂2u ∂2 u
Note that = due to continuity of u and its first order partial
∂x ∂y ∂y∂x
derivatives.
∂u
Example 6.15 : If u = log (tan x + tan y + tan z), prove that ∑ sin 2x = 2
∂x
∂u sec2x
Solution : = tanx + tany + tanz
∂x
∂u 2 sin x cos x . sec2x 2 tan x
sin 2x = tan x + tan y + tan z = tan x + tan y + tan z
∂x
∂u 2 tan y
similarly, sin 2y = tan x + tan y + tan z
∂y
∂u 2 tan z
sin 2z = tan x + tan y + tan z
∂z
∂u 2 (tan x + tan y + tan z)
L.H.S. = ∑ sin 2x = tan x + tan y + tan z = 2 = R.H.S
∂x

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Example 6.16 :
If U =(x − y) (y − z) (z − x) then show that Ux + Uy + Uz = 0
Solution : Ux = (y − z) {(x − y) (− 1) + (z − x).1}
= (y − z) [(z − x) − (x − y)]
Similarly Uy = (z − x) [(x − y) − (y − z)]
Uz = (x − y) [(y − z) − (z − x)]
Ux + Uy + Uz = (y − z) [(z − x) − (z − x)] + (x − y) [− (y − z) + (y − z)]
+ (z − x) [(x − y) − (x − y)]
=0
x2 dz
Example 6.17 : Suppose that z = ye where x = 2t and y = 1 − t then find dt

dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
Solution : dt = ∂x dt + ∂y dt
∂z x2 ∂z x2 dx dy
= ye 2x ; = e ; dt = 2 ; dt = −1
∂x ∂y
dz x2 x2
dt = y 2x e (2) + e (−1)

x2 x2 4t2 4t2
= 4 xy e − e = e [(8t (1 − t) − 1)] = e (8t − 8t2 −1)
(Since x = 2t and y = 1 − t)
x ∂w ∂w
Example 6.18 : If w = u2 ev where u = y and v = y log x, find and
∂x ∂y
∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v ∂w ∂w ∂u ∂w ∂v
Solution : We know = + ; and = +
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
∂w ∂w
= 2uev ; = u2ev ;
∂u ∂v
∂u 1 ∂u −x
=y ; = 2
∂x ∂y y
∂v y ∂v
=x ; = log x.
∂x ∂y
∂w 2uev y x
∴ = y + u2ev x = xy 2 (2 + y)
∂x y

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∂w −x
∴ = 2uev 2 + u2ev log x
∂y y
x2 x
= 3 xy [ylog x − 2], (since u = y and v = y log x)
y
dw
Example 6.19 : If w = x + 2y + z2 and x = cos t ; y = sin t ; z = t. Find dt

dw ∂w dx ∂w dy ∂w dz
Solution : We know dt = + +
∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
∂w dx
= 1 ; dt = − sin t
∂x
∂w dy
= 2 ; dt = cos t
∂y
∂w dz
= 2 z ; dt = 1
∂z
dw
∴ dt = 1 ( − sin t) + 2 cos t + 2z = − sin t + 2 cos t + 2 t
1
Example 6.20 : Verify Euler’s theorem for f(x,y) =
x + y2
2

1 1
Solution : f(tx, ty) = 2 2 2 2
= t f(x,y) = t−1 f(x, y)
t x +t y
∴ f is a homogenous function of degree −1 and by Euler’s theorem,
∂f ∂f
x +y = −f
∂x ∂y
1 2x −x
Verification : fx = − 2 3 = 3
/2 /2
(x2 +y2) (x2 +y2)
−y
Similarly, fy = 3
/2
(x2 +y2)
x2 + y2 −1
xfx + yfy = − 3 = = − f.
2 2 /2 x2 + y2
+y (x )
Hence Euler’s theorem is verified.

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Example 6.21 : If u is a homogenous function of x and y of degree n, prove that

∂2u ∂2u ∂u
x + y 2 = (n − 1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
Solution : Since U is a homogeneous function in x and y of degree n, Uy is
homogeneous function in x and y of degree n − 1. Applying Euler’s theorem for
Uy we have,
x(Uy)x + y (Uy)y = (n −1) Uy
i.e., xUyx + y Uyy = (n −1) Uy
∂2u ∂2u ∂u
i.e., x + y 2 = (n − 1)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂u ∂u 1
Example 6.22 : Using Euler’s theorem, prove that x + y = tan u if
∂x ∂y 2
x−y 
u = sin−1  
 x + y
Solution: R.H.S. is not homogeneous and hence
x−y 1
define f = sin u = ⇒ f is homogeneous of degree 2 .
x+ y
∂f ∂f 1
∴ By Euler’s theorem, x + y = 2 f
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂ 1
i.e., x . (sin u) + y (sin u) = 2 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1
x . cos u + y . cos u = 2 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1
x + y = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
EXERCISE 6.3
∂2u ∂2u
(1) Verify = for the following functions :
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
x y
(i) u = x2 + 3xy + y2 (ii) u = 2 − 2
y x

(iv) u = tan−1 y  .
x
(iii) u = sin 3x cos 4y
 

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∂u ∂u
(2) (i) If u = x2 + y2 , show that x +y =u
∂x ∂y
x y
y x x y ∂u ∂u
(ii) If u = e sin y + e cos x , show that x +y = 0.
∂x ∂y
dw
(3) Using chain rule find dt for each of the following :

(i) w = e xy where x = t2, y = t3

(ii) w = log (x2 + y2) where x = et, y = e− t
x
(iii) w = where x = cos t, y = sin t.
(x2 + y2)
(iv) w = xy + z where x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t
∂w ∂w
(4) (i) Find and if w = log (x2 + y2) where x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
∂r ∂θ
∂w ∂w
(ii) Find and if w = x2 + y2 where x = u2 − v2, y = 2uv
∂u ∂v
∂w ∂w
(iii) Find and if w = sin−1 xy where x = u + v, y = u − v.
∂u ∂v
(5) Using Euler’s theorem prove the following :
x3 + y3  ∂u ∂u
(i) If u = tan−1   prove that x +y = sin 2u.
 x− y  ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
(ii) u = xy2 sin y , show that x
x
+y = 3u.
  ∂x ∂y
(iii) If u is a homogeneous function of x and y of degree n, prove that
∂2u ∂2u ∂u
x 2 +y = (n − 1)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x

(iv) If V = zeax + by and z is a homogenous function of degree n in x and

∂V ∂V
y prove that x +y = (ax + by + n)V.
∂x ∂y

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7. INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND ITS

APPLICATIONS
7.1. Introduction :
In class XI, we have studied the direct evaluation of definite integrals as
the limit of integral sums. Even when the integrands are very simple, direct
evaluation of definite integrals as the limit of integral sum involves great
difficulties. Sometimes this method involves cumbersome computations. There
is a formula called Second Fundamental Theorem on Calculus that yields a
practical and convenient method for computing definite integrals in case where
the anti-derivative of the integrand is known. This method which was
discovered by Newton and Leibnitz utilises ‘the profound relationship’ that
exists between integration and differentiation. In this chapter we have the
following five sections dealing with the concept and applications of definite
integrals.
(i) To solve simple problems using second fundamental theorem of
calculus.
(ii) Properties of definite integral.
(iii) Reduction formulae
(iv) Area under the curve and volume of solid of revolution about an axis.
(v) Length of the curve and the surface area of a solid of revolution about
an axis.
7.2. Simple definite integrals :
First fundamental theorem of calculus :
x
Theorem 7.1 : If f(x) is a continuous function and F(x) = ⌠
⌡ f(t)dt, then we
a
have the equation F′(x) = f(x).
Second fundamental theorem of calculus :
Theorem 7.2 : If f(x) is a continuous function with domain a ≤ x ≤ b, then
b
⌠
⌡ f(x)dx = F(b) − F(a) where F is any anti-derivative of f.
a
π/2 sin x
Example 7.1 : Evaluate ⌠ dx
⌡ 1 + cos2x
0

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π/2 sin x
Solution: Let I = ⌠ dx
⌡ 1 + cos2x
0
t = cos x
Let t = cos x x 0 π/2
dt = − sin x dx (or) sin x dx = − dt t 1 0
0 − dt π π
= − [tan−1 t] 1 = − 0 − 4  = 4
0
∴I = ⌠
⌡ 1 + t2  
1

1
Example 7.2 : Evaluate ⌠ x ex dx
⌡
0
Solution:
Using the method of integration by parts Here u=x
⌠ ⌡v du
udv = uv − ⌠ du = dx
⌡
dv = ex dx
1 x 1 1
⌠ x e dx = (xex)0 − ⌠ ex dx v = ex
⌡ ⌡
0 0
1
= e− (ex)0
= e − (e − 1)
=1
a
Example 7.3 : Evaluate ⌠ a2 − x2 dx
⌡
0
a
a x a2 x
Solution: ⌠ a2 − x2 dx = 2 a2 − x2 + 2 sin−1 a
⌡   0
0
 a2 a 
= 0 + 2 sin−1 a − (0 + 0)
 
a2 a2 π πa2
= 2 sin−1(1) = 2 2 = 4
 

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π/2
Example 7.4 : Evaluate ⌠ e2x cos x dx
⌡
0
 eax 
Solution: We know ∫eax cos bx dx =  2  (a cos bx + b sin bx)
 a + b 2
π/2  e2x  π/2
∴ ⌠ e2x cos x dx =  2  (2 cos x + sin x) 
⌡ 2 + 12  0
0
eπ e0
= 5 (0 + 1) − 5 (2 + 0)

eπ 2 1
= 5 − 5 = 5 (eπ − 2)
EXERCISE 7.1
Evaluate the following problems using second fundamental theorem :
π/2 π/2 1
(1) ⌠ sin2x dx (2) ⌠ cos3x dx (3) ⌠ 9 − 4x2 dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
π/4 1 dx π/2 sin x dx
(4) ⌠ 2 sin2x sin 2x dx (5) ⌠ (6) ⌠
⌡ ⌡ 4 − x2 ⌡ 9 + cos2x
0 0 0
2 dx 1 (sin−1x)3 π/2
(7) ⌠ 2 (8) ⌠ dx (9) ⌠ sin 2x cos x dx
⌡ x + 5x + 6 ⌡ 1 − x2 ⌡
1 0 0
1 π/2 π/2
(10) ⌠ x2 ex dx (11) ⌠ e3x cos x dx (12) ⌠ e−x sin x dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
7.3 Properties of Definite Integrals :
b b
Property (1) : ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(y) dy
⌡ ⌡
a a
Proof : Let F be any anti-derivative of f
b
∴ ⌠ f(x) dx = [F(b) − F(a)] … (i)
⌡
a

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b
⌠ f(y) dy = [F(b) − F(a)]
⌡
… (ii)
a
b b
From (i) and (ii) ⌠
⌡
f(x) dx = ⌠ f(y) dy
⌡
a a
That is, integration is independent of change of variables provided the
limits of integration remain the same.
b a
Property (2) : ⌠ f(x)dx = − ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡
a b
Proof : Let F be any anti-derivative of f
b
∴ ⌠ f(x) dx = [F(b) − F(a)] … (i)
⌡
a
a
⌠ f(x) dx = [F(a) − F(b)] = − [F(b) − F(a)] … (ii)
⌡
b
b a
From (i) and (ii) ⌠ f(x) dx = − ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡
a b
That is, if the limits of definite integral are interchanged, then the value of
integral changes its sign only.
b b
Property (3) : ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(a + b − x) dx
⌡ ⌡
a a
Proof : Let u = a + b − x u=a+b−x
∴ du = − dx x a b
or dx = − du u b a
b a b b
∴⌠ f(a + b − x)dx = − ⌠ f(u) du = ⌠ f(u) du = ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡
a b a a

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a a
Property (4) : ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(a − x) dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
Proof : Let u = a − x u=a−x
∴ du = − dx x o a
or dx = − du u a o
a o a a
∴⌠ f(a − x)dx = − ⌠ f(u) du = ⌠ f(u) du = ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 a 0 0
Property (5) (Without proof) : If f(x) is integrable on a closed interval
containing the three numbers a, b and c, then
b c b
⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
a a c
regardless of the order of a, b and c.

2a a a
Property (6) : ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(2a − x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
2a a 2a
Proof : Consider ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx … (1)
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 a
u = 2a − x
Put x = 2a − u in the second integral on the R.H.S., x a 2a
and dx = − du u a o
2a o
⌠ f(x)dx = − ⌠ f(2a − u) du
⌡ ⌡
a a
a
= ⌠ f(2a − u) du
⌡
0
a  b b 
= ⌠ f(2a − x) dx ‡ ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(y) dy
⌡  ⌡ ⌡ 
0  a a 

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2a a a
Hence (1) becomes ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(2a − x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
2a a
Property (7) : ⌠ f(x)dx = 2 ⌠ f(x) dx if f(2a − x) = f(x)
⌡ ⌡
0 0
=0 if f(2a − x) = − f(x)
Proof : We know that by property
2a a a
⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(2a − x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
… (1)
0 0 0
If f(2a − x) = f(x) then (1) becomes
2a a a a
⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx = 2 ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0 0
If f(2a − x) = − f(x) then (1) becomes
2a a a
⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx − ⌠ f(x) dx = 0
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
Hence proved.
a a
Property (8) : (i) ⌠ f(x)dx = 2⌠ f(x) dx, if f is an even function.
⌡ ⌡
−a 0
a
(ii) ⌠ f(x) dx = 0 if f is an odd function.
⌡
−a
a 0 a
Proof : Consider ⌠ f(x)dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx … (1)
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−a −a 0
x=−t
Let x = − t in the first integral of the R.H.S. x −a 0
Then dx = − dt t a 0

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a o a
∴ (1) becomes ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(− t) (− dt) + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−a a 0
0 a
= − ⌠ f(− t) dt + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡
a 0
a a
= ⌠ f(− t) dt + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
a a a
∴ ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(− x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx … (2)
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−a 0 0
Case (ii) : If ‘f’ is an even function, then (2) becomes
a a a
⌡ ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡ ⌡
−a 0 0
a
= 2 ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡
0
Case (iii) : If ‘f’ is an odd function then (2) becomes
a a a
⌡ ⌠ f(x) dx =
⌡ ⌠ (− f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡
−a 0 0
a a
= − ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx = 0
⌡ ⌡
0 0
Hence proved.
π/4
Example 7.5 : Evaluate ⌠ x3 sin2x dx.
⌡
− π/4
Solution: Let f(x) = x3 sin2x = x3 (sin x)2
∴ f(− x) = (− x)3 (sin (− x))2
= (− x)3 (− sin x)2
= − x3 sin2x
= − f(x)

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f(− x) = − f(x)
∴ f(x) is an odd function.
π/4 3 2
∴ ⌠ x sin x dx. = 0 (by property)
⌡
− π/4
Example 7.6 :
1 3−x
Evaluate ⌠ log 3 + x dx
⌡  
−1
3−x
Solution: Let f(x) = log 3 + x
 
∴ f(− x) = log   = log (3 + x) − log (3 − x)
3 + x
 3 −x 
= − [log (3 − x) − log (3 + x)]
3−x
= − log 3 + x = − f(x)
  
Thus f(− x) = − f(x) ∴ f(x) is an odd function.
1 3−x
∴ ⌠ log 3 + x dx = 0
⌡  
−1
Example 7.7 :
π/2
Evaluate : ⌠ x sin x dx
⌡
− π/2
Solution: Let f(x) = x sin x
f(− x) = (− x) sin (− x)
= x sin x (‡ sin (− x) = − sin x)
∴ f(x) is an even function.
π/2 π/2
⌠ x sin x dx = 2 ⌠ x sin x dx
⌡ ⌡
− π/2 0
 π/2 π/2 
= 2 {x (− cos x)} − ⌠ (− cos x) dx
 0 ⌡ 
 0 

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Using the method of integration by parts

 π/2  π/2
= 2 0 + ⌠ cos x dx = 2 [sin x]
 ⌡  0
 0 
= 2 [1 − 0] = 2
π/2
Example 7.8 : Evaluate ⌠ sin2x dx
⌡
− π/2
Solution: Let f(x) = sin2x = (sin x)2
f(− x) = (sin (− x))2 = (− sin x)2 = sin2x = f(x)
Hence f(x) is an even function.
π/2 π/2 1 π/2
∴ ⌠ sin2x dx = 2 ⌠ sin2x dx = 2 × 2 ⌠ (1 − cos 2x) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
− π/2 0 0
π/2 π
= x − 2 
sin 2x
=2
  0
π/2 f(sin x)
Example 7.9 : Evaluate ⌠ f(sin x) + f(cos x) dx
⌡
0
π/2 f(sin x)
Solution: Let I = ⌠ f(sin x) + f(cos x) dx … (1)
⌡
0
π
π/2 f sin 2 − x
  
= ⌠ dx
⌡  π   π 
f sin − x + f cos 2 − x
0  2    
π/2 f (cos x)
∴ I = ⌠ f(cos x) + f (sin x) dx … (2)
⌡
0
π/2 f(sin x) + f(cos x) π/2 π
(1) + (2) gives 2 I = ⌠ f(cos x) + f(sin x) dx = ⌠ dx = [x]π/2 =2
⌡ ⌡ 0
o o
π
∴ I=4

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1
Example 7.10 : Evaluate ⌠ x(1 − x)n dx
⌡
0
1
Solution: Let I = ⌠ x(1 − x)n dx
⌡
0
1 n  a a 
= ⌠ (1 − x) [1 − (1 − x)] dx ‡ ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(a − x) dx
⌡  ⌡ ⌡ 
0  0 o 
1 1
= ⌠ (1 − x) xn dx = ⌠ (xn − xn + 1) dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
1
xn + 1 xn + 2 n + 2 − (n + 1)
=  n + 1 − n + 2  = n + 1 − n + 2 = (n + 1) (n + 2)
1 1
   
0
1 1
⌠ x(1 − x)n dx = (n + 1) (n + 2)
⌡
0
π/2
Example 7.11 : Evaluate ⌠ log (tan x)dx
⌡
0
π/2
Solution: Let I = ⌠ log (tan x)dx … (1)
⌡
0
π/2 π
= ⌠ log tan 2 − x dx
⌡   
0
π/2
I = ⌠ log (cot x) dx … (2)
⌡
0
π/2
(1) + (2) gives 2I = ⌠ [log (tan x) + log (cot x)] dx
⌡
0

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π/2 π/2
= ⌠ [log (tan x) . (cot x)] dx = ⌠ (log 1) dx = 0
⌡ ⌡
0 0
∴ I=0 (‡ log 1 = 0)
π/3 dx
Example 7.12 : Evaluate ⌠
⌡ 1 + cot x
π/6
π/3 dx
Solution: Let I = ⌠
⌡ 1 + cot x
π/6
π/3 sin x
I= ⌠ dx … (1)
⌡ sin x + cos x
π/6
π π π
sin 3 + 6 − x dx
3  
=⌠
⌡ π π π π
sin 3 + 6 − x + cos 3 + 6 − x
π    
6
 b b 
‡ ⌠ f(x) dx = ⌠ f(a + b − x) dx
 ⌡ ⌡ 
 a a 
π π
sin 2 − x
3  
=⌠ dx
⌡ π π
sin 2 − x + cos 2 − x
π    
6
π/3 cos x
I= ⌠ dx … (2)
⌡ cos x + sin x
π/6
π/3 sin x + cos x
(1) + (2) gives 2I = ⌠ dx
⌡ cos x + sin x
π/6

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π/3 π/3 π π π
2I = ⌠ dx = [x] =3 − 6 = 6
⌡ π/6
π/6
π
∴ I = 12

EXERCISE 7.2
Evaluate the following problems using properties of integration.
1 π/4 π/2
(1) ⌠ sin x cos4 x dx (2) ⌠ x3 cos3x dx (3) ⌠ sin3x cos x dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−1 −π/4 0
π/2 π/2 π/4
(4) ⌠ cos3x dx (5) ⌠ sin2x cosx dx (6) ⌠ x sin2x dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
− π/2 − π/2 − π/4
1 3 1
(7) ⌠ log x − 1 dx
1 x dx
(8) ⌠ (9) ⌠ x (1 − x)10 dx
⌡   ⌡ x+ 3−x ⌡
0 0 0
π/3 dx
(10) ⌠
⌡ 1 + tan x
π/6
7.4 Reduction formulae :
A formula which expresses (or reduces) the integral of the nth indexed
function interms of that of (n − 1)th indexed (or lower indexed) function is
called a reduction formula.
Reduction formulae for ∫ sinnx dx. ⌠ cosnx dx (n is a positive integer) :
⌡
1 n−1
Result 1 : If In = ∫ sinnx dx then In = − n sinn−1x cos x + n In − 2

1 n−1
Result 2 : If In = ⌠ cosnx dx then In = n cosn−1x sin x + n In − 2
⌡
Result 3 :

π/2 n π/2 n n −n 1 . nn −− 32 . nn −− 54 ... 23 . 1 when n is odd

⌠ sin x dx = ⌠ cos x dx =
⌡ ⌡  n − 1 . n − 3 . n − 5 ... 1 . π
0 0  n n − 2 n − 4 2 2 when n is even

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Note : For the proofs of these above three results, refer Solution Book.
⌠sin5x dx
Example 7.13 : Evaluate : ⌡

Solution : If In = ⌠ n
⌡sin x dx, then we have
1 n−1
In = − n sinn−1x cos x + n In−2 … (I)

⌠sin5x dx = I5
∴⌡
1 4
= − 5 sin4x cos x + 5 I3 (when n=5 in I)

= − 5 sin4x cos x + 5 − 3 sin2x cosx + 3 I1 (when n=3 in I)

1 4 1 2
 
1 4 4 8
⌠ 5 2
⌡sin x dx = − 5 sin x cos x − 15 sin x cosx + 15 I1 … (II)

I1 = ⌠ 1
⌡sin x dx = − cos x + c
1 4 4 8
∴ ⌠ 5 2
⌡sin x dx = − 5 sin x cos x − 15 sin x cos x − 15 cos x + c

Example 7.14 : Evaluate : ⌠ 6

⌡sin x dx

Solution : If In = ⌠ n
⌡sin x dx, then we have
1 n−1
In = − n sinn − 1x cos x + n In − 2 … (I)

∴⌠ 6
⌡sin x dx = I6
1 5
= − 6 sin5x cos x + 6 I4 (when n=6 in I)

= − 6 sin5x cos x + 6 − 4 sin3x cosx + 4 I2

1 5 1 3
  (when n=4 in I)
1 5 5
⌠sin6x dx = − 6 sin5x cos x − 24 sin3x cos x + 8 I2
⌡ (when n=2 in I)

= − 6 sin5x cos x − 24 sin3x cos x + 8 − 2 sin x cosx + 2 I0

1 5 5 1 1
 
1 5 5 5
⌠ 6 5 3
⌡sin x dx = − 6 sin x cos x − 24 sin x cos x − 16 sin x cos x + 16 I0

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I0 = ⌠
⌡sin x dx = ⌠
0
⌡dx = x
1 5 5 5
⌠sin6x dx = − 6 sin5x cos x − 24 sin3x cos x − 16 sin x cos x + 16 x
∴⌡

Example 7.15 : Evaluate :

π/2 π/2 2π x
(i) ⌠ sin7x dx (ii) ⌠ cos8x dx (iii) ⌠ sin9 4 dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
π/6
(iv) ⌠ cos73x dx
⌡
0
Solution : (i)We have
π/2 n n − 1 n − 3 ... 2
⌠ sin x dx = n . 3 when ‘n’ is odd
⌡ n−2
0
π/2 7 6 4 2 16
⌠ sin x dx = 7 . 5 . 3 = 35
⌡
0
π/2 n n − 1 . n − 3 . n − 5 ... 1 . π
(ii) ⌠ cos x dx = n n − 2 n − 4 2 2 when ‘n’ is even
⌡
0
π/2 7 5 3 1 π 35π
∴ ⌠ cos8x dx = 8 . 6 . 4 . 2 . 2 = 256
⌡
0
2π 9 x
(iii) ⌠
⌡
sin 4 dx
0
t=x/4
x x 0 2π
Put 4 = t
∴ dx = 4dt t 0 π/2
2π π/2
sin9 4 dx = 4 ⌠ sin9t dt = 4. 9 . 7 . 5 . 3 . = 315
x 8 6 4 2 512
⌠
⌡ ⌡  
0 0

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π/6 7
(iv) ⌠ cos 3x dx
⌡
0
t = 3x
Put 3x = t x 0 π/6
3dx = dt
dx = 1/3 dt t 0 π/2

π/6 7 π/2 7
cos t dt = 3 7 . 5 . 3 . = 105
1 1 6 4 2 16
⌠
⌡
cos 3x dx = 3 ⌠
⌡  
0 0
π/2
Example 7.16 : Evaluate : ⌠ sin4x cos2x dx
⌡
0
Solution :
π/2 4 2
π/2 4 2
⌡⌠ sin x cos x dx= ⌠ sin x (1 − sin x) dx
⌡
0 0
π/2 π/2 π/2
= ⌠ (sin4x − sin6x) dx = ⌠ sin4x dx− ⌠ sin6x dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
3 1 π 5 3 1 π π
= 4 . 2 . 2 − 6 . 4 . 2 . 2 = 32
Two important results : The following two results are very useful in the
evaluation of certain types of integrals.
(1) If u and v are functions of x, then
∫udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 − u′′′v3 + ... + (− 1)n unvn + ...
where u′, u′′, u′′′ ... are successive derivatives of u and v1, v2, v3 ... are
repeated integrals of v
The above formula is well known as Bernoulli’s formula.
Bernoulli’s formula is advantageously applied when u = xn (n is a positive
integer).
∞ n
(2) If n is a positive integer, then ⌠ xne−ax dx = n+1
⌡ a
0

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Note : The above formula is known as a particular case of Gamma Integral.

Example 7.17 : Evaluate :
1 ∞ ∞
(i) ∫x3e2x dx (ii) ⌠ x e− 4x dx (iii) ⌠ x5e−4x dx (iv) ⌠ e−mxx7 dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0
Solution : dv = e2x dx
(1) ∫x3e2x dx u = x3 v = 1/2 e2x
Using Bernoulli’s formula u′ = 3x2 v1 = 1/4 e2x
∫udv = uv − u′v1 + u′′v2 ...
u′′ = 6x v2 = 1/8 e2x
We get
u′′′ = 6 v3 = 1/16 e2x

x3 e2x dx = (x3) 2 e2x − (3x2) 4 e2x + (6x) 8 e2x − (6) 16 e2x
1 1 1 1
⌠
⌡        

= 2 e2x x3 − 2x2 + 2 − 4

1 3 3x 3
 
1 dv = e−4x dx
(ii) ⌠ x e− 4x dx
⌡ 1
0 u=x v = − 4 e−4x
Using Bernoulli’s formula we get 1
1 u′ = 1 v1 = 16 e−4x
1
dx = (x) − 4 e−4x − (1) 16 e−4x
− 4x 1 1
⌠
⌡
xe
     0
0

= − 4 e−4 − 0 − 16 (e−4 − e0)

1 1
 
1 5
= 16 − 16 e−4

∞ ∞ 5
(iii) ⌠ x5e−4x dx Using Gamma Integral ⌠ x5e−4x dx = 6
⌡ ⌡ 4
0 0
∞ 7
(iv) ⌠ e−mxx7 dx = 8 (Using Gamma Integral)
⌡ m
0

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EXERCISE 7.3
4
(1) Evaluate : (i) ⌠sin x dx (ii) ⌠ cos5x dx
⌡ ⌡
π/2 π/2
(2) Evaluate : (i) ⌠ sin6x dx (ii) ⌠ cos9x dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
π/4 8 π/6 7
(3) Evaluate : (i) ⌠ cos 2x dx (ii) ⌠ sin 3x dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
1 ∞ 6 −x/2
(4) Evaluate : (i) ⌠ x e−2x dx (ii) ⌠ x e dx
⌡ ⌡
0 0
7.5 Area and Volume :
In this section, we apply the definite integral to compute measure of area,
length of arc and surface area. In our treatment it is understood that area,
volume etc. is a number without any unit of measurement attached to it.
7.5.1 Area of bounded regions :
Theorem : Let y = f(x) be a y
continuous function defined on
B
[a, b], which is positive (f(x) lies on A y =f(x)
or above x-axis) on the interval
[a, b]. Then, the area bounded by the
x =b
x =a

curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the

ordinates x = a and x = b is given by
x
b b C D
Area = ⌠ f(x)dx or ⌠ ydx
⌡ ⌡
Fig. 7.1
a a
y
If f(x) ≤ 0 (f(x) lies on or below
x-axis) for all x in a ≤ x ≤ b then area D C
x
is given by
x =a

x =b

b b
Area = ⌠ (− y) dx = ⌠ (− f(x) dx)
⌡ ⌡
a a A y =f(x)
B
(i.e., The area below the x-axis
is negative) Fig. 7.2

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Example 7.18 : Find the area of the region bounded by the line 3x − 2y + 6 = 0,
x = 1, x = 3 and x-axis.
y
Since the line 3x − 2y + 6 = 0 lies above

2)
x+
the x-axis in the interval [1, 3],

2) (
(3/
(i.e., y > 0 for x ∈ (1,3))

y=
the required area
3 3 3
A = ⌠ ydx = 2 ⌠ (x + 2) dx
⌡ ⌡
1 1 x
3 0 1 2 3

3 x 2

= 2  2 + 2x Fig. 7.3
1
= 2 2 (9 − 1) + 2(3 − 1) = 2 [4 + 4]
3 1 3
 
Area = 12 sq. units
Example 7.19:
Find the area of the region bounded by the line 3x − 5y − 15 = 0, x = 1,
x = 4 and x-axis.
y
The line 3x − 5y − 15 = 0 lies
below the x-axis in the interval x = 1 1 4
x
and x = 4
5)
4
x -1
∴Required area = ⌠ (− y) dx 5 )(
3
⌡ (1/
1 y=

Fig. 7.4
4
4 1 3 4 3 x2
= ⌠ − 5 (3x − 15) dx = 5 ⌠ (5 − x) dx =  5x − 
⌡ ⌡ 5  2 1
1 1

= 5 5(4 − 1) − 2 (16 − 1)

3 1
 

= 5 15 − 2  = 2 sq. units.

3 15 9
 
Example 7.20: Find the area of the region bounded y = x2 − 5x + 4, x = 2, x = 3
and the x-axis.

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For all x, 2 ≤ x ≤ 3 the curve lies

y
below the x-axis.
3
Required area = ⌠ (− y) dx
⌡ x
2 0 1 2 3 4
3 -1
= ⌠ − (x2 − 5x + 4) dx
⌡
-2
2
3
x3 x2 
= −  3 − 5 2 + 4x Fig. 7.5
 2
− 13
= − 9 − 2 + 12 − 3 − 2 + 8 = −  6  = 6 sq. units
45 8 20 13
     
Area between a continuous curve and y-axis :
y
Let x = f(y) be a continuous
y =d
function of y on [c, d]. The area D B
bounded by the curve x = f(y) and the
abscissae y = c, y = d to the right of x =f(y)

d
C A
y-axis is given by ⌠ xdy y =c
⌡ x
Fig. 7.6 y
c
y =d
B D
If the curve lies to the left of
y-axis between the lines y = c and x =f(y)
d
y = d, the area is given by ⌠ (− x) dy.
⌡ A
y =c C
x
c
Fig. 7.7
Example 7.21: Find the area of the y
+1

region bounded by y = 2x + 1, y = 3,
2x

y = 5 and y – axis.
y=

Solution : The line y = 2x + 1 lies to

the right of y-axis between the lines y =5
y = 3 and y = 5.
d y =3
∴ The required area A = ⌠ xdy
⌡
c
x
0
Fig. 7.8

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5 y−1 1 5
= ⌠ 2 dy = 2 ⌠ (y − 1)dy
⌡ ⌡
3 3
5
1 y2 
= 2  2 − y = 2  2 − 2 − (5 − 3)
1 25 9
 3   
1
= 2 [8 − 2] = 3 sq. units

Example 7.22: Find the area of the region bounded y = 2x + 4, y = 1 and y = 3

and y-axis.
The curve lies to the left of y-axis

+4
between the lines y = 1 and y = 3
∴ Area is given by

2x
y=
3
A = ⌠ (− x) dy y =3
⌡
1 y =1
3 y−4
= ⌠ −  2  dy x
⌡   3 2 1 0
1 Fig. 7.9
3
1 3 1 y2 1
= 2 ⌠ (4 − y)dy = 2 4y − 2  = 2 [8 − 4] = 2 sq. units.
⌡  1
1
Remark : f (x) f (x)
If the continuous curve f crosses
b
the x-axis, then the integral ⌠ f(x) dx x x
⌡ 1 a c d b
a
gives the algebraic sum of the areas
between the curve and the axis,
Fig. 7.10
counting area above as positive and
below as negative.
b c d b
f(x) dx = ⌠ f(x) dx + ⌠ (− f(x)) dx + ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡⌠ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡
a a c d
↓ ↓ ↓
above axis below axis above axis

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5
Example 7.23: (i) Evaluate the integral ⌠ (x − 3)dx
⌡
1
(ii) Find the area of the region bounded by the line y + 3 = x, x = 1 and x = 5
Solution :
5
5 x2 
=  2 − 15 − 2 − 3 = 12 − 12 = 0 … I
25 1
(i) ⌠ (x − 3) dx =  − 3x
⌡  2  1    
1
(ii) The line y = x − 3 crosses x-axis at x = 3
From the diagram it is clear that A1 y −3
x
lies below x-axis. y
=
3
∴ A1 = ⌠ (− y) dx. A2
⌡ 1 x
1 O 3 5
As A2 lies above the x-axis
A1
5
A2 = ⌠ ydx
⌡ Fig. 7.11
3
5 3 5
∴ Total area = ⌠(x − 3)dx = ⌠ − (x − 3) dx + ⌠ (x − 3) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
1 1 3
= (6 − 4) + (8 − 6)
= 2+2
= 4 sq. units … (II)
Note :
From I and II it is clear that the integral f(x) is not always imply an area.
The fundamental theorem asserts that the anti-derivative method works even
when the function f(x) is not always positive.
Example 7.24:
Find the area bounded by the curve y = sin 2x between the ordinates x = 0,
x = π and x-axis.
Solution :
The points where the curve y = sin 2x meets the x-axis can be obtained by
putting y = 0.
sin 2x = 0 ⇒ 2x = nπ , n ∈ Z

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n  π π 
x = 2 π. i.e., x = 0, ± 2, ± π, ± 3 2… 
 
π
∴ The values of x between x = 0 are x = π are x = 0, 2, π

π
The limits for the first arch are 0 and 2 and the curve lies above x-axis.

π
The limits for the second arch are 2 and π and the curve lies below x-axis.

∴Required area y
π/2 π
A = ⌠ sin 2x dx + ⌠ (− sin 2x)dx π/2 π
⌡ ⌡ x
0 π/2 0
y =sin 2x
π/2
− cos2x cos2x π
= 2 
  0 +  2  π/2 Fig. 7.12
1
= 2 [−cos π + cos 0 + cos 2π − cos π]

1
= 2 [1 + 1 + 1 + 1] = 2 sq. units.

Example 7.25:
Find the area between the curves y = x2 − x − 2, x-axis and the lines
x = − 2 and x = 4
y
Solution : y = x2 − x − 2
= (x + 1) (x − 2)
This curve intersects x-axis at x = − 1 and
x-2

x=2
x =4
x –

Required area = A1 + A2 + A3 A1
y= 2
x =-2

The part A2 lies below x-axis. A3

x
2 -2 2 4
∴ A2 = − ⌠ y dx -2 A2
⌡
−1
Hence required area Fig. 7.13

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−1 2 4
= ⌠ y dx + ⌠ (− y)dx + ⌠ y dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−2 −1 2
−1 2 4
= ⌠ (x2 − x − 2) dx + ⌠ − (x2 − x − 2)dx + ⌠ (x2 − x − 2) dx
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−2 −1 2
11 9 26
= 6 + 2 + 3 = 15 sq. units

General Area Principle :

Let f and g be two continuous
curves, with f lying above g. then the (a, f (a)) (b, f (b))
f
area R between f and g, from
x = a to x = b, is given by

x =b
b x =a
R = ⌠ (f − g)dx
⌡
a g
No restriction on f and g where (a, g (a)) (b, g (b))
they lie. Both may be lie above or
below the x-axis or g lies below and Fig. 7.14
f lies above the x-axis.
Example 7.26: Find the area between the line y=x + 1 and the curve y = x2 − 1.
Solution : To get the points of intersection of the curves we should solve the
equations y = x + 1 and y = x2 − 1.
y
we get, x2 − 1 = x + 1
1
x+

x2 − x − 2 = 0
=
:y

⇒ (x − 2) (x + 1) = 0
ve

∴ x = −1 or x = 2
bo
A

∴ The line intersects the curve at

x = − 1 and x = 2.
b f(x) x
 g(x) 
Required area = ⌠ above − below dx
-1 1 2
⌡ Below : y =x2 - 1
a Fig. 7.15
2
= ⌠ [(x + 1) − (x2 − 1)]dx
⌡
−1

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2
2  x2 x3
= ⌠ [2 + x − x2]dx = 2x + 2 − 3 
⌡  −1
−1
= 4 + 2 − 3 − − 2 + 2 + 3 = 2 sq. units
8 1 1 9
   
Example 7.27:
Find the area bounded by the curve y = x3 and the line y = x.
Solution : The line y = x lies above the curve y = x3 in the first quadrant and
y = x3 lies above the line y = x in the third quadrant. To get the points of
intersection, solve the curves y = x3, y = x ⇒ x3 = x . We get x = {0, ± 1}
0 1
The required area = A1 + A2 = ⌠ [g(x) − f(x)]dx + ⌠ [f(x) − g(x)]dx
⌡ ⌡
−1 0
0 1
= ⌠ (x3 − x)dx + ⌠ (x − x3)dx y
⌡ ⌡

x
−1 0 (1, 1)

y=
0 1
x4 x2 x2 x4 y = x3
= 4 − 2 + 2 − 4 -1
x
 −1  0 y = x3 0 1
x

= 0 − 4−0 − 2+2 − 0−4 − 0

1 1 1 1 (-1, -1)
y=

       
1 1 1 1 1
= − 4 + 2 + 2 − 4 = 2 sq. units.
Fig. 7.16
Example 7.28: Find the area of the region enclosed by y2 = x and y = x − 2
Solution : The points of intersection of the parabola y2 = x and the line
y = x − 2 are (1, − 1) and (4, 2)
To compute the region [shown in y
figure (6.17)] by integrating with x =y2
respect to x, we would have to split (4, 2)
the region into two parts, because the
x
equation of the lower boundary y =x - 2
changes at x = 1. However if we
integrate with respect to y no (1, -1)
splitting is necessary. Fig. 7.17

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2
Required area = ⌠ (f(y) − g(y) dy
⌡
−1
2
2 y2 y3
= ⌠ [(y + 2) − y2]dy =  2 + 2y − 3 
⌡  −1
−1

= 2 − 2 + (4 + 2) − 3 + 3
4 1 8 1
   
3 9 9
= 2 + 6 − 3 = 2 sq. units.

Example 7.29: Find the area of the region common to the circle x2 + y2 = 16
and the parabola y2 = 6x
Solution : The points of intersection y
2 2 2 y =√6x
of x + y = 16 and y = 6x are D C
)
x2
(2,2√3)
(2, 2 3) and (2, − 2 3)
–
16
√(
y=

Required area is OABC

Due to symmetrical property, the B
required area x
O 2
OABC = 2 OBC
i.e., 2{[Area bounded by y2 = 6x,
x = 0, x = 2 and x-axis] + [Area A
2 2
bounded by x + y = 16, x = 2, x = 4
and x-axis]} Fig. 7.18

2 4
= 2⌠ 6x dx + 2⌠ 16 − x2 dx
⌡ ⌡
0 2
x3/22 x 42 x
4
= 2 6  3/2  + 2 2 42 − x2 + 2 sin−1 4
 0  2
8 12 8π
= 3 − 2 12 + 8π − 3
4
= 3 (4π + 3)

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Example 7.30: Compute the area between the curve y = sin x and y = cosx and
the lines x = 0 and x = π
y
Solution : To find the points of
intersection solve the two equations. y=
sin
1 x π
1 π
Sin x = cos x = ⇒x=4 0 x
2 π/4 π/2 3π/2
-1 y=
−1 5π co s
sin x = cos x = ⇒x= 4 x
2
Fig. 7.19
π
From the figure we see that cos x > sin x for 0 ≤ x < 4 and sin x > cos x for
π
4<x<π
π/4 π
∴ Area A = ⌠ (cos x − sin x) dx + ⌠ (sin x − cos x)dx
⌡ ⌡
0 π/4
π/4 π
= (sin x + cos x) 0 + (− cos x − sin x)
π/4
π π π π
= sin 4+ cos 4−(sin 0 + cos0) + (−cosπ − sin π) − − cos 4−sin 4
   

=  +  − (0 + 1) + (1 − 0) − −
1 1 1 1
− = 2 2 sq. units.
 2 2  2 2

x2 y2
Example 7.31: Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
Solution : The curve is symmetric y
about both axes.
∴Area of the ellipse = 4 × Area y =(b/a) √(a2 – x2)
of the ellipse in the I quadrant.
a
I = 4 ⌠ ydx x
⌡ 0 a
0
a b
= 4⌠ a a2 − x2 dx
⌡ Fig. 7.20
0

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a
4b a 4b x a2 x 
= a ⌠ a2 − x2 dx = a 2 a2 − x2 + 2 sin−1 a
⌡    0
0
4b  a2  4b a2 π 
= a 0 + 2 sin−1(1) − 0 = a  2 2
    
= π ab sq. units.
a π/2
By using parametric form i.e., 4 ⌠ y dx = 4 ⌠ b sin θ (− a sin θ) dθ, we
⌡ ⌡
0 0
get the same area.
Example 7.32: Find the area of the curve y2 = (x − 5)2 (x − 6)
(i) between x = 5 and x = 6 (ii) between x = 6 and x = 7
Solution :
(i) y2 = (x − 5)2 (x − 6)
∴y = (x − 5) x − 6
This curve cuts the x-axis at x = 5 and at x = 6
When x takes any value between 5 and 6, y2 is negative.
∴ The curve does not exist in the interval 5 < x < 6.
Hence the area between the curve at x = 5 and x = 6 is zero.
b
6)

(ii) Required area = ⌠ ydx

(x –

⌡
5)√

x =7

a
(x –

7
y=

= 2 ⌠ (x − 5) x − 6 dx x
⌡ 5 6 7
6
(Since the curve is symmetrical
about x-axis)
Fig. 7.21
7 Take t = x − 6
= 2 ⌠ (t + 1) t dt
⌡ dt = dx
6 t = x−6
1 x 6 7
= 2 ⌠ (t3/2 + t1/2)dt
⌡ t 0 1
0

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1
t5/2 t3/2
= 2  5 + 3  = 2 5 + 3 = 2  15  = 15 sq. units
2 2 6 + 10 32
2     
 2 0
Example 7.33: Find the area of the loop of the curve 3ay2 = x(x − a)2
Solution : y
Put y = 0 ; we get x = 0, a
It meets the x-axis at x = 0 and x = a
∴ Here a loop is formed between x
(a,0)
the points (0, 0) and (a, 0) about
x-axis. Since the curve is symmetrical
about x-axis, the area of the loop is
twice the area of the portion above the Fig. 7.22
x-axis.
a
Required area = 2 ⌠ y dx
⌡
0
a x (x − a) 2 a
= −2⌠
⌡ 3a
dx = −
3a ⌠
⌡
[x3/2 − a x]dx
0 0
a
2 2 5/2 2a 3/2 8a2 8 3 a2
=− x − x
3a 5 3 =
0 15 3 = 45

8 3 a2
∴ Required area = 45 sq. units.
Example 7.34:
Find the area bounded by x-axis and an arch of the cycloid
x = a (2t − sin 2t), y = a (1 − cos 2t)
Solution : The curves crosses x-axis when y = 0.
∴ a(1 − cos 2t) = 0
∴ cos 2t = 1 ; 2t = 2nπ, n ∈ z
∴ t = 0, π, 2π, …
∴ One arch of the curve lies between 0 and π

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b
Required area = ⌠ y dx
⌡
a
π y = a(1 − cos2t)
= ⌠ a(1 − cos 2t) 2a (1 − cos 2t) dt x = a (2t − sin 2t)
⌡
0 dx = 2a(1 − cos 2t) dt
π π π
= 2a2 ⌠ (1 − cos 2t)2dt = 2a2 ⌠ (2 sin2t)2dt = 8a2 ⌠ sin4t dt
⌡ ⌡ ⌡
0 0 0

π/2  2a a 
= 2 × 8a2 ⌠ sin4t dt ‡ ⌠ f(x) dx = 2⌠ f(2a − x)dx
⌡  ⌡ ⌡ 
0  0 0 
3 1 π
= 16a2 4 × 2 × 2  = 3πa2 sq. units.
 
7.5.2 Volume of solids of revolution :
Let f be a non-negative and continuous curve on [a, b] and let R be the
region bounded above by the graph of f, below by the x-axis and on the sides by
the lines x = a and x = b [Fig 6.23 (a)]. f(x)

f(x)

a b

Fig. 7.23(a) Fig. 7.23 (b)

When this region is revolved about the x-axis, it generates a solid having
circular cross sections (Fig. 7.23(b)]. Since the cross section at x has radius f(x),
the cross-sectional area is A(x) = π [f(x)]2 = πy2
The volume of the solid is generated by moving the plane circular disc
[Fig.6.23(b)] along x-axis perpendicular to the disc.

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b b
Therefore volume of the solid is V = ⌠ π [f(x)]2dx = ⌠ π y2 dx
⌡ ⌡
a a
y
(ii) If the region bounded by the
graph of x = g(y), the y-axis and on
g(y)
the sides by the lines y = c and y = d
(Fig. 7.24) then the volume of the
solid generated is given by
d d
V = ⌠ π [g(y)]2dx = ⌠ π x2 dy
⌡ ⌡
c c
Fig. 7.24
Example 7.35:
Find the volume of the solid that results when the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 (a > b > 0) is revolved about the minor axis.
a2 b2
Solution :
y
Volume of the solid is obtained by
revolving the right side of the curve b
x2 y2
+ = 1 about the y-axis.
a2 b2 -a a
Limits for y is obtained by putting
x = 0 ⇒ y2 = b2 ⇒ y = ± b -b
a2
From the given curve x2 = 2 (b2 − y2)
b Fig. 7.25
∴ Volume is given by
b
d b a2 2 2 a2  2 y3
2 
V = ⌠ π x dy = ⌠ π 2 (b − y ) dy = 2π 2 b y − 3 
⌡ ⌡ b b  0
c −b
a2  3 b3 4π 2
= 2π b − 3 = 3 a b cubic units
b2  
Example 7.36:
Find the volume of the solid generated when the region enclosed by
y = x, y = 2 and x = 0 is revolved about the y-axis.

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y
Solution : Since the solid is generated by
revolving about the y-axis, rewrite y = x y =√x
as x = y2. y =2
Taking the limits for y, y = 0 and y = 2
(putting x = 0 in x = y2, we get y = 0)
d
Volume is given by V = ⌠ π x2dy x
⌡
c Fig. 7.26
2
2 πy5 32 π
4 
= ⌠ π y dy = 5 
⌡   0 = 5 cubic units.
0
EXERCISE 7.4
(1) Find the area of the region bounded by the line x − y = 1 and
(i) x-axis, x = 2 and x = 4 (ii) x-axis, x = − 2 and x = 0
(2) Find the area of the region bounded by the line x − 2y − 12 = 0 and
(i) y-axis, y = 2 and y = 5 (ii) y-axis, y = − 1 and y = − 3
(3) Find the area of the region bounded by the line y = x − 5 and the x-axis
between the ordinates x = 3 and x = 7.
(4) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = 3x2 − x and the
x-axis between x = − 1 and x = 1.
(5) Find the area of the region bounded by x2 = 36y, y-axis, y = 2 and y = 4.
(6) Find the area included between the parabola y2 = 4ax and its latus rectum.
x2 y2
(7) Find the area of the region bounded by the ellipse 9 + 5 = 1 between the
two latus rectums.
(8) Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y2 = 4x and the line
2x − y = 4.
(9) Find the common area enclosed by the parabolas 4y2 = 9x and 3x2 = 16y
(10) Find the area of the circle whose radius is a
Find the volume of the solid that results when the region enclosed by the given
curves : (11 to 14)
(11) y = 1 + x2, x = 1, x = 2, y = 0 is revolved about the x-axis.
(12) 2ay2 = x(x − a)2 is revolved about x-axis, a > 0.

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(13) y = x3, x = 0, y = 1 is revolved about the y-axis.

x2 y2
(14) 2 + 2 = 1 is revolved about major axis a > b > 0.
a b
(15) Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone with radius ‘r’
and height ‘h’.
(16) The area of the region bounded by the curve xy = 1, x-axis,
x = 1. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the area
mentioned about x-axis.
7.6. Length of the curve :
(i) If the function f(x) and its derivative f ′(x) are continuous on [a, b]
then the arc length L of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is defined
b dy 2
to be L = ⌠ 1 + dx dx
⌡  
a
(ii) Similarly for a curve expressed in the form x = g(y), where g is
continuous on [c, d], the arc length L from y = c to y = d is given by
d dx 2
L= ⌠ 1 + dy dy
⌡  
c
(iii) When the equation of the curve y = f(x) is represented in parametric
form x = φ(t), y = Ψ(t), α ≤ t ≤ β where φ(t) and Ψ(t) are continuous
function with continuous derivatives and φ′(t) does not vanish in the
β
given interval then L = ⌠ (φ′(t))2 + (Ψ′(t))2 dt
⌡
α
7.7 Surface area of a solid :
(i) If the function f(x) and its
derivatives f ′(x) are continuous on f(x)
[a, b], then the surface area of the solid
of revolution obtained by the
revolution about x-axis, the area x
bounded by the curve y = f(x) the two
ordinates x = a, x = b and x-axis is
b dy 2
S.A. = 2π ⌠ y 1 + dx dx
⌡  
a Fig. 7.27

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(ii) Similarly for the curve expressed y

in the form x = g(y) where g′(y) is
continuous on [c, d], the surface area g(y)
of the solid of revolution obtained by
the revolution about y-axis, the area
bounded by the curve x = g(y) the two
abscissa y = c, y = d and y axis is
d dx 2
S.A. = 2π ⌠ y 1 + dy dy
⌡  
c
Fig. 7.28
(iii) When the equation of the curve y = f(x) is represented in parametric
form x = g(t), y = h(t), α ≤ t ≤ β where g(t) and h(t) are continuous
function with continuous derivatives and g′(t) does not vanish in the
t=β
interval, then S.A. = 2π ⌠ y (g′(t))2 + (h′(t)) 2 dt.
⌡
t=α
Example 7.37: Find the length of the curve 4y2 = x3 between x = 0 and x = 1
Solution : y
2 3 4y2 =x3
4y = x
Differentiating with respect to x
dy
8y dx = 3x2 x =1
x
dy 3x2
dx = 8y
dy 2 9x4
1 + dx = 1+
  64y2 Fig. 7.29
4 4
9x 9x 9x
= 1+ 2 = 1+ 3 = 1 + 16
16 × 4y 16x
The curve is symmetrical about x-axis.
The required length
1 dy 2 1 9x 1/2
L = 2⌠ 1 + dx dx = 2⌠ 1 + 16 dx
⌡   ⌡ 
0 0

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1 + 16 1 64  9x 3/21
3/2
9x 

= 2 ×  9 3  = 27 1 + 16 
  0
 16 × 2 0
= 27  64 − 1 = 27
64 125 61
 
x 2/3 y 2/3
Example 7.38: Find the length of the curve a + a = 1
   
Solution : y

x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t is the a

parametric form of the given astroid,
where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
x
dx 2 -a a
dt = − 3a cos t sin t ;
x2/3 + y2/3 =a2/3
dy 2 -a Astroid
dt = 3a sin t cos t
Fig. 7.30
2 2
dx + dy = 9a2 cos4t sin2t + 9a2 sin4t cos2t = 3a sin t cos t
 dt   dt 
Since the curve is symmetrical about both axes, the total length of the
curve is 4 times the length in the first quadrant.
π
But t varies from 0 to 2 in the first quadrant.

π/2 2 2
∴ Length of the entire curve = 4 ⌠ dx + dy dt
⌡  dt   dt 
0
π/2 π/2
= 4 ⌠ 3a sin t cos t dt = 6a ⌠ sin 2t dt
⌡ ⌡
0 0

cos 2tπ/2
= 6a . − = − 3a [cos π − cos 0]
 2 
0
= − 3a [− 1 − 1] = 6a

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Example 7.39: Show that the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving the
arc of the curve y = sin x from x = 0 to x = π about x-axis is
2π [ 2 + log (1 + 2)]
Solution : y = sin x
dy
Differentiating with respect to x dx = cos x.

dy 2
∴ 1 + dx = 1 + cos2x
 
b dy 2
Surface area = ⌠ 2πy 1 + dx dx
⌡  
a
when the area is rotated about the x-axis.
π Put cos x = t t = cos x
S = ⌠ 2π sin x 1 + cos2x dx
⌡ − sin x dx = dt x 0 π
0
t 1 −1
−1 1
= ⌠ 2π 1 + t2 (− dt) = 4π ⌠ 1 + t2 (dt)
⌡ ⌡
1 0
1
= 4π 2 1 + t2)
t 1
 1 + t2 + 2 log (t + 0
= 2π [ 2 + log (1 + 2)] − 0
= 2π [ 2 + log (1 + 2)]
Example 7.40: Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the
cycloid x = a(t + sin t), y = a(1 + cos t) about its base (x-axis).
Solution : y = 0 ⇒ 1 + cos t = 0 cos t = − 1 ⇒ t = − π, π
x = a (t + sin t) ; y = a (1 + cos t)
dx dy
dt = a (1 + cos t) dt = − a sin t
2 2
dx + dy = t
a2 (1 + cos t)2 + a2 sin2t = 2a cos 2
 dt   dt 

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π t
Surface area = ⌠ 2πa (1 + cos t) 2a cos 2 dt
⌡
−π
π t t π t
= ⌠ 2π a . 2 cos2 2 . 2 a cos 2 dt = 16π a2 ⌠ cos3 2 dt
⌡ ⌡
−π 0
π/2
= 16πa2 ⌠ 2cos3 x dx Take 2 = x
t
⌡  
0
2
= 32πa2I3 = 32πa2 × 3
64
= 3 πa2 sq. units.

EXERCISE 7.5
(1) Find the perimeter of the circle with radius a.
(2) Find the length of the curve x = a(t − sin t), y = a(1 − cos t) between t = 0
and π.
(3) Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the arc of the
parabola y2 = 4ax, bounded by its latus rectum about x-axis.
(4) Prove that the curved surface area of a sphere of radius r intercepted
between two parallel planes at a distance a and b from the centre of the
sphere is 2πr (b − a) and hence deduct the surface area of the sphere.
(b > a).

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8. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
8.1. Introduction :
One of the branches of Mathematics conveyed clearly in the principal
language of science called “Differential equations”, plays an important role in
Science, Engineering and Social Sciences. Let us analyse a few of the examples
cited below.
(1) Suppose that there are two living species which depend for their
survival on a common source of food supply. This fact results in a
competition in consuming the available food. The phenomenon, is
commonly noticed in the plant life having common supply of water,
fertilizer and minerals. However, whenever the competition between
two species begins, the growth rate of one is retarded and we can note
that the rate of retardation is naturally proportional to the size of the
other species present at time t. This situation can be expressed as a
Mathematical model whose solution would help us to determine the
time at which one species would become extinct.
(2) Several diseases are caused by spread of an infection. Suppose that the
susceptible population of a town is p. One person gets the infection.
Because of contact another susceptible person is also infected. This
process continues to cover the entire susceptible population. With some
assumptions to simplify the mathematical considerations this situation
can be framed into a mathematical model and a solution can be
determined which would provide informations regarding the spread of
the epidemic in the town.
(3) If a dead body is brought for a medical examination at a particular time,
the exact time of death can be determined by noting the temperature of
the body at various time intervals, formulating it into a mathematical
problem with available initial conditions and then solving it.
(4) The determination of the amount of a radioactive material that
disintegrates over a period of time is yet another mathematical
formulation which yield the required result.
(5) Several examples exist in which two nations have disputes on various
issues. Each nation builds its own arms to defend the nation from
attack. Naturally a spirit of race in building up arms persists between
conflicting nations. A small grievance quite often creates a war-like

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situation and adds to increasing the level of arms. These commonly

experienced facts can be presented in a mathematical language and
hence solved. It is a fact that such a model has been tested for some
realistic situations that had prevailed in the First and Second World War
between conflicting nations.
From the above examples it is found that the mathematical formulation to all
situations turn out to be differential equations. Thus the latent significance of
differential equations in studying physical phenomena becomes apparent. This
branch of Mathematics called ‘Differential Equations’ is like a bridge linking
Mathematics and Science with its applications. Hence it is rightly considered as
the language of Sciences.
Galileo once conjectured that the velocity of a body falling from rest is
proportional to the distance fallen. Later he decided that it is proportional to the
time instead. Each of these statements can be formulated as an equation
involving the rate of change of an unknown function and is therefore an
ds
example of what Mathematicians call a Differential Equation. Thus dt = kt is a
differential equation which gives velocity of a falling body from a distance s
proportional to the time t.
Definition: An equation involving one dependent variable and its derivatives
with respect to one or more independent variables is called a Differential
Equation.
dy
If y = f(x) is a given function, then its derivative dx can be interpreted as the
rate of change of y with respect to x. In any natural process the variables
involved and their rates of change are connected with one another by means of
the basic scientific principles that govern the process. When this expression is
written in mathematical symbols, the result is often a differential equation.
Thus a differential equation is an equation in which differential coefficients
occur. Its importance can further be realised from the fact that every natural
phenomena is governed by differential equations.
Differential equation are of two types.
(i) Ordinary and (ii) Partial.
In this chapter we concentrate only on Ordinary differential equations.
Definition : An ordinary differential equation is a differential equation in
which a single independent variable enters either explicitly or implicitly.

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dy d2y dy
For instance (i) dx = x + 5 (ii) (y′)2 + (y′)3 + 3y = x2 (iii) 2 − 4 dx + 3y = 0
dx
are all ordinary differential equations.
8.2 Order and degree of a differential equation :
Definition : The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest
order derivative occurring in it. The degree of the differential equation is the
degree of the highest order derivative which occurs in it, after the differential
equation has been made free from radicals and fractions as far as the derivatives
are concerned.
The degree of a differential equation does not require variables r, s, t … to
be free from radicals and fractions.
Example 8.1: Find the order and degree of the following differential equations:
3
d3y d2y dy5 dy dx
(i) +  + +y=7 (ii) y = 4 dx + 3x dy
dx3 dx2 dx
3
d2y  dy 2 4
(iii) 2 = 4 + dx  (iv) (1 + y′)2 = y′2
dx   
Solution : (i) The order of the highest derivative in this equation is 3. The
degree of the highest order is 1. ∴ (order, degree) = (3, 1)
y = 4 dx + 3x dy ⇒ y = 4dx + 3x dy
dy dx dy 1
(ii)
   
dx
dy
Making the above equation free from fractions involving dx we get
dy 2
y . dx = 4dx + 3x
dy
 
Highest order = 1
Degree of Highest order = 2
(order, degree) = (1, 2)
3
d2y  dy 2 4
(iii) 2 = 4 + dx 
dx   
To eliminate the radical in the above equation, raising to the power 4 on
4 3
d2y  dy 2
both sides, we get  2 = 4 + dx  . Clearly (order, degree) = (2, 4).
dx     

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(iv) (1 + y′)2 = y′2 ⇒ 1 + y′2 + 2y′ = y′2 from which it follows that
dy
2 dx + 1 = 0 ∴ (order, degree) = (1, 1).

8.3 Formation of differential equations :

Let f (x, y, c1) = 0 be an equation containing x, y and one arbitrary constant
c1. If c1 is eliminated by differentiating f (x, y, c1) = 0 with respect to the
dy
independent variable once, we get a relation involving x, y and dx , which is
evidently a differential equation of the first order. Similarly, if we have an
equation f(x, y, c1, c2) = 0 containing two arbitrary constants c1 and c2, then by
differentiating this twice, we get three equations (including f). If the two
arbitrary constants c1 and c2 are eliminated from these equations, we get a
differential equation of second order.
In general if we have an equation f(x, y, c1, c2, …cn) = 0 containing n
arbitrary constants c1, c2 … cn, then by differentiating n times we get (n + 1)
equations in total. If the n arbitrary constants c1, c2, … cn are eliminated we get
a differential equation of order n.
Note : If there are relations involving these arbitrary constants then the order
of the differential equation may reduce to less than n.
Illustration :
Let us find the differential equation of straight lines y = mx + c where both m
and c are arbitrary constants.
Since m and c are two arbitrary constants differentiating twice we get
dy y
+8

dx = m
-2 x

d2y
y=

=0
dx2
Both the constants m and c are
x
seen to be eliminated. Therefore the
y=
y=

required differential equation is

- 2x
-x

d2 y
+
4

=0
dx2 Fig. 8.1

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Note : In the above illustration we have taken both the constants m and c as
arbitrary. Now the following two cases may arise.
Case (i) : m is arbitrary and c is fixed. Since m is the only arbitrary constant in y
= mx + c ; … (1)
y

Differentiating once we get

+c
dy 1/3)x
… (2) y =(
dx = m
y=
Eliminating m between (1) and (2) C -(1
/3)
we get the required differential x +c
equation x

y=
x dx − y + c = 0
dy
 

-2
x+
Fig. 8.2

c
Case (ii) : c is an arbitrary constant and m is a fixed constant.
y

Since c is the only arbitrary

constant differentiating once we get
dy
dx = m. Clearly c is eliminated from
x
the above equation. Therefore the
required differential equation is
dy
dx = m. Fig. 8.3
Example 8.2: Form the differential equation from the following equations.
(i) y = e2x (A + Bx) (ii) y = ex (A cos 3x + B sin 3x)
2 2
(iii) Ax + By = 1 (iv) y2 = 4a(x − a)
Solution :
(i) y = e2x (A + Bx)
ye−2x = A+ Bx … (1)
Since the above equation contains two arbitrary constants, differentiating
twice, we get y′e−2x − 2y e−2x = B
{y′′e−2x − 2y′ e−2x} − 2{y′e−2x − 2y e−2x} = 0
e−2x {y′′ − 4y′ + 4y} = 0 [‡ e−2x ≠ 0]
y′′ − 4y′ + 4y = 0 is the required differential equation.

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(ii) y = ex (A cos 3x + B sin 3x)

ye−x = A cos 3x + B sin 3x
We have to differentiate twice to eliminate two arbitrary constants
y′e−x − ye−x = − 3A sin 3x + 3 B cos 3x
y′′ e−x − y′e−x − y′e − x + ye−x = − 9 (A cos 3x + B sin 3x)
i.e., e−x (y′′ − 2y′ + y) = − 9ye−x
⇒ y′′ − 2y′ + 10y = 0 (‡ e−x ≠ 0)
(iii) Ax2 + By2 = 1 … (1)
Differentiating, 2Ax + 2Byy′ = 0 i.e., Ax + Byy′ = 0 … (2)
Differentiating again, A + B (yy′′ + y′2) = 0 … (3)
Eliminating A and B between (1), (2) and (3) we get

x 
2
y2 −1
x yy′ 0 =0 ⇒ (yy′′ + y′2) x − yy′ = 0
1 yy′′ + y′2 0 
(iv) y2 = 4a(x − a) … (1)
Differentiating, 2yy′ = 4a … (2)
Eliminating a between (1) and (2) we get

y2 = 2yy′ x − 2 
yy′
 
⇒ (yy′)2 − 2xyy′ + y2 = 0
EXERCISE 8.1
(1) Find the order and degree of the following differential equations.
dy 2
(i) dx + y = x (ii) y′ + y2 = x

d2y dy
(iii) y′′ + 3y′2 + y3 = 0 (iv) +x= y + dx
dx2
3
d2y dy d3y2 2
(v) − y + dx + 3 = 0 (vi) y′′ = (y − y′3)3
dx2  dx 
(vii) y′ + (y′′)2 = (x + y′′)2 (viii) y′ + (y′′)2 = x(x + y′′)2
dy 2
(ix) dx + x = dy + x2
dx
(x) sinx (dx + dy) = cosx (dx − dy)
 

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(2) Form the differential equations by eliminating arbitrary constants given

in brackets against each
(i) y2 = 4ax {a}
(ii) y = ax2 + bx + c {a, b}
(iii) xy = c2 {c}
x2 y2
(iv) + =1 {a, b}
a2 b2
(v) y = Ae2x + Be−5x {A, B}
(vi) y = (A + Bx)e3x {A, B}
(vii) y = e3x {C cos 2x + D sin 2x) {C, D}
(viii) y = emx {m}
(ix) y = Ae2x cos (3x + B) {A, B}
a
(3) Find the differential equation of the family of straight lines y = mx + m
when (i) m is the parameter ; (ii) a is the parameter ; (iii) a, m both are
parameters
(4) Find the differential equation that will represent the family of all circles
having centres on the x-axis and the radius is unity.

8.4 Differential equations of first order and first degree :

In this section we consider a class of differential equations, the order and
degree of each member of the class is equal to one. For example,
x+y
(i) yy′ + x = 0 (ii) y′ + xy = sinx (iii) y′ = (iv) x dy + y dx = 0
x−y
Solutions of first order and first degree equations:
We shall consider only certain special types of equations of the first order
and first degree. viz., (i) Variable separable (ii) Homogeneous (iii) Linear.
8.4.1 Variable separable :
Variables of a differential equation are to be rearranged in the form
f1(x) g2(y) dx + f2(x) g1(y) dy = 0
i.e., the equation can be written as
f2(x)g1(y)dy = − f1(x) g2(y) dx
g1(y) f1(x)
⇒ g (y) dy = − f (x) dx
2 2

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⌠ g1(y) ⌠ f1(x)
The solution is therefore given by  g (y) dy = −  f (x) dx + c
⌡ 2 ⌡ 2
dy
Example 8.3: Solve : dx = 1 + x + y + xy
Solution : The given equation can be written in the form
dy
dx = (1 + x) + y(1 + x)
dy
⇒ dx = (1 + x) (1 + y)
dy
⇒ 1 + y = (1 + x)dx
Integrating, we have
x2
log (1 + y) = x + 2 + c, which is the required solution.
Example 8.4: Solve 3ex tan y dx + (1 + ex) sec2y dy = 0
Solution : The given equation can be written in the form
3ex sec2y
dx + tan y dy = 0
1 + ex
Integrating, we have
3 log (1 + ex) + log tan y = log c
3
⇒ log [tan y (1 + ex) ] = log c
3
⇒ (1 + ex) tan y = c, which is the required solution.
1
Note : The arbitrary constant may be chosen like c, c , log c, ec etc depending
upon the problem.
1
dy 1 − y22
Example 8.5: Solve dx +   =0
1 − x2
Solution : The given equation can be written as
1
dy 1 − y22 dy dx
= −   ⇒ =−
dx 1 − x2 1−y 2
1 − x2
Integrating, we have sin−1y + sin−1x = c
⇒ sin−1 [x 1 − y2 + y 1 − x2] = c
⇒ x 1 − y2 + y 1 − x2 = C is the required solution.

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y
Example 8.6: Solve : ex 1 − y2 dx + x dy = 0
Solution : The given equation can be written as
−y
xexdx = dy
1 − y2
Integrating, we have

⌡ xe dx = − ⌠
y
⌠ x
 1 − y2 dy
⌡
⌠ex dx = 2 ⌠ where t = 1 − y2 so that −2y dy = dt
1 dt
⇒ xex − ⌡
⌡ t
 1

⇒ xe − e = 2 1/2 + c
x x1 t2
 
⇒ xex − ex = t+c
x x 2
⇒ xe − e − 1 − y = c which is the required solution.
dy
Example 8.7: Solve : (x + y)2 dx = a2
Solution : Put x + y = z. Differentiating with respect to x we get
dy dz dy dz
1 + dx = dx i.e., dx = dx − 1

The given equation becomes z2 dx − 1 = a2

dz
 
dz a2 z2
⇒ dx − 1 = 2 or 2 dz = dx
z z + a2
2
⌠ z
Integrating we have,  2 2 dz = ⌠
⌡ dx
⌡z + a
⌠ a2 
2 2 2
⌠z +a −a
 2 2 dz = x + c ⇒  1 − 2 2 dz = x + c
⌡ z +a ⌡ z +a 
1 z
⇒ z − a2 . a tan−1 a = x + c

⇒ x + y − a tan−1  a  = x + c
x+y
(‡ z = x + y)
 
i.e., y − a tan−1  a  = c, which is the required solution.
x+y
 

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4
Example 8.8: Solve : x dy = (y + 4x5 ex )dx
Solution :
4
xdy − y dx = 4x5 ex dx
xdy − ydx 4
2 = 4x3 ex dx
x
xdy − ydx
Integrating we have, ⌠ =⌠
4
 x2 ⌡4x3 ex dx
⌡

⇒ ⌠ d x = ⌡
y
⌠ et dt where t = x4
⌡  
y t
⇒ x = e +c
y 4
i.e., x = ex + c which is the required solution.

Example 8.9: Solve: (x2−y)dx + (y2 − x) dy = 0, if it passes through the origin.

Solution :
(x2 − y)dx + (y2 − x) dy = 0
x2dx + y2dy = xdy + ydx
x2dx + y2 dy = d(xy)
x3 y3
Integrating we have, 3 + 3 = xy + c
Since it passes through the origin, c = 0
x3 y3 3 3
∴ the required solution is 3 + 3 = xy or x + y = 3xy
Example 8.10 : Find the cubic polynomial in x which attains its maximum
value 4 and minimum value 0 at x = − 1 and 1 respectively.
Solution : Let the cubic polynomial be y = f(x). Since it attains a maximum at
x = −1 and a minimum at x = 1.
dy
dx = 0 at x = − 1 and 1
dy 2
dx = k (x + 1) (x − 1) = k(x − 1)
Separating the variables we have dy = k(x2 − 1) dx

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⌠dy = k ⌠
⌡
2
⌡(x − 1) dx

x3 
y = k  3 − x + c … (1)
 
when x = − 1, y = 4 and when x = 1, y = 0
Substituting these in equation (1) we have
2k + 3c = 12 ; − 2k + 3c = 0
On solving we have k = 3 and c = 2. Substituting these values in (1) we get
the required cubic polynomial y = x3 − 3x + 2.
Example 8.11 : The normal lines to a given curve at each point (x, y) on the
curve pass through the point (2, 0). The curve passes through the point (2, 3).
Formulate the differential equation representing the problem and hence find the
equation of the curve.
Solution :
dx
Slope of the normal at any point P(x, y) = − dy

y−0 dx y
Slope of the normal AP = ∴ − dy = ⇒ ydy = (2 − x)dx
x−2 x−2
y2 x2
Integrating both sides, 2 = 2x − 2 + c … (1)
Since the curve passes through (2, 3)
9 4 5 5
2 = 4 − 2 + c ⇒ c = 2 ; put c = 2 in (1),
y2 x2 5 2 2
2 = 2x − 2 + 2 ⇒ y = 4x − x + 5

EXERCISE 8.2
Solve the following :
(1) sec 2x dy − sin5x sec2ydx = 0 (2) cos2xdy + yetanxdx = 0
(3) (x2 − yx2)dy + (y2 + xy2)dx = 0 (4) yx2dx + e−xdy = 0
dy
(5) (x2 + 5x + 7) dy + 9 + 8y − y2 dx = 0 (6) dx = sin(x + y)
dy
(7) (x + y)2 dx = 1 (8) ydx + xdy = e−xy dx if it cuts the y-axis.

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8.4.2 Homogeneous equations :

Definition :
A differential equation of first order and first degree is said to be
dy f1(x, y)
homogeneous if it can be put in the form dx = f x or dx =
dy y
  f2(x, y)
Working rule for solving homogeneous equation :
By definition the given equation can be put in the form
dy y … (1)
dx = f x
To solve (1) put y = νx … (2)
Differentiating (2) with respect to x gives
dy dν
dx = ν + x dx … (3)
Using (2) and (3) in (1) we have
dν dν
ν + x dx = f(ν) or x dx = f(ν) − ν
Seperating the variables x and ν we have
dx dν ⌠ dν
x = f(ν) − ν ⇒ log x + c = ⌡ f(ν) − ν
y
where c is an arbitrary constant. After integration, replace ν by x .
dy y y
Example 8.12: Solve : dx = x + tan x
Solution : Put y = vx
dν
L.H.S. = ν + x dx ; R.H.S. = v + tan v
dν dx cos ν
∴ ν + x dx = ν + tan ν or x = dv
sinν
Integrating, we have logx = log sin ν + log c ⇒ x = c sin ν
i.e., x = c sin x ,
y
 
Example 8.13: Solve : (2 xy − x) dy + ydx = 0
dy −y
Solution : The given equation is dx =
2 xy − x
Put y = vx

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dv −v v
L.H.S. = v + x dx ; R.H.S. = =
2 v−1 1−2 v
dv v
∴ v + x dx =
1−2 v
dv 2v v 1 − 2 v dx
⇒ x dx = ⇒
1 −2 v  v v 
 dv = 2 x

i.e., v−3/2 − 2. v  dv = 2 x
1 dx
 
⇒ − 2v−1/2 − 2 log v = 2 log x + 2 log c
− v−1/2 = log (v x c)
x − x/y x/y
− y = log(cy) ⇒ cy = e or ye =c
Note : This problem can also be done easily by taking x = vy
Example 8.14: Solve : (x3 + 3xy2)dx + (y3 + 3x2y)dy = 0
dy x3 + 3xy2
Solution : = −
dx y3 + 3x2y
Put y = νx
dν x3 + 3xy2 1 + 3ν2
L.H.S. = ν + x dx ; R.H.S. = − 3 2 =− 3 
y + 3x y ν + 3ν
dν 1 + 3ν2
∴ ν + x dx = −  3 
ν + 3ν
dν ν4 + 6ν2 + 1
⇒ x dx = −
ν3 + 3ν
4dx 4ν3 + 12ν
⇒ = − dν
x ν4 + 6ν2 + 1
Integrating, we have
4 log x = − log (ν4 + 6ν2 + 1) + log c
log[x4(ν4 + 6ν2 + 1)] = log c
i.e., x4 (ν4 + 6ν2 + 1) = c or
y4 + 6x2y2 + x4 = c
Note (i) : This problem can also be done by using variable separable method.

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Note (ii) : Sometimes it becomes easier in solving problems of the type

dx f1(x/y)
dy = f2(x/y) . The following example explains this case.
Example 8.15:
Solve : (1 + ex/y)dx + ex/y(1 − x/y) dy = 0 given that y = 1, where x = 0
Solution : The given equation can be written as
dx (x / y − 1)ex/y
dy = … (1)
1 + ex/y
Put x = νy
dν (v − 1)ev
L.H.S. = ν + y dy ; R.H.S. =
1 + ev
dν (ν − 1)eν
∴ ν + y dy =
1 + eν
dν (eν + ν)
or y dy = −
1 + eν
dy (eν + 1)
⇒ = − dν
y eν + ν
Integrating we have, log y = − log (eν + ν) + log c
or y(eν + ν) = c ⇒ yex/y + x = c
Now y = 1 when x = 0 ⇒ 1e0 + 0 = c ⇒ c = 1
∴ yex/y + x = 1
Example 8.16: Solve : xdy − ydx = x2 + y2 dx
Solution : From the given equation we have
dy y + x2 + y2
dx = x … (1)

Put y = νx
dν v + 1 + v2
L.H.S. = ν + x dx ; R.H.S. = 1
dν dx dν
∴ ν + x dx = ν + 1 + ν2 or x =
1 + ν2

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Integrating, we have,log x + logc = log [v + v2 + 1 ]

i.e., xc = ν + ν2 + 1 ⇒ x2c = y + (y2 + x2)

EXERCISE 8.3
Solve the following :
dy y y2 dy y(x − 2y)
(1) dx + x = 2 (2) dx = (3) (x2 + y2) dy = xy dx
x x(x − 3y)
dy
(4) x2 dx = y2 + 2xy given that y = 1, when x = 1.

(5) (x2 + y2) dx + 3xy dy = 0

(6) Find the equation of the curve passing through (1, 0) and which has slope
y
1 + x at (x, y).

8.4.3 Linear Differential Equation :

Definition :
A first order differential equation is said to be linear in y if the power of the
dy
terms dx and y are unity.

dy dy
For example dx + xy = ex is linear in y, since the power of dx is one and
dy
also the power of y is one. If a term occurs in the form y dx or y2, then it is not
linear, as the degree of each term is two.
A differential equation of order one satisfying the above condition can
dy
always be put in the form dx + Py = Q, where P and Q are function of x only.
Similarly a first order linear differential equation in x will be of the form
dx
dy + Px = Q where P and Q are functions of y only.
The solution of the equation which is linear in y is given as

ye∫ Pdx= ∫Qe∫ Pdx dx + c where e∫ Pdx is known as an integrating factor and it is
denoted by I.F.

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Similarly if an equation is linear in x then the solution of such an equation

becomes
x e∫ Pdy = ∫Q e∫ Pdy dy + c (where e∫ Pdy is I.F.)
We frequently use the following properties of logarithmic and exponential
functions :
1
(i) elog A = A (ii) em log A = Am (iii) e− m log A = m
A
dy
Example 8.17 : Solve : dx + y cot x = 2 cos x
dy
Solution : The given equation is of the form dx + Py = Q. This is linear in y.
Here P = cotx and Q = 2 cos x
I.F. = e∫ Pdx= e∫ cot x dx = elog sin x = sin x
∴ The required solution is
y (I.F.) = ⌠
⌡(Q (I.F.)) dx + c ⇒ y(sinx) = ⌠
⌡2 cosx sin x dx + c
⇒ y sin x = ⌠
⌡sin 2x dx + c
cos 2x
⇒ y sin x = − 2 +c
⇒ 2y sin x + cos 2x = c
dy
Example 8.18 : Solve : (1 − x2) dx + 2xy = x (1 − x2)

Solution: The given equation is dx + 

dy 2x  x
2 y = . This is linear in y
 1 − x  (1 − x2)

Here ∫ Pdx = ⌠
2x 2
 1 − x2 dx = − log (1 − x )
⌡
1
I.F. = e∫ Pdx =
1 − x2
The required solution is

=⌠
1 x 1
y. × dx. Put 1 − x2 = t ⇒ −2xdx = dt
1 − x2 
⌡
2
(1 − x ) 1 − x2
y − 1 −3/2
∴ ⌠
2 = 2 ⌡t dt + c
1−x

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y
⇒ = t−1/2 + c
1 − x2
y 1
⇒ 2 = +c
1−x 1 − x2
Example 8.19 : Solve : (1 + y2)dx = (tan−1y − x)dy
dx x tan−1y
Solution : The given equation can be written as dy + = .
1 + y2 1 + y2
This is linear in x. Therefore we have

∫Pdy = ⌠
1 −1
 2 dy = tan y
⌡ 1 + y
−1
I.F. = e∫ Pdy = etan y
The required solution is

−1 tan−1y
put tan−1y = t
tan−1y
xe =⌠
⌡e tan y   dy + c  dy
 1 + y2   ∴ 1 + y2 = dt
−1
⇒ xe tan y = ⌠ t
⌡ e . t dt + c
−1
⇒ xe tan y = tet − et + c
−1 −1
⇒ xe tan y = e tan y (tan−1y − 1) + c
dy
Example 8.20 : Solve : (x + 1) dx − y = ex(x + 1)2
dy y
Solution : The given equation can be written as dx − x + 1 = ex(x + 1)

This is linear in y. Here ∫Pdx = − ⌠ x + 1 dx = − log (x + 1)

1
⌡
1
So I.F. = e ∫ Pdx = e−log(x + 1) = x + 1
∴ The required solution is
1 1
y . x + 1 = ∫ex (x + 1) x + 1 dx + c
= ∫ex dx + c
y
i.e., x + 1 = ex + c

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dy
Example 8.21 : Solve : dx + 2y tanx = sinx

Solution : This is linear in y. Here ∫ Pdx = ⌠

⌡2 tanx dx = 2 log secx
2
I.F. = e ∫ Pdx = elog sec x = sec2x
The required solution is
y sec2x = ∫ sec2x . sinx dx
= ∫ tanx sec x dx
⇒ y sec x = sec x + c or y = cos x + c cos2x
2

EXERCISE 8.4
Solve the following :
dy dy 4x 1
(1) dx + y = x (2) dx + 2 y = 2
x +1 (x + 1)2
dx x tan−1y dy
(3) dy + = (4) (1 + x2) dx + 2xy = cosx
1 + y2 1 + y2
dy y dy
(5) dx + x = sin(x2) (6) dx + xy = x
dy
(7) dx + xdy = e−y sec2y dy (8) (y − x) dx = a2
(9) Show that the equation of the curve whose slope at any point is equal to
y + 2x and which passes through the origin is y = 2(ex − x − 1)

8.5 Second order linear differential equations with constant

coefficients :
A general second order non-homogeneous linear differential equation with
constant coefficients is of the form
a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = X … (1),
where a0, a1, a2 are constants a0 ≠ 0, and X is a function of x. The equation
a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = 0, a0 ≠ 0 … (2)
is known as a homogeneous linear second order differential equation with
constant coefficients,
To solve (1), first we solve (2). To do this we proceed as follows :
Consider the function y = epx, p is a constant.
Now y′ = pepx and y′′ = p2epx

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Note that the derivatives look similar to the function y = epx itself and if
L(y) = a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y then
L(y) = L(epx)
= (a0p2epx + a1pepx + a2 epx)
= (a0p2 + a1p + a2)epx
Hence if L(y) = 0 then it follows that (a0p2 + a1p + a2)epx = 0.
Since epx ≠ 0 we get that a0p2 + a1p +a2 = 0 … (3)
Note that epx satisfies the equation L(y) = a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = 0 then p must
satisfy a0p2 + a1p + a2 = 0. Moreover if the various derivatives of a function
look similar in form to the function itself then epx will be an ideal candidate to
solve a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = 0 . Hereafter we will consider only those set of
differential equations which admits epx as one of the solutions. Hence we have
the following :
Theorem : If λ is a root of a0p2 + a1p +a2 = 0, then eλx is a solution of
a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = 0
8.5.1 Definition : The equation a0p2 + a1p + a2 = 0 is called the characteristic
equation of (2).
In general the characteristic equation has two roots say λ1 and λ2. Then the
following three cases do arise.
Case (i) : λ1 and λ2 are real and distinct.
λ x λ x
In this case, by the above theorem e 1 and e 2 are solutions of (2), and the
λ x λ x
linear combination y = c1 e 1 + c2e 2 is also a solution of (2).
λ x λ x λ x λ x λ x λ x
For L(y) = a0(c1e 1 + c2e 2 )′′+ a1(c1e 1 + c2e 2 )′ + a2(c1e 1 + c2e 2 )
λ x λ x
= c1(a0λ12 + a1λ1 + a2)e 1 + c2(a0λ22 + a1 λ2 + a2)e 2 = c1 . 0 + c2 . 0 = 0.
λ x λ x
and the solution c1e 1 + c2e 2 is known as the complementary function.
Case (ii) : λ1 and λ2 are complex λ1 = a + ib and λ2 = a − ib
In this case as the two roots λ1 and λ2 are complex from theory of equations
λ x
e 1 = e(a + ib)x = eax . eibx= eax (cos bx + i sin bx) and

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λ x
e 2 = eax (cos bx − i sin bx)
Hence the solution
λ x λ x
y = c1e 1 + c2e 2 = eax [(c1 + c2) cos bx + i(c1 − c2) sinbx]
= eax [A cos bx + B sin bx] where A = c1 + c2 and B = (c1 − c2)i
and the complementary function is eax [A cos bx + B sin bx].
Case (iii) :The roots are real and equal λ1 = λ2 (say)
Clearly eλ1x is one of the solutions of (2). By using the double root property,
we will obtain xeλ1x as the other solution of (2). Now the linear combination
c1eλ1x + c2xeλ1x becomes the solution. i.e., y = (c1 + c2x)eλ1x is the solution or
C.F.
The above discussion is summarised as follows :
Given a0y′′ + a1y′ + a2y = 0
Determine its characteristic equation
a0p2 + a1p + a2 = 0 … (3).
Let λ1, λ2 be the two roots of (3), then the solution of (2) is
λ x λ x
Ae 1 + Be 2 if λ1 and λ2 are real and distinct
y= eax (A cos bx + B sin bx) if λ1 = a + ib and λ2 = a − ib
(A + Bx)e 1 if λ1 = λ2 (real)
λ x

A and B are arbitrary constants.

General solution :
The general solution of a linear equation of second order with constant
co-efficient consists of two parts namely the complementary function and the
particular integral.
Working rule :
To obtain the complementary function (C.F.) we solve the equation
d2y dy
a0 2 + a1 dx + a2y = 0 and obtain a solution y = u (say). Then the general
dx
solution is given by y = u + ν where ν is called the particular integral of (1).
The function u, the complementary function is associated with the
homogeneous equation and v, the particular integral is associated with the term
X. If X = 0 then the C.F. becomes the general solution of the equation.

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Note : In this section we use the differential operators

d d2 dy d2y
D ≡ dx and D2 ≡ 2 ; Dy = dx ; D2y =
dx dx2
8.5.2 Method for finding Particular Integral :
(a) Suppose X is of the form eαx, α a constant
D(eαx) = αeαx ; D2 (eαx) = α2 eαx …
Dn(eαx) = αneαx , then f(D) eαx = f(α) eαx … (1)
1
Note that f(D) is the inverse operator to f(D).
1
Operating both sides of (1) by f(D) we have,
1 1
f(D) . f(D) eαx = f(D) f(α)eαx
1 1
⇒ eαx = f(D) f(α)eαx (‡ f(D) . f(D) = I)
1 αx 1
then e = f(D) eαx
f(α)
1 1 αx
Thus the P.I. is given by f(D)eαx= e represented symbolically. …(2)
f(α)
(2) holds when f(α) ≠ 0.
If f(α) = 0 then D = α is a root of the characteristic equation for the
differential equation f(D) = 0 ⇒ D − α is a factor of f(D).
Let f(D) = (D − α) θ(D), where θ(α) ≠ 0 then
1 αx 1 . αx
f(D) e = (D − α) θ(D) e
1 . 1
= eαx
D − α θ(α)
1 1
= eαx … (3)
θ(α) D − α
1
Put eαx = y ⇒ (D − α)y = eαx
(D − α)
⌠eαx. e− ∫ α dx. dx
then ye− ∫ α dx = ⌡

i.e., ye−αx = ⌡
⌠eαx e−αx dx ⇒ y = eαxx

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Substituting in (3) we have

1 αx 1 αx
f(D) e = θ(α) xe
If further, θ(α) = 0, then D = α is a repeated root for f(D) = 0.
1 x2
Then f(D) eαx = 2 eαx

Example 8.22 : Solve : (D2 + 5D + 6)y = 0 or y″ + 5y′ + 6y = 0

Solution : To find the C.F. solve the characteristic equation
p2 + 5p + 6 = 0
⇒ (p + 2) (p + 3) = 0 ⇒ p = − 2 and p = − 3
The C.F. is Ae + Be−3x.
−2x

Hence the general solution is y = Ae−2x + Be−3x where A and B are

arbitrary constants.
Example 8.23 : Solve : (D2 + 6D + 9)y = 0
Solution : The characteristic equation is
p2 + 6p + 9 = 0
i.e., (p + 3)2 = 0 ⇒ p = − 3, − 3
The C.F. is (Ax + B)e− 3x
Hence the general solution is y = (Ax + B)e−3x
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
Example 8.24 : Solve : (D2 + D + 1)y = 0
Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 + p + 1 = 0
−1± −1
1−4 3
∴ p= 2= 2 ±i 2

 3 3 
Hence the general solution is y = e−x/2 A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x
 
where A and B are arbitrary constant.
Example 8.25 : Solve : (D2 − 13D + 12)y = e−2x
Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 − 13p + 12 = 0
⇒ (p − 12) (p − 1) = 0 ⇒ p = 12 and 1
The C.F. is Ae12x + Bex
1
Particular integral P.I. = 2 e−2x
D − 13D + 12

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1 1
= 2 e−2x = 4 + 26 + 12 e−2x
(− 2) − 13 (− 2) + 12
1
= 42 e−2x
1
Hence the general solution is y = CF + PI ⇒ y = Ae12x + Bex + 42 e−2x

Example 8.26 : Solve : (D2 + 6D + 8)y = e−2x

Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 + 6p + 8 = 0
⇒ (p + 4) (p + 2) = 0 ⇒ p = − 4 and − 2
The C.F. is Ae− 4x + Be−2x
1 e−2x 1 e−2x
Particular integral P.I. = 2 = (D + 4) (D + 2)
D + 6D + 8
Since f(D) = (D + 2) θ(D))
1 xe−2x 1 xe−2x
= =2
θ (−2)
1 xe−2x
Hence the general solution is y = Ae− 4x + Be−2x + 2

Example 8.27 : Solve : (D2 − 6D + 9)y = e3x

Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 − 6p + 9 = 0
i.e., (p − 3)2 = 0 ⇒ p = 3, 3
The C.F. is (Ax + B)e3x
1 e3x
Particular integral P.I. = 2
D − 6D + 9
1 e3x x2 e3x
= 2 = 2
(D − 3)
x2 e3x
Hence the general solution is y = (Ax + B)e3x + 2
1
2 −2x
Example 8.28 : Solve : (2D + 5D + 2)y = e
Solution : The characteristic equation is 2p2 + 5p + 2 = 0
−5± 25 − 16 − 5 ± 3
∴ p= 4 = 4

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1
⇒ p = − 2 and − 2
1
−2x
The C.F. is Ae + Be−2x
1
− x 1
− x
1 e 2 1 e 2
Particular integral P.I. = =
2D + 2 (D + 2)
2 1
2D + 5D + 2
 
1
− x 1
1 xe 2 1 x e− 2 x
= =3
θ  − 2 . 2
1
 
1 1
−2x 1 −2x
−2x
Hence the general solution is y = Ae + Be +3xe

Caution : In the above problem we see that while calculating the particular
integral the coefficient of D expressed as factors is made unity.
(b) When X is of the form sin ax or cos ax.
Working rule :
Formula 1: Express f(D) as function of D2, say φ(D2) and then replace
D2 by − a2. If φ(− a2) ≠ 0. Then we use the following result.
1 1 1
P.I. = f(D) cos ax = 2 cos ax = cos ax
φ(D ) φ(− a2)
1 1 1
For example PI = 2 cos 2x = 2 cos 2x = − 3 cos 2x
D +1 −2 +1
Formula 2 : Sometimes we cannot form φ(D2). Then we shall try to get
φ(D, D2), that is, a function of D and D2. In such cases we proceed as follows :
1 cos3x
For example : P.I. = 2
D − 2D + 1
1 cos3x
= 2 Replace D2 by − 32
− 3 − 2D + 1
− 1 cos3x
= 2(D + 4)
− 1 D − 4 cos3x
= 2 Multiply and divide by D − 4
D2 − 42

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−1 1
= 2 (D − 4) cos3x
− 3 − 42
2

1
= 50 (D − 4) cos 3x
1 1
= 50 [D cos 3x − 4 cos 3x] = 50 [− 3 sin 3x − 4 cos 3x]
Formula 3 : If φ(− a2) = 0 then we proceed as shown in the following example:
1 cosax 1 cosax
Example : P.I. = = 2
φ(D2) D + a2
1 cosax
=
(D + ia) (D − ia)
 eiax 
 = R.P.  xeiax
1 1
= R.P. 
(D + ia) (D − ia)  θ(ia) 
xeiax 
= Real part of  2ia  as θ (ia) = 2ia
 
−x
= 2a [Real part of i [cos ax + i sin ax]]
−x x sin ax
= 2a (− sin ax) = 2a
Note : If X = sin ax
1
Formula 1 : sin ax
φ(− a2)
Formula 2 : Same as cos ax method
1  1 eiax  − x
Formula 3 : 2 2 sin ax = I.P.  = cos ax
D +a (D + ia) (D − ia)  2a
Example 8.29 : Solve : (D2 − 4)y = sin 2x
Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ p = ± 2
C.F. = Ae2x + Be−2x ;
1 1 1
P.I. = 2 (sin 2x) = (sin 2x) = − 8 sin 2x
D −4 −4−4
1
Hence the general solution is y = C.F. + P.I. ⇒ y = Ae2x + Be− 2x − 8 sin 2x

Example 8.30 : Solve : (D2 + 4D + 13)y = cos 3x

Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 + 4p + 13 = 0

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−4± 16 − 52 − 4 ± − 36 − 4 ± i6
p= 2 = 2 = 2 = − 2 ± i3

C.F. = e−2x (A cos 3x + B sin 3x)

1
P.I. = 2 (cos 3x)
D + 4D + 13
1 1
= 2 (cos 3x) = 4D + 4 (cos 3x)
− 3 + 4D + 13
(4D − 4) 4D − 4
= (cos 3x) = (cos 3x)
(4D + 4) (4D − 4) 16D2 − 16
4D − 4 1
= (cos 3x) = 40 (3 sin 3x + cos 3x)
−160
The general solution is y = C.F. + P.I.
1
y = e−2x (A cos 3x + B sin 3x) + 40 (3 sin 3x + cos 3x)

Example 8.31 : Solve (D2 + 9)y = sin 3x

Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 + 9 = 0 ⇒ p = ± 3i
C.F. = (A cos 3x + B sin 3x)
1
P.I. = sin 3x
D2 + 9
−x 1 −x
= 6 cos 3x since 2 2 sin ax = 2a cos ax
D +a
Hence the solution is y = C.F. + P.I.
x cos 3x
i.e., y = (A cos 3x + B sin 3x) − 6
(c) When X is of the form x and x2
Working rule : Take the P.I. as c0 + c1x if f(x) = x and c0 + c1x + c2x2 if
f(x) = x2. Since P.I. is also a solution of (aD2 + bD + c)y = f(x), take
y = c0 + c1x or y = c0 + c1x + c2x2 according as f(x) = x or x2. By substituting
y value and comparing the like terms, one can find c0, c1 and c2.

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Example 8.32 : Solve : (D2 − 3D + 2)y = x

Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 − 3p + 2 = 0 ⇒ (p − 1) (p − 2) = 0
p = 1, 2
The C.F. is (Aex + Be2x)
Let P.I. = c0 + c1x
∴ c0 + c1x is also a solution.
∴ (D2 − 3D + 2) (c0 + c1x) = x
i.e., (− 3c1 + 2 c0) + 2c1x = x
1
⇒ 2c1 = 1 ∴ c1 = 2
3
(− 3c1 + 2 c0) = 0 ⇒ c0 = 4
x 3
∴ P.I. = 2 + 4
Hence the general solution is y = C.F. + P.I.
x 3
y = Aex + Be2x + 2 + 4
Example 8.33 :
Solve : (D2 − 4D + 1)y = x2
Solution : The characteristic equation is p2 − 4p + 1 = 0
4± 16 − 4 4 ± 2 3
⇒ p= 2 = 2 =2± 3
(2 + 3)x (2 − 3 )x
C.F. = Ae + Be
Let P.I. = c0 + c1x + c2x2
But P.I. is also a solution.
∴ (D2 − 4D + 1) (c0 + c1x + c2x2 ) = x2
i.e., (2c2 − 4c1 + c0) + (− 8c2 + c1)x + c2x2 = x2
c2 = 1
− 8c2 + c1 = 0 ⇒ c1 = 8
2c2 − 4c1 + c0 = 0 ⇒ c0 = 30
P.I. = x2 + 8x + 30

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Hence the general solution is y = C.F. + P.I.

(2 + 3 )x (2 − 3)x
y = Ae + Be + (x2 + 8x + 30)

EXERCISE 8.5
Solve the following differential equations :
(1) (D2 + 7D + 12)y = e2x (2) (D2 − 4D + 13)y = e−3x
(3) (D2 + 14D + 49)y = e−7x + 4 (4) (D2 − 13D + 12)y = e−2x + 5ex
π
(5) (D2 + 1) y = 0 when x = 0, y = 2 and when x = 2, y = − 2

d2y dy 3x
(6) 2 − 3 dx + 2y = 2e when x = log2, y = 0 and when x = 0, y = 0
dx
(7) (D2 + 3D − 4) y = x2 (8) (D2 − 2D − 3)y = sinx cosx
2
(9) D y = − 9 sin 3x (10) (D2 − 6D + 9) y = x + e2x
(11) (D2 − 1)y = cos2x − 2 sin 2x (12) (D2 + 5)y = cos2x
(13) (D2 + 2D + 3)y = sin 2x (14) (3D2 + 4D + 1)y = 3e−x/3

8.6 Applications :
In this section we solve problems on differential equations which have direct
impact on real life situation. Solving of these types of problems involve
(i) Construction of the mathematical model describing the given situation
(ii) Seeking solution for the model formulated in (i) using the methods
discussed earlier.
Illustration :
Let A be any population at time t. The rate of change of population is
directly proportional to initial population i.e.,
dA dA
dt α A i.e., dt = kA where k is called the constant of proportionality
(1) If k > 0, we say that A grows exponentially with growth constant k
(growth problem).
(2) If k < 0 we say that A decreases exponentially with decreasing
constant k (decay problem).
In all the practical problems we apply the principle that the rate of change
of population is directly proportional to the initial population

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dA dA
i.e., dt α A or dt = kA

(Here k may be positive or negative depends on the problem). This linear

equation can be solved in three ways i.e., (i) variable separable (ii) linear (using
I.F.) (iii) by using characteristic equation with single root k. In all the ways we
get the solution as A = cekt where c is the arbitrary constant and k is the constant
of proportionality. In general we have to find out c as well as k from the given
dA
data. Sometimes the value of k may be given directly as in 8.35. dt is directly
given in 8.38.
dA
Solution : dt = kA
dA
(i) A = kdt ⇒ log A = kt + log c

⇒ A = ekt + log c ⇒ A = cekt

dA
(ii) dt − kA = 0 is linear in A
I.F. = e−kt
Ae−kt = ⌠ −kt −kt
⌡e O dt + c ⇒ Ae = c
A = cekt
(iii) (D − k)A = 0
Chr. equation is p − k = 0 ⇒ p = k
The C.F. is cekt
But there is no P.I.
∴ A = cekt
(iv) In the case of Newton’s law of cooling (i.e., the rate of change of
temperature is proportional to the difference in temperatures) we get the
equation as
dT
dt = k(T − S)
[T− cooling object temperature, S − surrounding temperature]
dT
= kdt ⇒ log (T − S) = kt + log c ⇒ T − S = cekt
T−S
⇒ T = S + cekt

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Example 8.34 : In a certain chemical reaction the rate of conversion of a

substance at time t is proportional to the quantity of the substance still
untransformed at that instant. At the end of one hour, 60 grams remain and at
the end of 4 hours 21 grams. How many grams of the substance was there
initially?
Solution :
Let A be the substance at time t
dA dA
dt α A ⇒ dt = kA ⇒ A = ce
kt

When t = 1, A = 60 ⇒ cek = 60 … (1)

4k
When t = 4, A = 21 ⇒ ce = 21 … (2)
4 4k 4
(1) ⇒ c e = 60 … (3)
4
(3) 3 60
(2) ⇒ c = 21 ⇒ c = 85.15 (by using log)
Initially i.e., when t = 0, A = c = 85.15 gms (app.)
Hence initially there was 85.15 gms (approximately) of the substance.
Example 8.35 : A bank pays interest by continuous compounding, that is by
treating the interest rate as the instantaneous rate of change of principal.
Suppose in an account interest accrues at 8% per year compounded
continuously. Calculate the percentage increase in such an account over one
year. [Take e.08 ≈ 1.0833]
Solution : Let A be the principal at time t
dA dA dA
dt α A ⇒ dt = kA ⇒ dt = 0.08 A, since k = 0.08
⇒ A(t) = ce0.08t
A(1) − A(0)
Percentage increase in 1 year = A(0) × 100

c. e0.08 
= A(0) − 1 × 100 =  c − 1 × 100 = 8.33%
A(1)
   
Hence percentage increase is 8.33%
Example 8.36 :
The temperature T of a cooling object drops at a rate proportional to the
difference T − S, where S is constant temperature of surrounding medium. If
initially T = 150°C, find the temperature of the cooling object at any time t.

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Solution :
Let T be the temperature of the cooling object at any time t
dT dT kt
dt α (T− S) ⇒ dt = k (T − S) ⇒ T − S = ce , where k is negative
⇒ T = S + cekt
When t = 0, T = 150 ⇒ 150 = S + c ⇒ c = 150 − S
∴ The temperature of the cooling object at any time is
T = S + (150 − S)ekt
Note : Since k is negative, as t increases T decreases.
It is a decay problem. Instead of k one may take − k where k > 0. Then the
answer is T = S + (150 − S)e− kt . Again, as t increases T decreases.
Example 8.37 : For a postmortem report, a doctor requires to know
approximately the time of death of the deceased. He records the first
temperature at 10.00 a.m. to be 93.4°F. After 2 hours he finds the temperature
to be 91.4°F. If the room temperature (which is constant) is 72°F, estimate the
time of death. (Assume normal temperature of a human body to be 98.6°F).
log 19.4 = − 0.0426 × 2.303 and log 26.6 = 0.0945 × 2.303
 e 21.4 e 21.4 
Solution :
Let T be the temperature of the body at any time t
dT
By Newton’s law of cooling dt α (T − 72) since S = 72°F
dT kt
dt = k (T − 72) ⇒ T− 72 = ce
or T = 72 + cekt
At t = 0, T = 93.4 ⇒ c = 21.4 [ First recorded time 10 a.m. is t = 0]
∴ T = 72 + 21.4ekt
When t = 120, T = 91.4 ⇒ e120k = 21.4 ⇒ k = 120 loge21.4
19.4 1 19.4
 
1
= 120 (− 0.0426 × 2.303)
Let t1 be the elapsed time after the death.
kt1
When t = t1 ; T = 98.6 ⇒ 98.6 = 72 + 21.4 e

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26.6 − 120 × 0.0945 × 2.303

⇒ t1 = k loge 21.4 =
1
= − 266 min
  0.0426 × 2.303
[For better approximation the hours converted into minutes]
i.e., 4 hours 26 minutes before the first recorded temperature.
The approximate time of death is 10.00 hrs − 4 hours 26 minutes.
∴ Approximate time of death is 5.34 A.M.
dT
Note : Since it is a decay problem, we can even take dt = − k(T − 72) where
k > 0. The final answer will be the same.
Example 8.38 : A drug is excreted in a patients urine. The urine is monitored
continuously using a catheter. A patient is administered 10 mg of drug at time
t = 0, which is excreted at a Rate of − 3t1/2 mg/h.
(i) What is the general equation for the amount of drug in the patient at
time t > 0?
(ii) When will the patient be drug free?
Solution :
(i) Let A be the quantum of drug at any time t
1
The drug is excreted at a rate of − 3t2
1 3
dA
i.e., dt = − 3t2 ⇒ A = − 2t2 + c
When t = 0, A = 10 ⇒ c = 10
3
At any time t A = 10 − 2t2
3
(ii) For drug free, A = 0 ⇒ 5 = t2 ⇒ t3 = 25 ⇒ t = 2.9 hours.
Hence the patient will be drug free in 2.9 hours or 2 hours 54 min.
Example 8.39 :
The number of bacteria in a yeast culture grows at a rate which is
proportional to the number present. If the population of a colony of yeast
bacteria triples in 1 hour. Show that the number of bacteria at the end of five
hours will be 35 times of the population at initial time.
Solution : Let A be the number of bacteria at any time t
dA dA kt
dt α A ⇒ dt = kA ⇒ A = ce

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Initially, i.e., when t = 0, assume that A = A0

∴ A0 = ce° = c
∴ A = A0ekt
when t = 1, A = 3A0 ⇒ 3A0 = A0ek ⇒ ek = 3
When t = 5, A = A0e5k = A0(ek)5 = 35. A0
∴ The number of bacteria at the end of 5 hours will be 35 times of the
number of bacteria at initial time
EXERCISE 8.6
(1) Radium disappears at a rate proportional to the amount present. If 5% of
the original amount disappears in 50 years, how much will remain at the
end of 100 years. [Take A0 as the initial amount].
(2) The sum of Rs. 1000 is compounded continuously, the nominal rate of
interest being four percent per annum. In how many years will the
amount be twice the original principal? (loge2 = 0.6931).
(3) A cup of coffee at temperature 100°C is placed in a room whose
temperature is 15°C and it cools to 60°C in 5 minutes. Find its
temperature after a further interval of 5 minutes.
(4) The rate at which the population of a city increases at any time is
proportional to the population at that time. If there were 1,30,000 people
in the city in 1960 and 1,60,000 in 1990 what population may be
anticipated in 2020. log e 13 = .2070 ; e.42 = 1.52
16
   
(5) A radioactive substance disintegrates at a rate proportional to its mass.
When its mass is 10 mgm, the rate of disintegration is 0.051 mgm per
day. How long will it take for the mass to be reduced from 10 mgm to
5 mgm. [loge2 = 0.6931]

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9. DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Discrete Mathematics deals with several selected topics in Mathematics
that are essential to the study of many Computer Science areas. Since it is very
difficult to cover all the topics, only two topics, namely “Mathematical Logic”,
and “Groups” have been introduced. These topics will be very much helpful to
the students in certain practical applications related to Computer Science.
9.1. Mathematical Logic : Introduction :
Logic deals with all types of reasonings. These reasonings may be legal
arguments or mathematical proofs or conclusions in a scientific theory. Aristotle
(384 – 322 BC) wrote the first treatise on logic. Gottfried Leibnitz framed the
idea of using symbols in logic and this idea was realised in the nineteenth
century by George Boole and Augustus De’Morgan.
Logic is widely used in many branches of sciences and social sciences. It
is the theoretical basis for many areas of Computer Science such as digital logic
circuit design, automata theory and artificial intelligence.
We express our thoughts through words. Since words have many
associations in every day life, there are chances of ambiguities to appear. In
order to avoid this, we use symbols which have been clearly defined. Symbols
are abstract and neutral. Also they are easy to write and manipulate. This is
because the mathematical logic which we shall study is also called symbolic
logic.
9.1.1 Logical statement or Proposition :
A statement or a proposition is a sentence which is either true or false but
not both.
A sentence which is both true and false simultaneously is not a statement,
rather it is a paradox.
Example 1 :
(a) Consider the following sentences :
(i) Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu.
(ii) The earth is a planet.
(iii) Rose is a flower.
Each of these sentences is true and so each of them is a statement.
(b) Consider the following sentences :
(iv) Every triangle is an isosceles triangle.

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(v) Three plus four is eight

(vi) The sun is a planet.
Each of these sentences is false and so each of them is a statement.
Example 2 : Each of the sentences
(vii) Switch on the light.
(viii) Where are you going?
(ix) May God bless you with success.
(x) How beautiful Taj Mahal is!
cannot be assigned true or false and so none of them is a statement. In fact,
(vii) is a command, (viii) is a question (ix) is an optative and (x) is exclamatory.
Truth value of a statement :
The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. If a statement is
true, we say that its truth value is TRUE or T and if it is false, we say that its
truth value is FALSE or F.
All the statements in Example 1(a) have the truth value T, while all the
statements in Example 1 (b) have the truth value F.
Simple statements :
A statement is said to be simple if it cannot be broken into two or more
statements. All the statements in (a) and (b) of Example 1 are simple statements.
Compound statements :
If a statement is the combination of two or more simple statements, then it
is said to be a compound statement.
Example : It is raining and it is cold.
This is a compound statement and it is a combination of two simple
statements “It is raining”, “It is cold”.
Simple statements which on combining form compound statements are
called sub-statements or component statements of the compound statement.
The fundamental property of a compound statement is that its truth value is
completely determined by the truth values of its sub-statements together with
the way in which they are combined to form the compound statement.
Basic logical connectives
The words which combine simple statements to form compound statements
are called connectives. We use the connectives ‘and’, ‘or’, etc., to form new
statements by combining two or more statements. But the use of these
connectives in English language is not always precise and unambiguous. Hence
it is necessary to define a set of connectives with definite meanings in the

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language of logic, called object language. Three basic connectives are

conjunction which corresponds to the English word ‘and’, ‘disjunction’ which
corresponds to the word ‘or’ ‘negation’ which corresponds to the word ‘not’.
We use the symbol “∧” to denote conjunction, “∨” to denote disjunction
and “ ~ ” to denote negation.
Conjunction :
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word ‘and’, then the
resulting compound statement ‘p and q’ is called the conjunction of p and q and
is written in the symbolic form as ‘p ∧ q’.
Example 1 : Form the conjunction of the following simple statements
p : Ram is intelligent.
q : Ravi is handsome.
p ∧ q : Ram intelligent and Ravi is handsome.
Example 2 : Convert the following statement into symbolic form :
‘Usha and Mala are going to school’.
the given statement can be rewritten as :
‘Usha is going to school’, and
‘Mala is going to school’.
Let p : Usha is going to school.
q : Mala is going to school.
The given statement in symbolic form is p ∧ q.
Rule : (A1) The statement p ∧ q has the truth value T whenever both
p and q have the truth value T.
(A2) The statement p ∧ q has the truth value F whenever either
p or q or both have the truth value F.
Example : Write the truth value of each of the following statements :
(i) Ooty is in Tamilnadu and 3 + 4 = 8
(ii) Ooty is in Tamilnadu and 3 + 4 = 7
(iii) Ooty is in Kerala and 3 + 4 = 7
(iv) Ooty is in Kerala and 3 + 4 = 8
In (i) the truth value of the statement 3 + 4 = 8 is F. ∴ By (A2)
(i) has the truth value F.

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In (ii) both the sub-statements have truth value T and hence by (A1). (ii)
has truth value T.
The truth values of (iii) and (iv) are F.
Disjunction :
If two simple statements p and q are connected by the word ‘or’, then the
resulting compound statement ‘p or q’ is called the disjunction of p and q and is
written in symbolic form as p ∨ q.
Example : Form the disjunction of the following simple statements :
p : John is playing cricket.
q : There are thirty students in the class room.
p ∨ q : John is playing cricket or there are thirty students in the class
room.
Example : Convert the following statement into symbolic form.
“5 is a positive integer or a square is a rectangle”.
Let p : 5 is a positive integer.
q : A square is a rectangle.
The given statement in symbolic form is p w q.
Rule : (A3) The statement p ∨ q has the truth value F whenever both p
and q have the truth value F.
(A4) The statement p ∨ q has the truth value T whenever either p
or q or both have the truth value T.
Example :
(i) Chennai is in India or 2 is an integer.
(ii) Chennai is in India or 2 is an irrational number.
(iii) Chennai is in China or 2 is an integer.
(iv) Chennai is in China or 2 is an irrational number.
By (A4), we see that the truth values of (i), (ii) and (iv) are T and by (A3),
the truth value of (iii) is F.
Negation :
The negation of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word
‘not’ at some proper place in the statement or by prefixing the statement with ‘It
is not the case that’ or ‘It is false that’.
If p denotes a statement, then the negation of p is written as ∼p or  p. We
use the symbol ∼p to denote the negation of p.

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Rule : (A5) If the truth value of p is T then the truth value of ∼p is F.

Also, if the truth value of p is F, then the truth value of ∼p
is T.
Example :
p : All men are wise.
∼p : Not all men are wise. (or)
∼p : It is not the case that all men are wise (or)
∼p : It is false that all men are wise.
Note : Negation is called a connective although it does not combine two or
more statements. It only modifies a statement.
EXERCISE 9.1
Find out which of the following sentences are statements and which are not?
Justify your answer.
(1) All natural numbers are integers.
(2) A square has five sides.
(3) The sky is blue.
(4) How are you?
(5) 7 + 2 < 10.
(6) The set of rational numbers is finite.
(7) How beautiful you are!
(8) Wish you all success.
(9) Give me a cup of tea.
(10) 2 is the only even prime.
Write down the truth value (T or F) of the following statements :
(11) All the sides of a rhombus are equal in length.
(12) 1 + 8 is an irrational number.
(13) Milk is white.
(14) The number 30 has four prime factors.
(15) Paris is in France.
(16) Sin x is an even function.
(17) Every square matrix is non-singular.
(18) Jupiter is a planet.
(19) The product of a complex number and its conjugate is purely imaginary.
(20) Isosceles triangles are equilateral.

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(21) Form the conjunction and the disjunction of

(i) p : Anand reads newspaper, q : Anand plays cricket.
(ii) p : I like tea. q : I like ice-cream.
(22) Let p be “Kamala is going to school” and q be “There are twenty students
in the class “. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the
following statements :
(i) p ∨ q (ii) p ∧ q (iii) ∼ p (iv) ∼ q (v) ∼p ∨ q
(23) Translate each of the following compound statements into symbolic
form :
(i) Rose is red and parrot is a bird.
(ii) Suresh reads ‘Indian Express’ or ‘The Hindu’.
(iii) It is false that the mangoes are sweet.
(iv) 3 + 2 = 5 and Ganges is a river.
(v) It is false that sky is not blue.
(24) If p stands for the statement “Sita likes reading” and q for the statement
“Sita likes playing’ what does ∼p ∧ ∼ q stand for?
(25) Write negation of the each of the following statements :
(i) 5 is an irrational number.
(ii) Mani is sincere and hardworking.
(iii) This picture is good or beautiful.
9.1.2 Truth tables :
A table that shows the relation between the truth values of a compound
statement and the truth values of its sub-statements is called the truth table. A
truth table consists of rows and columns. The initial columns are filled with the
possible truth values of the sub-statements and the last column is filled with the
truth values of the compound statement on the basis of the truth values of the
sub-statements written in the initial columns. If the compound statement is
made up of n sub-statements, then its truth table will contain 2n rows.
Example 9.1 : Construct the truth table for ∼p
Solution: The statement ∼p consists of only one simple statement p. Therefore,
its truth table will contain 21(= 2) rows.
Also we know that if p has the truth value T then ∼p has the truth value F
and if p has the truth value F, then ∼p has the truth value T. Thus the truth table
for ∼p is as given below :
Truth table for ∼ p
p ∼p
T F
F T

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Example 9.2 : Construct the truth table for p ∨ (∼p).

Solution: The compound statement p∨ (∼p) consists of only one single
statement p. Therefore its truth table will contain 21(= 2) rows.
In the first column, enter all possible truth values of p.
In the second column, enter the truth values of ∼p based on the
corresponding truth values of p. Finally, in the last column, enter the truth
values of p ∨ (∼p), using (A4).
Truth table for p∨(∼p)
p ∼p p∨(∼p)
T F T
F T T
Example 9.3 : Construct the truth table for p ∧ q.
Solution: The compound statement p ∧ q consists of two simple statements p
and q. Therefore, there must be 22(= 4) rows in the truth table of p ∧ q. Now
enter all possible truth values of statements p and q namely TT, TF, FT and FF
in the first two columns of the truth table.
Using (A1) and (A2), enter the truth values of p ∧ q in the final column
based on the corresponding truth values of p and q in the first two columns.
Truth table for p ∧ q
p q p∧q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Note : Similarly, by using (A3) and (A4) we can construct the truth table for
p ∨ q, as given below :
Truth table for p ∨ q
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

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Example 9.4 : Construct the truth table for the following statements :
(i) ((∼p) ∨ (∼ q)) (ii) ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ q)
(iii) (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ q) (iv) ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
Solution:
(i) Truth table for ((∼p) ∨ (∼ q))
p q ∼p ∼q ((∼p) ∨ (∼ q))
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T
(ii) Truth table for ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ q)
p q ∼p (∼ p) ∧ q ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ q)
T T F F T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
(iii) Truth table for (p ∨ q) ∧ (∼ q)
p q p∨q ∼q (p ∨ q) ∧ (− q)
T T T F F
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F F T F
(iv) Truth table for ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
p q ∼p ∼q (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q) ∼ ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F
Example 9.5 : Construct the truth table for (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ r)
Solution: The compound statement (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ r) consists of three simple
statements p, q and r. Therefore, there must be 23(= 8) rows in the truth table of
(p ∧ q) ∨ (∼r). The truth value of p remains at the same value of T or F for each
of four consecutive assignments of logical values. The truth value of q remains
at T or F for two assignments and that of r remains at T or F for one
assignment.

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p q r p∧q ∼r (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼r)
T T T T F T
T T F T T T
T F T F F F
T F F F T T
F T T F F F
F T F F T T
F F T F F F
F F F F T T
Example 9.6 : Construct the truth table for (p ∨ q) ∧ r
Solution:
p q r p∨q (p ∨ q) ∧ r
T T T T T
T T F T F
T F T T T
T F F T F
F T T T T
F T F T F
F F T F F
F F F F F

EXERCISE 9.2
Construct the truth tables for the following statements :
(1) p ∨ (∼ q) (2) (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)
(3) ∼ (p ∨ q) (4) (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p)
(5) (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ q) (6) ∼ (p ∨ (∼ q))
(7) (p ∧ q) ∨ [∼ (p ∧ q)] (8) (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ q)
(9) (p ∨ q) ∨ r (10) (p ∧ q) ∨ r
Logical Equivalence :
Two compound statements A and B are said to be logically equivalent or
simply equivalent, if they have identical last columns in their truth tables.
In this case we write A ≡ B.
Example 9.7 : Show that ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)

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Solution:
Truth table for ∼ (p ∨ q)
p q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T
Truth table for ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
p q ∼p ∼q ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
T T F F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T
The last columns are identical. ∴ ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ((∼ p) ∧ (∼ q))
Negation of a negation :
Negation of a negation of a statement is the statement itself. Equivalently
we write ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p
p ∼p ∼ (∼ p)
T F T
F T F
In the truth table, the columns corresponding to p and ∼ (∼ p) are identical.
Hence p and ∼ (∼ p) are logically equivalent.
Example 9.8 : Verify ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p for the statement p : the sky is blue.
Solution:
p : The sky is blue
∼p : The sky is not blue
∼ (∼ p) : It is not the case that the sky is not blue or
It is false that the sky is not blue or
The sky is blue
Conditional and bi-conditional statements :
In Mathematics, we frequently come across statements of the form “If p
then q”. Such statements are called conditional statements or implications. They
are denoted by p → q, read as ‘p implies q’. The conditional p → q is false only
if p is true and q is false. Accordingly, if p is false then p → q is true regardless
of the truth value of q.

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Truth table for p → q

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
If p and q are two statements, then the compound statement p → q and
q → p is called a bi-conditional statement and is denoted by p ↔ q, read as p if
and only if q. p ↔ q has the truth value T whenever p and q have the same truth
values; otherwise it is F.
Truth table for p ↔ q
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
9.1.3 Tautologies :
A statement is said to be a tautology if the last column of its truth table
contains only T, i.e., it is true for all logical possibilities.
A statement is said to be a contradiction if the last column of its truth table
contains only F, i.e., it is false for all logical possibilities.
Example 9.9 : (i) p ∨ (∼ p) is a tautology. (ii) p ∧ (∼ p) is a contradiction
Solution:
(i) Truth table for p ∨ (∼ p)
p ∼p p ∨ (∼ p)
T F T
F T T
The last column contains only T. ∴ p ∨ (∼p) is a tautology.
(ii) Truth table for p ∧ (∼ p)
p ∼p p ∧ (∼ p)
T F F
F T F
The last column contains only F. ∴ p ∧ (∼p) is a contradiction.

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Example 9.10 : (i) Show that ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q)) ∨ p is a tautology.

(ii) Show that ((∼ q) ∧ p) ∧ q is a contradiction.
Solution:
(i) Truth table for ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q)) ∨ p
p q ∼ p ∼ q (∼ p) ∨ (∼ q) ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q))∨ p
T T F F F T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
The last column contains only T. ∴ ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q)) ∨ p is a tautology.
(ii) Truth table for ((∼ q) ∧ p) ∧ q
p q ∼q (∼ q) ∧ p ((∼ q) ∧ p) ∧ q
T T F F F
T F T T F
F T F F F
F F T F F
The last column contains only F. ∴ ((∼ q) ∧ p) ∧ q is a contradiction.
Example 9.11 : Use the truth table to determine whether the statement
((∼ p) ∨ q) ∨ (p ∧ (∼ q)) is a tautology.
Solution:
Truth table for ((∼ p) ∨ q) ∨ (p ∧ (∼ q))
p q ∼ p ∼ q (∼ p) ∨ q p ∧ (∼ q) ((∼ p) ∨ q) ∨ (p ∧ (∼ q)
T T F F T F T
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T F T
The last column contains only T. ∴ The given statement is a tautology.
EXERCISE 9.3
(1) Use the truth table to establish which of the following statements are
tautologies and which are contradictions.
(i) ((∼ p) ∧ q) ∧ p (ii) (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ (p ∨ q))
(iii) (p ∧ (∼ q)) ∨ ((∼ p) ∨ q) (iv) q ∨ (p ∨ (∼ q))
(v) (p ∧ (∼ p)) ∧ ((∼ q) ∧ p)

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(2) Show that p → q ≡ (∼ p) ∨ q

(3) Show that p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
(4) Show that p ↔ q ≡ ((∼ p) ∨ q) ∧ ((∼ q) ∨ p)
(5) Show that ∼(p ∧ q) ≡ ((∼ p) ∨ (∼ q))
(6) Show that p → q and q → p are not equivalent.
(7) Show that (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q) is a tautology.
9.2 Groups :
9.2.1 Binary Operation :
We know that the addition of any two natural numbers is a natural number,
the product of any two natural numbers is also a natural number. Each of these
operations associates with the two given numbers, a third number, their sum in
the case of addition, and their product in the case of multiplication. In this
section we are going to deal with the notion of a binary operation or a binary
composition on a set which is nothing but a generalisation of the usual addition
and usual multiplication on the number systems.
Definition :
A binary operation * on a non-empty set S is a rule, which associates to
each ordered pair (a, b) of elements a, b in S an element a * b in S. Thus a
binary operation * on S is just a map, * : S × S → S by (a, b) → a * b.
Where we denote by a * b, the image of (a, b) in S under *.
From the definition we see that, if * is a binary operation on S then
a, b ∈ S ⇒ a * b ∈ S.
In this case, we also say that S is closed under *. This property is known as
the “closure axiom” or “closure property”.
List of symbols used in this chapter :
N - The set of all natural numbers.
Z - The set of all integers.
W - The set of all non-negative integers (whole numbers).
E - The set of all even integers.
O - The set of all odd integers.
Q - The set of all rational numbers.
R - The set of all real numbers.
C - The set of all complex numbers.
Q − {0} - The set of all non-zero rational numbers.
R – {0} - The set of all non-zero real numbers.
C - }0} - The set of all non-zero complex numbers.
∀ - for every
∃ - there exists
∋ - such that

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Illustrative examples :
The usual addition + is a binary operation on N.
Since a, b ∈ N ⇒ a + b ∈ N. i.e., N is closed under +.
But the usual subtraction is not binary on N. Since 2, 5 ∈ N,
but 2 − 5 = − 3 ∉ N.
∴ N is not closed under subtraction.
At the same time, we see that − is a binary operation on Z. From this we
see that, an operation becoming binary or not binary depends on the set. The
following table gives which number systems are closed under the usual
algebraic operations, namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
denoted by +, −, . , ÷ respectively.
Number Systems
N Z Q R C Q − {0} R − {0} C − {0}
Operations
not not not
+ binary binary binary binary binary
binary binary binary

not not not not

− binary binary binary binary
binary binary binary binary

. binary binary binary binary binary binary binary binary

not not not not not

÷ binary binary binary
binary binary binary binary binary

Apart from the usual algebraic operations, some new operations on the
number systems can also be defined. For example, consider the operation * on
N defined by a * b = ab.
It is clear that * is binary on N, ‡ a, b ∈ N ⇒ a * b = ab ∈ N.
Some more facts about binary operations :
(1) Let the set S be R or any subset of real number system.
Define * as (i) a * b = minimum of {a, b}
(ii) a * b = maximum of {a, b}
(iii) a * b = a
(iv) a * b = b
All the above operations (*) are binary operations on the corresponding
sets.

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(2) (N, *)
* is defined as a * b = ab + 5. Since ab and 5 are natural numbers,
ab + 5 is also a natural number. ∴ * is a binary operation on N.
On the other hand, the operation * defined by a * b = ab − 5 is not binary
on N because 2 * 1 = (2)(1) − 5 = − 3 ∉ N.
(3) (Z, *), where * is defined by, a * b = ab, is not a binary operation on z.
Since take a = 2, b = − 1
1
ab = 2−1 = 2 ∉ Z
Note that * is also not a binary operaton on R − {0}
1
because take a = − 1, b = 2 ab = (− 1)1/2 ∉ R − {0}
(4) (R, *)
Define a * b = a + b + ab
Clearly * is a binary operation on R since a + b and ab are real numbers
and their sum is also a real number.
(5) (O, +)
Addition is not a binary operation on the set of odd integers, since addition
of two odd integers is not odd.
(6) (O, .)
Multiplication is a binary operation on the set of odd integers. Since
product of two odd integers is an odd integer.
(7) Matrix addition is a binary operation on the set of m × n matrices. Since
sum of two m × n matrices is again an m × n matrix.
(8) Matrix addition is not a binary operation on the set of n × n singular
matrices as well as on the set of n × n non-singular matrices. Because, sum
of two non-singular matrices need not be non-singular and sum of two
singular matrices need not be singular.
(9) Matrix multiplication is a binary operation on the set of singular matrices
as well as on the set of non-singular matrices.
(10) Cross product is a binary operation on the set of vectors, but dot product is
not a binary operation on the set of vectors.
Multiplication table for a binary operation
Any binary operation * on a finite set S = {a1, a2 ... an} can be described by
means of multiplication table. This table consists of ‘n’ rows and ‘n’ columns.
Place each element of S at the head of one row and one column, usually taking
them in the same order for columns as for rows. The operator * is placed at the
left hand top corner. The n × n = n2 spaces can be filled by writing ai * aj in the
space common to the ith row and the jth column of the table.

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* a1 a2 .................................. aj ...
a1
.
.
.
.
ai ai * a j
.
.
.
This table is also known as Cayley’s table or composition table. In the
next section we will see that these composition tables are very much helpful in
exhibiting finite groups.
9.2.2 Groups :
Given any non-empty set S, the possibility of combining two of its
elements to get yet another element of S endows S with an algebraic structure. A
non-empty set S together with a binary operation * is called an algebraic
structure. Group is the simplest of all algebraic structures. It is the one
operational algebraic system. The study of groups was started in the nineteenth
century in connection with the solution of equations. The concept of group
arises not only in Mathematics but also in other fields like Physics, Chemistry
and Biology.
Definition :
A non-empty set G, together with an operation * i.e., (G, *) is said to be a
group if it satisfies the following axioms
(1) Closure axiom : a, b ∈ G ⇒ a * b ∈ G
(2) Associative axiom : ∀a, b, c ∈ G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
(3) Identity axiom : There exists an element e ∈ G
such that a * e = e * a = a, ∀a ∈ G.
(4) Inverse axiom : ∀a ∈ G there exists an element a−1∈G such
that a−1 * a = a * a−1 = e.
e is called the identity element of G and a−1 is called the inverse of a in G.
Definition (Commutative property) :
A binary operation * on a set S is said to be commutative
if a * b = b * a ∀ a, b ∈ S

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Definition :
If a group satisfies the commutative property then it is called an abelian
group or a commutative group, otherwise it is called a non-abelian group.
Note (1) :
If the operation * is a binary operation, the closure axiom will be satisfied
automatically.
Note (2) :
We shall often use the same symbol G to denote the group and the
underlying set.
Order of a group :
The order of a group is defined as the number of distinct elements in the
underlying set.
If the number of elements is finite then the group is called a finite group
and if the number of elements is infinite then the group is called an infinite
group. The order of a group G is denoted by o(G).
Definition :
A non-empty set S with an operation * i.e., (S, *) is said to be a
semi-group if it satisfies the following axioms.
(1) Closure axiom : a, b ∈ S ⇒ a * b ∈ S
(2) Associative axiom : (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ S.
Definition :
A non-empty set M with an operation * i.e., (M, *) is said to be a monoid if
it satisfies the following axioms :
(1) Closure axiom : a, b ∈ M ⇒ a * b ∈ M
(2) Associative axiom : (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) ∀a, b, c ∈ M
(3) Identity axiom : There exists an element e ∈ M
such that a * e = e * a = a, ∀a ∈ M.
(N, +) is a semi-group but it is not a monoid, because the identity element
O ∉ N.
(N, *) where * is defined by a * b = ab is not a semi-group, because,
consider (2 * 3) * 4 = 23 * 4 = 84 = 212 and
2 * (3 * 4) = 2 * 34 = 2 * 81 = 281
∴ (2 * 3) * 4 ≠ 2 * (3 * 4) i.e., associative axiom is not satisfied.
(Z, .) is a monoid. But it is not a group, because, the inverse axiom is not
1
satisfied. (5 ∈ Z, but 5 ∉ Z). (Z, +) and (Z, .) are semi-groups as well as
monoids. From the definitions, it is clear that every group is a monoid.

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Example 9.12 : Prove that (Z, +) is an infinite abelian group.

Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : We know that sum of two integers is again an
integer.
(ii) Associative axiom : Addition is always associative in Z
i.e., ∀a, b, c ∈ Z, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(iii) Identity axiom : The identity element O ∈ Z and it satisfies
O + a = a + O = a, ∀ a ∈ Z
Identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom : For every a ∈ Z, ∃ an element − a ∈ Z such
that − a + a = a + (− a) = 0
∴ Inverse axiom is true. ∴ (Z, +) is a group.
(v) ∀ a, b ∈ Z, a + b = b + a
∴ addition is commutative. ∴ (Z, +) is an abelian group.
(vi) Since Z is an infinite set (Z, +) is infinite abelian group.
Example 9.13 : Show that (R − {0}, .) is an infinite abelian group. Here ‘.’
denotes usual multiplication.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Since product of two non-zero real numbers is
again a non-zero a real number.
i.e., ∀ a, b ∈ R, a . b ∈ R.
(ii) Associative axiom : Multiplication is always associative in R− {0}
i.e., a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c ∀ a, b, c ∈ R − {0}
∴ associative axiom is true.
(iii) Identity axiom : The identity element is 1 ∈ R − {0} under
multiplication and
1 . a = a . 1 = a, ∀ a ∈ R − {0}
∴ Identity axiom is true.
1
(iv) Inverse axiom : ∀ a ∈ R − {0}, a ∈ R − {0} such that
1 1
a . a = a . a = 1 (identity element). ∴ Inverse
axiom is true. ∴ (R − {0}, .) is a group.
(v) ∀ a, b ∈ R − {0}, a . b = b . a
∴ Commutative property is true. ∴ (R − {0}, .) is an abelian group.

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(vi) Further R − {0} is an infinite set, (R − {0}, .) is an infinite abelian

group.
Example 9.14 : Show that the cube roots of unity forms a finite abelian group
under multiplication.
Solution: Let G = {1, ω, ω2}. The Cayley’s table is
. 1 ω ω2
From the table, we see that,
(i) all the entries in the table are members of G.
1 1 ω ω2 So, the closure property is true.
ω ω (ii) multiplication is always associative.
ω2 1
(iii) the identity element is 1 and it satisfies the
ω2 ω 2 1 ω identity axiom.
(iv) The inverse of 1 is 1
The inverse of ω is ω2
the inverse of ω2 is ω
and it satisfies the inverse axiom also. ∴ (G, .) is a group.
(v) the commutative property is also true.
∴ (G, .) is an abelian group.
(vi) Since G is a finite set, (G, .) is a finite abelian group.
Example 9.15 : Prove that the set of all 4th roots of unity forms an abelian group
under multiplication.
Solution: We know that the fourth roots of unity are 1, i, − 1, − i.
Let G = {1, i, − 1, − i}. The Caylely’s table is
. 1 −1 i − i From the table,
1 1 −1 i − i (i) the closure axiom is true.
−1 −1 1 −i i (ii) multiplication is always associative in C and
hence in G.
i i −i −1 1
(iii) the identity element is 1 ∈ G and it satisfies
−i −i i 1 −1 the identity axiom.
(iv) the inverse of 1 is 1 ; i is − i ; − 1 is − 1 ; and − i is i. Further it satisfies
the inverse axiom. hence (G, .) is a group.
(v) From the table, the commutative property is also true.
∴ (G, .) is an abelian group.
Example 9.16 : Prove that (C, +) is an infinite abelian group.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Sum of two complex numbers is always a complex number.

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i.e., z1, z2 ∈ C ⇒ z1 + z2 ∈ C
Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom : Addition is always associative in C
i.e., (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3) ∀ z1, z2, z3 ∈ C
∴ Associative axiom is true.
(iii) Identity axiom :
The identity element o = o + io ∈ C and o + z = z + o = z ∀ z ∈ C
∴ Identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom : For every z ∈ C there exists a unique − z ∈ C such that
z + (− z) = − z + z = 0. Inverse is true. ∴ (C, +) is a group.
(v) Commutative property :
∀ z1, z2 ∈ C , z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
∴ the commutative property is true. Hence (C , +) is an abelian group.
Since C is an infinite set (C, +) is an infinite abelian group.
Example 9.17 : Show that the set of all non-zero complex numbers is an abelian
group under the usual multiplication of complex numbers.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Let G = C − {0} Product of two non-zero complex
numbers is again a non-zero complex number.
∴ Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom :
Multiplication is always associative.
∴ Associative property is true.
(iii) Identity axiom :
1 = 1 + io ∈ G, 1 is the identity element and 1.z = z . 1 = z ∀ z ∈ G.
∴ Identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
Let z = x + iy ∈ G. Here z ≠ 0 ⇒ x and y are not both zero.
∴ x2 + y2 ≠ 0
1 1 x − iy x − iy x  −y 
z = x + iy = (x + iy) (x − iy) = x2 + y2 = x2 + y2 + i x2 + y2 ∈ G
1 1 1
Further z . z = z . z = 1 ∴ z has the inverse z ∈ G.
Thus inverse axiom is satisfied. ∴ (G, .) is a group.

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(v) Commutative property :

z1 z2 = (a + ib) (c + id) = (ac − bd) + i (ad + bc)
= (ca − db) + i (da + cb) = z2 z1
∴ It satisfies the commutative property.
∴ G is an abelian group under the usual multiplication of complex
numbers.
Note : Here the number 0 is removed, because 0 has no inverse under
multiplication. We can also show that Q − {0}, R − {0} are abelian groups
under multiplication. But Z − {0} is not a group under multiplication.
1
Q 7 ∈ Z − {0} while its inverse 7 ∉ Z − {0}
Note : While verifying the axioms, follow the order given in the definition. If one
axiom fails, stop the process at that stage. There is no use in continuing further.
The following table shows which number systems are satisfying the
axioms of a group in the order for a particular operation.
* N E Z Q R C Q − {0} R − {0} C − {0}
+ Semi group group group group group not closed not closed not closed
group
. monid semi-group monoid monoid monoid monoid group group group
− not not not not not not not closed not closed not closed
closed associative associative associative associative associative
÷ not not closed not closed not closed not closed not closed not not not
closed associative associative associative
Example 9.18 : Show that (Z, *) is an infinite abelian group where * is defined
as a * b = a + b + 2.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom : Since a, b and 2 are integers a + b + 2 is also an integer.
∴ a * b ∈ z ∀ a, b ∈ z
Thus closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom :
Let a, b, c ∈ G
(a * b) * c = (a + b + 2) * c = (a + b + 2) + c + 2 = a + b + c + 4
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c + 2) = a + (b + c + 2) + 2 = a + b + c + 4
⇒ (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
Thus associative axiom is true.

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(iii) Identity axiom :

Let e be the identity element.
By the definition of e, a * e = a
By the definition of *, a * e = a + e + 2
⇒ a+e+2=a
⇒e=−2
− 2 ∈ Z. Thus identity axiom is true.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
Let a ∈ G and a−1 be the inverse element of a
By the definition of a−1, a * a−1 = e = − 2
By the definition of *, a * a−1 = a + a−1 + 2
⇒ a + a−1 + 2 = − 2
⇒ a−1 = − a − 4
Clearly − a − 4 ∈ Z. ∴ Inverse axiom is true. ∴ (Z, *) is a group.
(v) Commutative property :
Let a, b ∈ G
a * b = a + b + 2 = b + a + 2 = b * a ∴ * is commutative.
∴ (Z, *) is an abelian group. further, Z is an infinite set. The group is an
infinite abelian group.
Example 9.19 : Show that the set of all 2 × 2 non-singular matrices forms a
non-abelian infinite group under matrix multiplication, (where the entries
belong to R).
Solution:
Let G be the set of all 2 × 2 non-singular matrices, where the entries belong
to R.
(i) Closure axiom : Since product of two non-singular matrices is again
non-singular and the order is 2 × 2, the closure axiom is satisfied.
i.e., A, B ∈ G ⇒ AB ∈ G.
(ii) Associative axiom : Matrix multiplication is always associative and hence
associative axiom is true. i.e., A (BC) = (AB) C ∀ A, B, C ∈ G.
1 0
(iii) Identity axiom : The identity element is I2 =   ∈ G and it satisfies
0 1
the identity property.

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(iv) Inverse axiom : the inverse of A ∈ G, exists i.e. A−1 exists and is of order
2 × 2 and AA−1 = A−1A = I. Thus the inverse axiom is satisfied. Hence the
set of all 2 × 2 non-singular matrices forms a group under matrix
multiplication. Further, matrix multiplication is non-commutative (in
general) and the set contain infinitely many elements. The group is an
infinite non-abelian group.
Example 9.20 : Show that the set of four matrices
1 0 − 1 0 1 0  − 1 0 
  ,   ,   ,   form an abelian group, under
0 1  0 1 0 − 1  0 − 1
multiplication of matrices.
Solution:
1 0 − 1 0 1 0  − 1 0 
Let I =  , A =  , B =  , C =   and let
0 1  0 1 0 − 1  0 − 1
G = {I, A, B, C}
By computing the products of these matrices, taken in pairs, we can form
the multiplication table as given below :
. I A B C
I I A B C
A A I C B
B B C I A
C C B A I
(i) All the entries in the multiplication tables are members of G. So, G is
closed under . ∴ Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is always associative
(iii) Since the row headed by I coincides with the top row and the column
headed by I coincides with the extreme left column, I is the identity
element in G.
(iv) I . I = I ⇒ I is the inverse of I
A . A = I ⇒ A is the inverse of A
B . B = I ⇒ B is the inverse of B
C . C = I ⇒ C is the inverse of C
From the table it is clear that . is commutative. ∴ G is an abelian group
under matrix multiplication.

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x x
Example 9.21 : Show that the set G of all matrices of the form  , where
x x
x ∈ R − {0}, is a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution:
x x 
Let G =   / x ∈ R − {0} we shall show that G is a group under
x x 
matrix multiplication.
(i) Closure axiom :
x x y y
A=  ∈ G, B =  ∈G
x x y y
2xy 2xy
AB=   ∈ G , ( ‡ x ≠ 0, y ≠ 0 ⇒ 2xy ≠ 0)
2xy 2xy
i.e., G is closed under matrix multiplication.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is always associative.
e e
(iii) Let E=  ∈ G be such that AE = A for every A ∈ G.
e e
x x e e x x
AE = A ⇒     =  
x x e e x x
2xe 2xe x x 1
⇒   =   ⇒ 2xe = x ⇒ e = 2 (‡ x ≠ 0)
2xe 2xe x x
1/2 1/2
Thus E =   ∈ G is such that AE = A, for every A ∈ G
1/2 1/2
We can similarly show that EA = A for every A ∈ G.
∴ E is the identity element in G and hence identity axiom is true.
y y
(iv) Suppose A−1 =   ∈ G is such that A−1A = E
y y
2xy 2xy 1/2 1/2 1 1
Then we have  =  ⇒ 2xy = 2 ⇒ y = 4x
2xy 2xy 1/2 1/2
1/4 x 1/4 x
∴ A−1 =   ∈ G is such that A−1A = E
1/4 x 1/4 x
Similarly we can show that A A−1 = E. ∴ A−1 is the inverse of A.
∴ G is a group under matrix multiplication.

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Note : The above group is abelian since AB = BA. But in general matrix
multiplication is not commutative.
Example 9.22 : Show that the set G = {a + b 2 / a, b ∈ Q} is an infinite
abelian group with respect to addition.
Solution:
(i) Closure axiom :
Let x, y ∈ G. Then x = a + b 2, y = c + d 2 ; a, b, c, d ∈ Q.
x + y = (a + b 2) + (c + d 2) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 ∈ G,
since (a + c) and (b + d) are rational numbers.
∴ G is closed with respect to addition.
(ii) Associative axiom : Since the elements of G are all real numbers, addition
is associative.
(iii) Identity axiom :
There exists 0 = 0 + 0 2 ∈ G such that for all x = a + b 2 ∈ G,
x + 0 = (a + b 2) + (0 + 0 2)
= a+b 2=x
Similarly, we have 0 + x = x. ∴ 0 is the identity element of G and
satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
For each x = a + b 2 ∈ G, there exists − x = (− a) + (− b) 2 ∈ G
such that x + (− x) = (a + b 2) + ((− a) + (− b) 2)
= (a + (− a)) + (b + (− b)) 2 = 0
Similarly we have (− x) + x = 0
∴ (− a) + (− b) 2 is the inverse of a + b 2 and satisfies the inverse
axiom. ∴ G is a group under addition.
(v) Commutative axiom :
x + y = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 = (c + a) + (d + b) 2
= (c + d 2) + (a + b 2)
= y + x, for all x, y ∈ G. ∴ The commutative property is true.
∴ (G, +) is an abelian group. Since G is infinite, we see that (G, +) is an
infinite abelian group.
Example 9.23 : Let G be the set of all rational numbers except 1 and * be
defined on G by a * b = a + b − ab for all a, b ∈ G. Show that (G, *) is an
infinite abelian group.
Solution: Let G = Q − {1}
Let a, b ∈ G. Then a and b are rational numbers and a ≠ 1, b ≠ 1.

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(i) Closure axiom : Clearly a * b = a + b − ab is a rational number. But to

prove a * b ∈ G, we have to prove that a * b ≠ 1.
On the contrary, assume that a * b = 1 then
a + b − ab = 1
⇒ b − ab = 1 − a
⇒ b(1 − a) = 1 − a
⇒ b = 1 (‡ a ≠ 1, 1− a ≠ 0)
This is impossible, because b ≠ 1. ∴ Our assumption is wrong.
∴ a * b ≠ 1 and hence a * b ∈ G.
∴ Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Associative axiom :
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c − bc)
= a + (b + c − bc) − a (b + c − bc)
= a + b + c − bc − ab − ac + abc
(a * b) * c = (a + b − ab) * c
= (a + b − ab) + c − (a + b − ab) c
= a + b + c − ab − ac − bc + abc
∴ a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c ∀ a, b, c ∈ G
∴ Associative axiom is true.
(iii) Identity axiom : Let e be the identity element.
By definition of e, a * e = a
By definition of *, a * e = a + e − ae
⇒ a + e − ae = a
⇒ e(1 − a) = 0
⇒ e = 0 since a ≠ 1
e = 0∈G
∴ Identity axiom is satisfied.
(iv) Inverse axiom :
Let a−1 be the inverse of a ∈ G.
By the definition of inverse, a * a−1 = e = 0
By the definition of *, a * a−1 = a + a−1 − aa − 1
⇒ a + a−1 − aa−1 = 0
⇒ a−1 (1 − a) = − a
a
⇒ a−1 = ∈ G since a ≠ 1
a−1
∴ Inverse axiom is satisfied. ∴ (G, *) is a group.

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(v) Commutative axiom :

For any a, b ∈ G, a * b = a + b − ab
= b + a − ba
= b*a
∴ * is commutative in G and hence (G, *) is an abelian group. Since G is
infinite, (G, *) is an infinite abelian group.
Example 9.24 : Prove that the set of four functions f1, f2, f3, f4 on the set of non-
zero complex numbers C − {0} defined by
1 1
f1(z) = z, f2(z) = − z, f3(z) = z and f4(z) = − z ∀ z ∈ C − {0} forms an
abelian group with respect to the composition of functions.
Solution: Let G = {f1, f2, f3, f4}
(f1° f1) (z) = f1(f1(z)) = f1(z)
∴ f1°f1 = f1
f2° f1 = f2 , f3°f1 = f3, f4°f1 = f4
Again (f2°f2) (z) = f2(f2(z)) = f2(− z) = − (− z) = z = f1(z)
∴ f2°f2 = f1
Similarly f2°f3 = f4, f2°f4 = f3
1
(f3°f2) (z) = f3 (f2 (z)) = f3(− z) = − z = f4(z)
∴ f3°f2 = f4
Similarly f3°f3 = f1, f3°f4 = f2
1 1
(f4°f2) (z) = f4(f2(z)) = f4(− z) = − = = f (z)
−z z 3
∴ f4°f2 = f3
Similarly f4°f3 = f2, f4°f4 = f1
Using these results we have the composition table as given below :
° f1 f2 f3 f4
f1 f1 f2 f3 f4
f2 f2 f1 f4 f3
f3 f3 f4 f1 f2
f4 f4 f3 f2 f1

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From the table

(i) All the entries of the composition table are the elements of G .
∴ Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Composition of functions is in general associative.
(iii) Clearly f1 is the identity element of G and satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) From the table :
Inverse of f1 is f1 ; Inverse of f2 is f2
Inverse of f3 is f3 ; Inverse of f4 is f4
Inverse axiom is satisfied. (G, o) is a group.
(v) From the table the commutative property is also true.
∴ (G, o) is an abelian group.

9.2.3 Modulo Operation

We shall now define new types of operations called “Addition modulo n”
and “Multiplication modulo n”, where n is a positive integer. To define these
operations we require the notion of “Division Algorithm”.
Let a, b ∈ Z with b ≠ 0. Then we can divide a by b to get a quotient q and a
non-negative remainder r which is smaller in size than b.
i.e., a = qb + r, where 0 ≤ r < | b |. This is called “Division Algorithm”.
For example, if a = 17, b = 5 then 17 = (3 × 5) + 2
Here q = 3 and r = 2
Addition modulo n (+ n) :
Let a, b ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer. We define addition modulo n
by a +n b = r ; 0 ≤ r < n where r is the least non-negative remainder when
a + b is divided by n.
For example, if a = 25, b = 8 and n = 7 then 25 +78 = 5
(‡ 25 + 8 = 33 = (4 × 7) + 5)
Multiplication modulo n (. n)
As given above
a .n b = r ; 0 ≤ r < n, where r is the least non-negative remainder when ab
is divided by n.
For example, 2 .54 = 3
7 .98 = 2

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Congruence modulo n :
Let a, b ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer.
We say that “a is congruent to b modulo n” ⇔ (a − b) is divisible by n
Symbolically,
a ≡ b (mod n) ⇔ (a − b) is divisible by n.
15 ≡ 3 (mod 4) is true because 15 − 3 is divisible by 4.
17 ≡ 4 (mod 3) is not true because 17 − 4 is not divisible by 3.
Congruence classes modulo n :
Let a ∈ Z and n be a fixed positive integer.
Collect all numbers which are congruent to ‘a’ modulo n. This set will be
denoted as [a] and is called the congruence class modulo n or residue class
modulo n.
Thus [a] = {x ∈ Z / x ≡ a (mod n)}
= {x ∈ Z / (x − a) is divisible by n}
= {x ∈ Z / (x − a) is a multiple of n}
= {x ∈ Z / (x − a) = kn}, k ∈ Z
= {x ∈ Z / x = a + kn}, k ∈ Z
consider the congruence classes modulo 5.
[a] = {x ∈ Z / x = a + kn}
[0] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k, k ∈ Z} = {... − 10, − 5, 0, 5, 10...}
[1] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k + 1, k ∈ Z} = {... − 9, − 4, 1, 6, 11, ...}
[2] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k + 2, k ∈ Z} = {... − 8, − 3, 2, 7, 12, ...}
[3] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k + 3, k ∈ Z} = {... − 7, − 2, 3, 8, 13, ...}
[4] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k + 4, k ∈ Z} = {... − 6, − 1, 4, 9, 14 ...}
[5] = {x ∈ Z / x = 5k + 5, k ∈ Z} = {... − 5, 0, 5, 10, ...} = [0]
Similarly [6] = [1] ; [7] = [2] ; etc.
Note that, we have only 5 distinct classes whose union gives the entire Z.
Thus the set of congruence classes corresponding to 5 is
{ [0], [1], [2], [3], [4]} and it will be deonoted by Z5.
i.e., Z5 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4]}
If we take the modulo 6, we have Z6 = {[0], [1] .... [5]}.
Thus for any positive integer n, we have Zn = {[0], [1] ... [n − 1]}
Here [n] = [0] and the union of these classes gives Z.

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Operations on congruence classes :

(1) Addition :
Let [a], [b] ∈ Zn
[a] + n [b] = [a + b] if a + b < n
= [r] if a + b ≥ n
Where r is the least non-negative remainder when a + b is divided by n.

For example,
In Z10 , [5] +10 [7] = [2]
In Z8 , [3] +8 [5] = [0]
(ii) Multiplication :
[ab] if ab < n
[a] .n [b] = 
[r] if ab ≥ n
where r is the least non-negative remainder when ab is divided by n
In Z5 [2] .5[2] = [4]
[3] .5 [4] = 2
In Z7, [3] .7 [3] = [2]
In Z8 , [5] .8 [3] = [7]
Example 9.25 : Show that (Zn, +n) forms group.
Solution: Let Zn = {[0], [1], [2], ... [n − 1]} be the set of all congruence
classes modulo n. and let [l], [m], ∈ Zn 0 ≤ l, m, < n
(i) Closure axiom : By definition
[l + m] if l + m < n
[l] + n [m] = [r] if l + m ≥ n

where l + m = q . n + r 0 ≤ r < n
In both the cases, [l + m] ∈ Zn and [r] ∈ Zn
∴ Closure axiom is true.
(ii) Addition modulo n is always associative in the set of congruence classes
modulo n.
(iii) The identity element [0] ∈ Zn and it satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) The inverse of [l] ∈ Zn is [n − l]
Clearly [n − l] ∈ Zn and

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[l] + n [n − l] = [0]
[n − l] + n [l] = [0]
∴ The inverse axiom is also true. Hence (Zn, +n) is a group.
Note : (Zn, +n) is a finite abelian group of order n.
Example 9.26 : Show that (Z7 − {[0]}, .7) forms a group.
Solution: Let G = [[1], [2], ... [6]]
The Cayley’s table is
.7 [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
[2] [2] [4] [6] [1] [3] [5]
[3] [3] [6] [2] [5] [1] [4]
[4] [4] [1] [5] [2] [6] [3]
[5] [5] [3] [1] [6] [4] [2]
[6] [6] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1]
From the table :
(i) all the elements of the composition table are the elements of G.
∴ The closure axiom is true.
(ii) multiplication modulo 7 is always associative.
(iii) the identity element is [1] ∈ G and satisfies the identity axiom.
(iv) the inverse of [1] is [1] ; [2] is [4] ; [3] is [5] ; [4] is [2] ; [5] is [3] and
[6] is [6] and it satisfies the inverse axiom.
∴ the given set forms a group under multiplication modulo 7.
In general, it can be shown that (Zp − {(0)}, . p) is a group for any prime p.
But the proof is beyond the scope of this book.
Note : Does the set of all non-zero congruence classes modulo n, a positive
integer, form a group under multiplication modulo n, ?
Example 9.27 : Show that the nth roots of unity form an abelian group of finite
order with usual multiplication.
Solution: We know that 1, ω, ω2...... ωn − 1 are the nth roots of unity, where
2π
ω = cis n . Let G = {1, ω, ω2 ... ωn − 1}

(i) Closure axiom : Let ω l, ωm ∈ G, 0 ≤ l, m ≤ (n − 1)

To prove ωl ωm = ωl + m ∈ G

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Case (i) l + m < n

If l + m < n then clearly ωl + m ∈ G
Case (ii) l + m ≥ n By division algoritham,
l + m = (q . n) + r where 0 ≤ r < n, q is a positive integer.
q
ωl + m = ωqn + r = (ωn) . ωr = (1)qωr = ωr ∈ G ‡ 0 ≤ r < n
Closure property is true.
(ii) Associative axiom : Multiplication is always associative in the set of
complex numbers and hence in G
ωl .(ωp.ωm) = ωl . ω(p + m) = ωl + (p + m) = ω( l + p) + m = (ωl + p) . ωm
= (ωl . ωp) . ωm = ∀ ω l, ωm, ωp ∈ G
(iii) Identity axiom : The identity element 1 ∈ G and it satisfies
1.ωl = ωl .1 = ωl ∀ ωl ∈ G
(iv) Inverse axiom :
For any ωl ∈ G, ωn − l ∈ G and ωl . ωn − l = ωn − l .ωl = ωn = 1
Thus inverse axiom is true.
∴ (G, .) is a group.
(v) Commutative axiom :
ωl . ωm = ωl + m = ωm + l = ωm . ωl ∀ ωl , ωm ∈ G
∴ (G, .) is an abelian group. Since G contains n elements, (G, .) is a finite
abelian group of order n.
9.2.4 Order of an element :
Let G be a group and a ∈ G. The order of ‘a’ is defined as the least
positive integer n such that an = e, e is the identity element. If no such positive
integer exists, then a is said to be of infinite order. The order of a is denoted by
0(a).
Note : Here an = a * a * a ... *a (n times). If * is usual multiplication ‘.’ then
an is a . a .a... (n times) i.e., an .
If * is usual addition then an is a + a + a + ... + a (n times) i.e., na. Thus an
is not “a to the power n”, it is a symbol to denote a * a * a ... * a (n times).
Clearly an ∈ G, if a ∈ G . (By the repeated application of closure axiom).
Theorem :
For any group G, the identity element is the only element of order 1.

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Proof : If a (≠ e) is another element of order 1 then by the definition of order of

an element, we have (a)1 = e ⇒ a = e which is a contradiction. ∴ e is the only
element of order 1.
Example 9.28 : Find the order of each element of the group (G, .)
where G = {1, − 1, i, − i}.
Solution: In the given group, the identity element is 1. ∴ 0(1) = 1.
0(− 1) = 2 [Q we have to multiply − 1 two times (minimum) to get 1 i.e.,
(− 1) (− 1) = 1]
0(i) = 4 [Q we have to multiply i four times to get 1, i.e., (i) (i) (i) (i) = 1]
0(− i) = 4 [Q we have to multiply − i four times to get 1].
Example 9.29 : Find the order of each element in the group G = {1, ω, ω2},
consisting of cube roots of unity with usual multiplication.
Solution: We know that the identity element is 1. ∴ 0(1) = 1.
0(ω) = 3. Since ω . ω . ω = ω3 = 1
0(ω2) = 3 since (ω2) (ω2) (ω2) = ω6 = 1
Example 9.30 : Find the order of each element of the group (Z4, +4)
Solution: Z4 = {[0], [1], [2], [3]} is an abelian group under the addition
modulo 4. The identity element is [0] and note that [4] = [8] = [12] = [0]
∴ 0([0]) = 1
0([1]) = 4 [Q we have to add [1] four times to get [4] or [0]]
0 ([2]) = 2 [Q we have to add [2] two times to get [4] or [0]]
0 ([3]) = 4 Q we have to add [3] four times to get [12] or [0]
9.2.5 Properties of Groups :
Theorem :
The identity element of a group is unique.
Proof : Let G be a group. If possible let e1 and e2 be identity elements in G.
Treating e1 as an identity element we have e1 * e2 = e2 … (1)
Treating e2 as an identity element, we have e1 * e2 = e1 … (2)
From (1) and (2), e1 = e2
∴ Identity element of a group is unique.
Theorem :
The inverse of each element of a group is unique.
Proof :
Let G be a group and let a ∈ G.
If possible, let a1 and a2 be two inverses of a.

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Treating a1 as an inverse of ‘a’ we have a * a1 = a1 * a = e.

Treating a2 as an inverse of ‘a’, we have a * a2 = a2 * a = e
Now a1 = a1 * e = a1 * (a * a2) = (a1 * a) * a2 = e * a2 = a2
⇒ Inverse of an element is unique.
Theorem : (Cancellation laws)
Let G be a group. Then for all a, b, c ∈ G,
(i) a * b = a * c ⇒ b = c (Left Cancellation Law)
(ii) b * a = c * a ⇒ b = c (Right Cancellation Law)
Proof : (i) a * b = a * c ⇒ a−1 * (a * b) = a−1 * (a * c)
⇒ (a−1 * a) * b = (a−1 * a) * c
⇒ e*b=e*c
⇒ b=c
(ii) b * a = c * a ⇒ (b * a) * a−1 = (c * a) * a−1
⇒ b * (a * a −1) = c * (a * a−1)
⇒ b*e=c*e
⇒ b=c
−1
Theorem : In a group G, (a−1) = a for every a ∈ G.
Proof :
−1
We know that a−1 ∈ G and hence (a−1) ∈ G. Clearly a * a−1 = a−1 * a = e
−1 −1
a−1 * (a−1) = (a−1) * a−1 = e
−1
⇒ a * a−1 = (a−1) * a−1
−1
⇒ a = (a−1) (by Right Cancellation Law)
Theorem : (Reversal law)
Let G be a group a, b ∈ G. Then (a * b)− 1 = b−1 * a−1.
Proof : It is enough to prove b−1 * a−1 is the inverse of (a * b)
∴ To prove (i) (a * b) * (b−1 * a−1) = e
(ii) (b−1 * a−1) * (a * b) = e
(i) (a * b) * (b−1 * a−1) = a * (b * b−1) * a−1
= a * (e) * a−1
= a * a−1 = e

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(ii) (b−1 * a−1) * (a * b) = b−1 * (a−1 * a) * b

= b−1 * (e) * b
= b−1 * b = e
∴ b−1 * a−1 is the inverse of a * b i.e., (a * b)−1 = b−1 * a−1
EXERCISE 9.4
(1) Let S be a non-empty set and o be a binary operation on S defined by
xoy = x ; x, y ∈ S. Determine whether o is commutative and associative.
(2) Show that the set N of natural members is a semi-group under the
operation x * y = max {x, y}. Is it a monoid?
(3) Show that the set of all positive even integers forms a semi-group under
the usual addition and multiplication. Is it a monoid under each of the
above operations?
1 0 0 1
(4) Prove that the matrices   ,   form a group under matrix
0 1 1 0
multiplication.
(5) Show that the set G of all positive rationals forms a group under the
ab
composition * defined by a * b = 3 for all a, b ∈ G.
1 0 ω 0  ω2 0  0 1  0 ω2  0 ω
(6) Show that  , ,  , , , 
0 1  0 ω2  0 ω 1 0 ω 0  ω2 0 
where ω3 = 1, ω ≠ 1 form a group with respect to matrix multiplication.
(7) Show that the set M of complex numbers z with the condition | z | = 1
forms a group with respect to the operation of multiplication of complex
numbers.
(8) Show that the set G of all rational numbers except − 1 forms an abelian
group with respect to the operation * given by a * b = a + b + ab for all a,
b ∈ G.
(9) Show that the set {[1], [3], [4], [5], [9]} forms an abelian group under
multiplication modulo 11.
(10) Find the order of each element in the group (Z5 − {[0]}, .5)
a o
(11) Show that the set of all matrices of the form   , a ∈ R − {0} forms
o o
an abelian group under matrix multiplication.
(12) Show that the set G = {2n / n ∈ Z} is an abelian group under
multiplication.

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10. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

10.1 Introduction :
In XI Standard we dealt with random experiments which can be described
by finite sample space. We studied the assignment and computation of
probabilities of events. In the Sciences one often deals with variables as a
‘quantity that may assume any one of a set of values’. In Statistics we deal with
random variables - variables whose observed value is determined by chance.
10.2. Random Variable :
The outcomes of an experiment are represented by a random variable if
these outcomes are numerical or if real numbers can be assigned to them.
For example, in a die rolling experiment, the corresponding random
variable is represented by the set of outcomes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ; while in the
coin tossing experiment the outcomes head (H) or tail (T) can be represented as
a random variable by assuming 0 to T and 1 to H. In this sense a random
variable is a real valued function that maps the sample space into the real line.
Let us consider the tossing of two fair coins at a time. The possible results
are {HH, TH, HT, TT}. Let us consider the variable X which is “the number of
heads obtained” while tossing two fair coins. We could assign the value X = 0
to the outcome of getting no heads, X = 1 to the outcome of getting only 1
head and X = 2 to the out come of getting 2 heads.
Therefore X (TT) = 0, X(TH) = 1, X (HT) = 1 and X (HH) = 2.
Therefore X takes the values 0,1,2. Thus we can assign a real number X(s) to
every element s of the sample space S.
Definition : If S is a sample space with a probability measure and X is a real
valued function defined over the elements of S, then X is called a random
variable.
A random variable is also called a chance variable or a stochastic variable.
Types of Random variables :
(1) Discrete Random variable (2) Continuous Random variable
10.2.1 Discrete Random Variable :
Definition : Discrete Random Variable
If a random variable takes only a finite or a countable number of values, it
is called a discrete random variable.
Note : Biased coins may have both sides marked as tails or both sides marked as
heads or may fall on one side only for every toss, whereas a fair or unbiased coin
means, it has equal chances of falling on heads and tails. Similarly biased dice may
have repeated numbers on several sides ; some numbers may be missing. For a fair die
the probability of getting any number from one to six will be 1/6.

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Example :
1. The number of heads obtained when two coins are tossed is a discrete
random variable as X assumes the values 0, 1 or 2 which form a
countable set.
2. Number of Aces when ten cards are drawn from a well shuffled pack of
52 cards.
The random variable X assumes 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 which is again a countable set.
i.e., X (No aces) = 0, X (one ace) = 1, X (two aces) = 2,
X (three aces) = 3, X (four aces) = 4
Probability Mass Function :
The Mathematical definition of discrete probability function p(x) is a
function that satisfies the following properties :
(1) The probability that X can take a specific value x is p(x)
ie., P(X = x) = p(x) = px.
(2) p(x) is non – negative for all real x.
(3) The sum of p(x) over all possible values of X is one. That is
∑pi = 1 where j represents all possible values that X can have and pi
is the probability at X = xi
If a1, a2, . . . am, a, b1, b2, . . bn, b be the values of the discrete random
variable X in ascending order then
(i) P(X ≥ a) = 1 − P(X < a)
(ii) P(X ≤ a) = 1 − P(X > a)
(iii) P(a ≤ X ≤ b) = P(X = a) + P(X = b1) + P(X = b2) + . . .
. . . + P(X = bn) + P(X = b).
Distribution function : (Cumulative Distribution function)
The distribution function of a random variable X is defined as
F(x) = P(X ≤ x) = ∑ p(xi) : (− ∞ < x < ∞).
xi ≤ x

Properities of Distribution function :

1) F(x) is a non-decreasing function of x
2) 0 ≤ F(x) ≤ 1, − ∞ < x < ∞

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Lt
3) F(− ∞) = F(x) = 0
x→−∞
Lt
4) F(∞) = F(x) =1
x →+∞
5) P(X = xn) = F(xn) − F(xn −1)
Illustration :
Find the probability mass function and cumulative distribution function for
getting number of heads when three coins are tossed once.
Solution : Let X be the random variable “getting number of Heads”. Sample
space when three coins are tossed is
S = HHH HHT HTH THH HTT THT TTH TTT
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
R : 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 0
(No.of Heads)
Since X is the random variable getting the number of heads, X takes the
values 0, 1,2 and 3. (X : S → R).
1
P (getting no head) = P (X = 0) = 8
3
P (getting one head) = P (X = 1) = 8
3
P (getting two heads) = P (X = 2) = 8
1
P (getting three heads) = P (X = 3) = 8
∴ probability mass function is given by P(x)

1
1/8 if x = 0
3/8 if x = 1
P (X= x) =  3/8 if x = 2 OR
 1/8 if x = 3
X 0 1 2 3
1/
P(X = x) 1/8 3/8 3/8 1/8 8
x
0 1 2 3
To find cumulative distribution function.
Fig. 10.1
x
We have F(x) = ∑ P(X = xi)
xi = − ∞

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1
When X = 0, F(0) = P(X = 0) = 8

1
When X = 1, F(1) = ∑ P(X = xi)
i=−∞
1 3 4 1
= P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) = 8 + 8 = 8 = 2

2
When X = 2, F(2) = ∑ P(X = xi)
i=−∞
= P (X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2)
1 3 3 7
= 8 + 8 + 8 =8

3
When X = 3, F(3) = ∑ P(X = xi)
i=−∞
= P (X = 0) + P(X = 1) + P(X = 2) + P(X = 3)
1 3 3 1
=8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 1
Cumulative distribution function is F(x)
0 if − ∞ < x < 0
 1/8 if 0 ≤ x < 1
1O

F(x) =  1/2 if 1 ≤ x < 2 7/8 O

7/8 if 2 ≤ x < 3
1 if 3 ≤ x < ∞ 1/2 O

1/8 O
O O O
0 1 2 3 x
Fig. 10.2
Example 10.1 :
Find the probability mass function, and the cumulative distribution
function for getting ‘3’s when two dice are thrown.
Solution :
Two dice are thrown. Let X be the random variable of getting number of
‘3’s. Therefore X can take the values 0, 1, 2.

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25 Sample Space
P(no ‘3’) = P(X = 0) = 36
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
10 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
P(one ‘3’) = P(X = 1) = 36
1 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
P(two ‘3’s) = P(X = 2) = 36
(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
probability mass function is given by
x 0 1 2
P(X = x) 25/36 10/36 1/36
Cumulative distribution function :
x
We have F(x) = ∑ P(X = xi)
xi = − ∞
25
F(0) = P(X = 0) = 36
25 10 35
F(1) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1) = 36 + 36 = 36
25 10 1 36
F(2) = P(X = 0 ) + P(X = 1) + P(X =2) = 36 + 36 + 36 = 36 = 1
x 0 1 2
F(x) 25/36 35/36 1
Example 10.2 A random variable X has the following probability mass function
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P(X = x) k 3k 5k 7k 9k 11k 13k
(1) Find k.
(2) Evaluate P(X < 4), P(X ≥ 5) and P(3< X ≤ 6)
1
(3) What is the smallest value of x for which P (X ≤ x) > 2 .
Solution :
6
(1) Since P(X = x) is a probability mass function ∑ P(X = x) = 1
x=0
ie.,P(X=0) + P(X = 1) +P(X = 2) +P(X = 3) +P(X = 4) +P(X = 5)+P(X = 6) = 1.
1
⇒ k + 3k + 5k + 7k + 9k + 11k + 13k = 1 ⇒ 49 k = 1 ⇒ k = 49

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(2) P(X < 4) = P(X = 0) + P(X = 1 ) + P(X = 2) + P(X = 3)

1 3 5 7 16
= 49 + 49 + 49 + 49 = 49
11 13 24
P(X ≥ 5) = P(X = 5) + P(X = 6) = 49 + 49 = 49
9 11 13 33
P(3 < X ≤ 6) = P(X = 4) + P(X = 5) + P(X = 6) = 49 + 49 + 49 = 49
(3) The minimum value of x may be determined by trial and error method.
1 1 4 1
P(X ≤ 0) = 49 < 2 ; P(X ≤ 1) = 49 < 2
9 1 16 1
P(X ≤ 2) = 49 < 2 ; P(X ≤ 3) = 49 < 2
25 1
P(X ≤ 4) = 49 > 2
1
∴ The smallest value of x for which P(X ≤ x) > 2 is 4.
Example 10.3 :An urn contains 4 white and 3 red balls. Find the probability
distribution of number of red balls in three draws one by one from the urn.
(i) with replacement (ii) without replacement
Solution : (i) with replacement
Let X be the random variable of drawing number of red balls in three draws.
∴ X can take the values 0,1,2,3.
3
P(Red ball) = 7 = P(R)
4
P(Not Red ball) = 7 = P(W)
4 4 4 64
Therefore P(X = 0) = P(www) = 7 × 7 × 7 = 343
P(X = 1) = P(Rww) + P(wRw) + P(wwR)
= 7 × 7 × 7 + 7 × 7 × 7 + 7 × 7 × 7
3 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3
     
48 144
= 3 × 343 = 343
P(X = 2) = P(RRw) + P(RwR) + P(wRR)
= 7 × 7 × 7 + 7 × 7 × 7 + 7 × 7 × 7
3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 3
     
3 3 4 36 108
= 3 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 3 × 343 = 343

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3 3 3 27
P(X = 3) = P(RRR) = 7 × 7 × 7 = 343
The required probability distribution is
X 0 1 2 3
P(X = x) 64/343 144/343 108/343 27/343
Clearly all pi’s are ≥ 0 and ∑pi = 1.
2) Without replacement : It is also treated a simultaneous case.
Method 1 : Method 2 :
Using combination Using Conditional Probability
(i) P(no red ball) 4 3 2
(i) P(www) = 7 × 6 × 5
4c × 3c
3 0
P(X = 0) = 4
7c = 35
3
4×1 4
= 35 = 35

(ii) P(1 red ball) (ii) P(Rww) + P(wRw) + P(wwR)

4c × 3c
=  7 × 6 × 5 +  7 × 6 × 5
3 4 3 4 3 3
P(X = 1) =
2 1
   
7c
3
+  7 × 6 × 5
4 3 3
6×3 18  
= 35 = 35
36 36 18
= 3 × 210 = 70 = 35

(iii) P(2 red ball) (iii) P(RRw) + P(RwR) + P(wRR)

4c × 3c
=  7 × 6 × 5 +  7 × 6 × 5
3 2 4 3 4 2
P(X = 2) =
1 2
   
7c
3
+  7 × 6 × 5
4 3 2
4×3 12  
= 35 = 35
24 12
= 3 × 210 = 35

(iv)P(3 red ball) 3 2 1

(iv) P(RRR) = 7 × 6 × 5
4c × 3c
0 3
P(X = 3) = 1
7c = 35
3
1×1 1
= 35 = 35

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X 0 1 2 3
4 18 12 1
P(X = x) 35 35 35 35
Clearly all pi’s are ≥ 0 and ∑pi = 1
10.2.2 Continuous Random Variable :
Definition : A Random Variable X is said to be continuous if it can take all
possible values between certain given limits. i.e., X is said to be continuous if
its values cannot be put in 1 − 1 correspondence with N, the set of Natural
numbers.
Examples for Continuous Random Variable
The life length in hours of a certain light bulb.
Let X denote the ph value of a chemical compound which is randomly
selected. Then X is a continuous random variable because any ph value,
between 0 and 14 is possible.
If in the study of ecology of a lake, we make depth measurements at
randomly chosen locations then X = the depth at such location is a
continuous random variable. The limit will be between the maximum
and minimum depth in the region sampled.
Probability Density Function (p.d.f.) :
The mathematical definition of a continuous probability function f(x) is a
function that satisfies the following properties.
(i) The probability that X is between two points a and b is
b
⌠f(x) dx
P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = ⌡
a
(ii) It is non-negative for all real X.
∞
(iii) The integral of the probability function is 1 i.e., ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = 1
−∞
Continuous probability functions are referred to as p.d.f.
Since continuous probability function are defined for uncountable number of
points over an interval, the probability at a single point is always zero.
a
⌠f(x) dx = 0.
i.e., P(X = a) = ⌡
a

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The probabilities are measured over intervals and not at single points. That
is, the area under the curve between two distinct points defines the probability
for that interval.
∴ P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = P(a ≤ X < b) = P(a < x ≤ b) = P(a < x < b)
Discrete Probability function are referred to as probability mass function and
continuous probability function are referred to as probability density function.
The term probability function covers both discrete and continuous distribution.
Cumulative Distribution Function :
If X is a continuous random variable, the function given by
x
F(x) = P(X ≤ x) = ⌠ f(t)dt for − ∞ < x < ∞ where f(t) is the value of the
⌡
−∞
probability density function of X at t is called the distribution function or
cumulative distribution of X.
Properties of Distribution function :
(i) F(x) is a non-decreasing function of x
(ii) 0 ≤ F(x) ≤ 1, − ∞ < x < ∞.
x −∞
lt
(iii) F(− ∞) = x → − ∞ ⌠ ⌡ f(x) dx = ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = 0
−∞ −∞
x ∞
lt
(iv) F(∞) = x → ∞ ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = 1
−∞ −∞
(v) For any real constant a and b and a ≤ b, P(a ≤ x ≤ b) = F(b) − F(a)
d
(vi) f(x) = dx F(x)
i.e., F′(x) = f(x)
Example 10.4 : A continuous random variable X follows the probability law,
 k x (1 − x )10, 0 < x < 1
f(x) = 
0 elsewhere
Find k
∞
Solution : Since f(x) is a p.d.f ⌠ ⌡f(x) dx = 1
−∞

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1 By properties of definite
i.e., ⌠ 10
⌡kx(1 −x) dx = 1 integral
0 a a
1
⌡⌠ f(x) dx =
⌡⌠ f(a − x)dx
i.e., ⌠ k(1 − x) [1 − (1 − x)]10dx = 1
⌡ 0 0
0
1
i.e., k ⌠ (1 − x)x10dx = 1
⌡
0
1
1 x11 x12
i.e., k ⌠ (x − x )dx = 1 ⇒ k  11 − 12  = 1 ⇒ k 11 − 12 = 1 ⇒ k = 132
10 11 1 1
⌡  0  
0
Example 10.5 : A continuous random variable X has p.d.f. f(x) = 3x2,
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, Find a and b such that.
(i) P(X ≤ a) = P(X > a) and (ii) P(X > b) = 0.05
Solution :
(i) Since the total probability is 1, [Given that P(X ≤ a) = P (X > a]
P(X ≤ a) + P(X > a) = 1
i.e., P(X ≤ a) + P(X ≤ a) = 1
1
⇒ P(X ≤ a) = 2
a a
1 1
⇒ ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = 2 ⇒ ⌠ 2
⌡3x dx = 2
0 0
a 1
3x3 
i.e.,  3  = 2 ⇒ a3 = 2 i.e., a = 2
1 1 1 3
 0  
(ii) P(X > b) = 0.05
1 1
∴ ⌠ ⌡f(x) dx = 0.05 ∴ ⌠
2
⌡3x dx = 0.05
b b
1
3x3 
 3  = 0.05 ⇒ 1 − b3 = 0.05
 b
1
b = 1 − 0.05 = 0.95 = 100 ⇒ b = 20
3 95 19 3
 

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Example 10.6 : If the probability density function of a random variable is given

 k (1 − x2), 0 < x < 1
by f(x) = 
0 elsewhere
find (i) k (ii) the distribution function of the random variable.
∞
Solution: (i) Since f(x) is a p.d.f. ⌠ ⌡f(x) dx = 1
−∞
1 1
 x3 
⇒ k x − 3  = 1 ⇒ k 1 − 3 = 1
1
⌠ 2
⌡k(1 − x ) dx = 1  0  
0

⇒ 3 k = 1 or k = 2
2 3
 
x
(ii) The distribution function F(x) = ⌠⌡ f(t) dt
−∞
(a) When x ∈ (− ∞, 0]
x
F(x) = ⌠ f(t) dt = 0
⌡
−∞
(b) When x ∈ (0, 1)
x
F(x) = ⌠ f(t) dt
⌡
−∞
0 x x 3 3  x3
= ⌠ f(t) dt + ⌠ f(t) dt = 0 + ⌠ 2 (1 − t2) dt = 2 x − 3 
⌡ ⌡ ⌡  
−∞ 0 0
(c) When x ∈ [1, ∞)
x 0 1 x 13
F(x) = ⌠ f(t) dt = ⌠ f(t) dt + ⌠ f(t) dt + ⌠ f(t) dt = 0 + ⌠ 2 (1 − t2) dt + 0
⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡ ⌡
−∞ −∞ 0 1 0
1 0 −∞<x≤0
3  t3 
= 2 t − 3  = 1 ∴F(x) = 3/2 (x − x3/3) 0 < x < 1
 0
1 1≤x<∞

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1 π
Example 10.7 : If F(x) = + tan−1 x − ∞ < x < ∞ is a distribution
π 2 
function of a continuous variable X, find P(0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
1 π
Solution: F(x) =  2 + tan−1 x
π  
P(0 ≤ x ≤ 1) = F(1) − F(0)
1 π 1 π
= + tan−1 1 −  2 + tan−1 0
π 2  π 
1 π π 1 π 1 π π π 1
=  2 + 4  −  2 + 0 =
π   π  π 2 + 4 − 2 = 4
 A, 1 < x < e3
Example 10.8 : If f(x) =  x is a probability density function of
 0, elsewhere
a continuous random variable X, find p(x > e)
∞
Solution: Since f(x) is a p.d.f. ⌡ ⌠f(x) dx = 1
−∞
3
e
3
⌠A dx = 1 ⇒ A[log x] e = 1
⌡x 1
1
⇒ A[log e3 − log 1] = 1 ⇒ A[3] = 1 ⇒ A = 1/3
 1 , 1 < x < e3
Therefore f(x)=  3x
 0 elsewhere
e3
3
P(x > e) = 3 ⌠ x dx =3 [log x]
1 1 1 e
⌡ e
e
1 1 2
= 3 [log e3 − log e] = 3 [3 − 1] = 3
Example 10.9 :For the probability density function
 2e−2x, x > 0
f(x)= , find F(2)
 0 ,x≤0
2
Solution : F(2) = P(X ≤ 2) = ⌠ ⌡f(x) dx
−∞

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2
−2x e−2x 
2
e4 − 1
=⌠ ⌡2e dx = 2 .   = − [e−4 − 1] = 1 − e−4 = 4
 −2  0 e
0
Example 10.10 : The total life time (in year) of 5 year old dog of a certain
breed is a Random Variable whose distribution function is given by
 0 , for x ≤ 5
F(x) =  1 − 25 , for x > 5 Find the probability that such a five year old dog
 x2
will live (i) beyond 10 years (ii) less than 8 years (iii) anywhere between
12 to 15 years.
Solution : (i) P(dog living beyond 10 years)
P(X > 10) = 1 − P(X ≤ 10)
= 1 − 1 − 2  when x = 10
25
 x 
= 1 − 1 − 100  = 1 − 4 = 4
25 3 1
 
(ii) P(dog living less than 8 years )
P(X < 8) = F(8) [since P(X < 8) = P(X ≤ 8) for a continuous distribution]
= 1 − 2  = 1 − 64  = 64
25 25 39
 8   
(iii) P(dog living any where between 12 and 15 years ) = P(12 < x < 15)
= F(15) − F(12) = 1 − 2  − 1 − 2  = 16
25 25 1
 15   12 
EXERCISE 10.1
(1) Find the probability distribution of the number of sixes in throwing three
dice once.
(2) Two cards are drawn successively without replacement from a well
shuffled pack of 52 cards. Find the probability distribution of the number
of queens.
(3) Two bad oranges are accidentally mixed with ten good ones. Three
oranges are drawn at random without replacement from this lot. Obtain
the probability distribution for the number of bad oranges.
(4) A discrete random variable X has the following probability distributions.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P(x) a 3a 5 a 7 a 9 a 11 a 13 a 15 a 17 a
(i) Find the value of a (ii) Find P(x < 3) (iii) Find P(3 < x < 7)

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(5) Verify that the following are probability density functions.

 2x , 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 1 1
(a) f(x) =  9 (b) f(x) = , −∞ < x < ∞
0 elsewhere π (1 + x2)
 3,
(6) For the p.d.f f(x) =  cx (1 − x) 0<x<1
 0 elsewhere
(ii) P x < 2
1
find (i) the constant c
 
(7) The probability density function of a random variable x is
 α − 1 −β xα
f(x) = kx e , x, α, β > 0 . Find (i) k (ii) P(X > 10)
0 , elsewhere
0 x<0
(8) For the distribution function given by F(x) = x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
2

1 x>1
find the density function. Also evaluate
(i) P(0.5 < X < 0.75) (ii) P(X ≤ 0.5) (iii) P(X > 0.75)
(9) A continuous random variable x has the p.d.f defined by
 ce−ax, 0 < x < ∞
f(x) =  0 elsewhere . Find the value of c if a > 0.
(10) A random variable X has a probability density function
k , 0 < x < 2π
f(x) = 0 elsewhere

π π
Find (i) k (ii) P 0 < X < 2
3π
  (iii) P 2 < X < 2 

10.3 Mathematical Expectation :

Expectation of a discrete random variable :
Definition : If X denotes a discrete random variable which can assume the
values x1, x2, . . . . . . xn with respective probabilities p1, p2, . . . pn then the
mathematical expectation of X, denoted by E(X) is defined by
n n
E(X) = p1 x1 + p2 x2 + . . . . . + pnxn = ∑ pi xi where ∑ pi = 1
i=1 i=1

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Thus E(X) is the weighted arithmetic mean of the values xi with the

weights p(xi) ∴ X = E(X)
Hence the mathematical Expectation E(X) of a random variable is simply
the arithmetic mean.
Result : If ϕ(X) is a function of the random variable X,
then E[ϕ (X)] = ∑ P(X = x) ϕ (x).
Properties :
Result (1) : E(c) = c where c is a constant
Proof : E(X) = ∑ pi xi
∴ E(c) = ∑ pi c = c ∑ pi = c as ∑ pi = 1
∴ E(c) = c
Result (2) : E(cX) = c E(X)
Proof : E(cX) = ∑ (cxi)pi = (c x1) p1 + (c x2) p2 + . . . (c xn) pn
= c( p1 x1 + p2x2 +. . . . pn xn)
= c E(X)
Result (3) : E(aX + b) = a E(X) + b.
Proof : E(aX + b) = ∑ (a xi+ b) pi
= (a x1+ b) p1 + (a x2 + b)p2 + (a xn + b) pn
= a( p1 x1 + p2x2 +. . . . pn xn) + b∑ pi
= a E(X) + b. Similarly E(aX − b) = aE(X)− b
Moments : Expected values of a function of a random variable X is used for
calculating the moments. We will discuss about two types of moments.
(i) Moments about the origin
(ii) Moments about the mean which are called central moments.
Moments about the origin :
If X is a discrete random variable for each positive integer r (r = 1, ...) the
th
r moment
µr′ = E(Xr) = ∑ pi xir
First moment : µ1′ = E(X) = ∑ pi xi
This is called the mean of the random variable X.
Second moment : µ2′ = E(X2) = ∑ pi xi2

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Moments about the Mean : (Central Moments)

For each positive integer n, (n = 1, 2, ...) the nth central moment of the
discrete random variable X is

µn = E(X − X )n = ∑(xi −x− )n pi

First moment about the Mean µ1 = E(X − X )1 = ∑(xi −x− )1 pi
µ = ∑ x p − −x ∑ p = ∑ x p − −
1 i i i x (1) as ∑ p = 1
i i i
= E(X) − E(X) = 0
The algebraic sum of the deviations about the arithmetic mean is always
zero

2nd moment about the Mean µ2 = E(X − X )2
2  2  
= E(X2 + X − 2 X X ) = E(X2) + X −2 X E(X) (‡ X is a constant)
= E(X2) + [E(X)]2 − 2E(X) E(X)
µ2 = E(X2) −[E(X)]2 = µ2′ − (µ1′)2
Second moment about the Mean is called the variance of the random
variable X

µ2 = Var (X) = E(X − X )2 = E(X2) − [E(X)]2

Result (4) : Var (X ± c) = Var X where c is a constant.


Proof : w.k.t. Var (X) = E(X − X )2
Var (X + c) = E[(X + c) − E (X + c)]2
= E[X + c − E(X) − c]2

= E[X − X ]2 = Var X
Similarly Var (X − c) = Var (X)
∴ Variance is independent of change of origin.
Result (5) : Var (aX) = a2 Var (X)
Proof : Var (aX) = E[aX − E(aX)]2 = E[aX − aE(X)]2
= E[a {X − E(X)}]2
= a2 E[X − E(X)]2 = a2 Var X
Change of scale affects the variance

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Result (6) : Var (c) = 0 where c is a constant.

Proof : Var (c) = E[c − E(c)]2 = E[c − c]2 = E(0) = 0
Example 10.11 : Two unbiased dice are thrown together at random. Find the
expected value of the total number of points shown up.
Solution : Let X be the random variable which represents the sum of the
numbers shown in the two dice. If both show one then the sum total is 2. If both
show six then the sum is 12.
The random variable X can take values from 2 to 12.
(1, 1)
(1, 2) (2, 1)
(1, 3) (2, 2) (3, 1)
(1, 4) (2, 3) (3, 2) (4, 1)
(1, 5) (2, 4) (3, 3) (4, 2) (5, 1)
(1, 6) (2, 5) (3, 4) (4, 3) (5, 2) (6, 1)
(2, 6) (3, 5) (4, 4) (5, 3) (6, 2)
(3, 6) (4, 5) (5, 4) (6, 3)
(4, 6) (5, 5) (6, 4)
(5, 6) (6, 5)
(6, 6)
∴ The probability distribution is given by.
X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
P(X = x) 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

E(X) = ∑ pi xi = ∑ xi pi

= 2 × 36 + 3 × 26 + 4 × 36 + . . . .+ 12 × 36 = 36 = 7

1 2 3 1 252
       
Example 10.12 : The probability of success of an event is p and that of failure
is q. Find the expected number of trials to get a first success.
Solution: Let X be the random variable denoting ‘Number of trials to get a first
success’. The success can occur in the 1st trial. ∴ The probability of success in
the 1st trial is p. The success in the 2nd trial means failure in the 1st trial.
∴ Probability is qp.
Success in the 3rd trial means failure in the first two trials. ∴ Probability of
success in the 3rd trial is q2p. As it goes on, the success may occur in the nth
trial which mean the first (n −1) trials are failures. ∴ probability = qn−1p.

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∴ The probability distribution is as follows

X 1 2 3 ... n ...
P(x) p qp 2 ... n−1
q p q p...
∴ E(X) = ∑ pi xi
= 1 . p + 2qp + 3q2p + . . . + nqn−1 p . .
= p[1 + 2q + 3q2 + . . .+ nqn−1 + ... ]
p 1
= p[1 − q]−2 = p(p)−2 = 2 = p
p
Example 10.13 : An urn contains 4 white and 3 Red balls. Find the probability
distribution of the number of red balls in three draws when a ball is drawn at
random with replacement. Also find its mean and variance.
Solution : The required probability distribution is [Refer Example 10.3]
X 0 1 2 3
64 144 108 27
P(X = x) 343 343 343 343
Mean E(X) = ∑ pi xi

= 0 343  + 1 343  + 2 343  + 3 343  = 7

64 144 108 27 9
       
Variance = E(X2) − [E(X)]2
E(X2) = ∑ pi xi2

= 0 343  + 12343  + 22343  + 32 343  = 49

64 144 108 27 117
       
Variance= 49 − 7 = 49
117 9 2 36
 
Example 10.14 :A game is played with a single fair die, A player wins Rs. 20 if
a 2 turns up, Rs. 40 if a 4 turns up, loses Rs. 30 if a 6 turns up. While he neither
wins nor loses if any other face turns up. Find the expected sum of money he
can win.
Solution : Let X be the random variable denoting the amount he can win. The
possible values of X are 20,40, − 30 and 0.
1
P[X = 20] = P(getting 2) = 6
1
P[X = 40] = P(getting 4) = 6
1
P[X = − 30] = P(getting 6) = 6

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1
The remaining probability is 2
X 20 40 −30 0
P(x) 1/6 1/6 1/6 1/2
Mean E (X) = ∑ pi xi

= 20 6  + 40 6  + (−30) 6  + 0 2  = 5
1 1 1 1
       
Expected sum of money he can win = Rs. 5
Expectation of a continuous Random Variable :
Definition : Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density
function f(x). Then the mathematical expectation of X is defined as
∞
E(X) = ⌡⌠ xf(x) dx
−∞
Note : If ϕ is function such that ϕ(X) is a random variable and E [ϕ (X)] exists
then
∞
E[ϕ (X)] = ⌠⌡ϕ (x) f(x) dx
−∞
∞
E(X ) = ⌠
2 2
⌡ x f(x) dx
−∞
Variance of X = E(X2) − [E(X)]2
Results : (1) E(c) = c where c is a constant
∞ ∞ ∞
E(c) = ⌡⌠ c f(x) dx = c ⌠f(x) dx = c
⌡ as ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = 1
−∞ −∞ −∞
(2) E(aX ± b) = a E(X) ± b
∞ ∞ ∞
⌠(ax ± b) f(x) dx = ⌡
E(aX ± b) = ⌡ ⌠ax f(x) dx ± ⌠
⌡b f(x) dx
−∞ −∞ −∞
∞ ∞
=a ⌠
⌡x f(x) dx ± b ⌠
⌡f(x) dx = a E(X) ± b
−∞ −∞

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Example 10.15 : In a continuous distribution the p.d.f of X is

3 x (2 − x) 0< x < 2
f(x)=4 , otherwise.
 0
Find the mean and the variance of the distribution.
∞ 2
E(X) = ⌠ ⌠ 3
Solution : ⌡ x f(x) dx = x. 4 x(2 − x) dx
⌡
−∞ 0
2 2
3 3
= 4⌠⌡ x (2 − x) dx = 4 ⌠
2 2 3
⌡(2x − x ) dx
0 0
 x x 
3 4 2
2 3 − 4  = 4 3(8) − 4  = 1
3 3 2 16
=4
 0  
∴ Mean = 1
∞ 2
2 ⌠ x2f(x) dx =
E(X ) = ⌡ ⌠ x2 3 x(2 − x) dx
⌡ 4
−∞ 0
2
3  x4 x5 
2
⌠ (2 x3 − x4) dx = 4 2 4 − 5  = 4  2 − 5  = 5
3 3 16 32 6
= 4⌡
 0  
0
6 1
Variance = E(X2) − [E(X)]2 = 5 − 1 = 5
Example 10.16 : Find the mean and variance of the distribution
3e−3x,0 < x < ∞
f(x) = 
0 ,elsewhere
Solution :
∞ ∞ n
E(X) = ⌡ ⌠ x f(x) dx ⌠ xn e− αx dx = n + 1
⌡ α
−∞ 0
∞ ∞ 1 1 When n is a positive
−3x −3x
=⌠
⌡ x (3e ) dx = 3 ⌠
⌡xe dx = 3. 2 = 3 integer
0 0 3
∞ ∞ 2 2
−3x 2 −3x
E(X2) = ⌠
⌡ x 2
(3e ) dx = 3 ⌠
⌡x e dx = 3 . 3 = 9
0 0 3

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2 1 2 1
Var(X) = E[X2] − E[X]2 = 9 − 3 = 9
 
1 1
∴Mean = 3 ; Variance = 9

EXERCISE 10.2
(1) A die is tossed twice. A success is getting an odd number on a toss. Find
the mean and the variance of the probability distribution of the number of
successes.
(2) Find the expected value of the number on a die when thrown.
(3) In an entrance examination a student has to answer all the 120 questions.
Each question has four options and only one option is correct. A student
gets 1 mark for a correct answer and loses half mark for a wrong answer.
What is the expectation of the mark scored by a student if he chooses the
answer to each question at random?

(4) Two cards are drawn with replacement from a well shuffled deck of 52
cards. Find the mean and variance for the number of aces.
(5) In a gambling game a man wins Rs.10 if he gets all heads or all tails and
loses Rs.5 if he gets 1 or 2 heads when 3 coins are tossed once. Find his
expectation of gain.
(6) The probability distribution of a random variable X is given below :
X 0 1 2 3
P(X = x) 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.1

If Y = X2 + 2X find the mean and variance of Y.

(7) Find the Mean and Variance for the following probability density
functions

 1 ,−12 ≤ x ≤ 12 αe−α x , if x > 0

(i) f(x) = 24 (ii) f(x) = 
0 ,otherwise 0 ,otherwise

xe−x , if x > 0
(iii) f(x) = 
0 ,otherwise

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10.4 Theoretical Distributions :

The values of random variables may be distributed according to some
definite probability law which can be expressed mathematically and the
corresponding probability distribution is called theoretical distribution.
Theoretical distributions are based on expectations on the basis of previous
experience.
In this section we shall study (1) Binomial distribution (2) Poisson
distribution (3) Normal distribution which figure most prominently in
statistical theory and in application. The first two distributions are discrete
probability distributions and the third is a continuous probability distribution.
Discrete Distributions :
Binomial Distribution :
This was discovered by a Swiss Mathematician James Bernoulli (1654−1705)
Bernoulli’s Trials :
Consider a random experiment that has only two possible outcomes. For
example when a coin is tossed we can take the falling of head as success and
falling of tail as failure. Assume that these outcomes have probabilities
p and q respectively such that p + q =1. If the experiment is repeated ‘n’ times
independently with two possible outcomes they are called Bernoulli’s trials. A
Binomial distribution can be used under the following condition.
(i) any trial, result in a success or a failure
(ii) There are a finite number of trials which are independent.
(iii) The probability of success is the same in each trial.
Probability function of Binomial Distribution :
Let n be a given positive integer and p be a given real number such that
0 ≤ p ≤ 1. Also let q = 1 − p. Consider the finite probability distribution
described by the following table.
xi 0 1 2 ... n
P(xi) qn nc1pqn−1 nc2 p2qn−2 ... pn
The table shown above is called the Binomial distribution. The 2nd row of
the table are the successive terms in the binomial expansion of (q + p)n.
Binomial probability function B(n,p,x) gives the probability of exactly
x successes in ‘n’ Bernoullian trials, p being the probability of success in a trial.
The constants n and p are called the parameters of the distribution.

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Definition of Binomial Distribution :

A random variable X is said to follow Binomial distribution if its
probability mass function is given by
n px qn −x, x = 0, 1, . . .n
P(X = x) = p(x) =  Cx
0 otherwise
Constants of Binomial Distribution :
Mean = np
Variance = npq
Standard deviation = variance = npq
X ∼ B(n, p) denotes that the random variable X follows Binomial distribution
with parameters n and p.
Note : In a Binomial distribution mean is always greater than the variance.
Example 10.17 : Let X be a binomially distributed variable with mean 2 and
2
standard deviation . Find the corresponding probability function.
3
2
Solution : np = 2 ; npq =
3
∴ npq = 4/3
npq 4/3 4 2
∴ q = np = 2 =6 =3
2 1
∴ p = 1−q = 1−3 = 3

np = 2 ∴ n 3 = 2 ⇒ n = 6
1
 
∴ The probability function for the distribution is
1 x 2 6−x
P[X = x] = 6C 3 3 , x = 0, 1, 2, …6
x   
Example 10.18 : A pair of dice is thrown 10 times. If getting a doublet is
considered a success find the probability of (i) 4 success (ii) No success.
Solution : n = 10 . A doublet can be obtained when a pair of dice thrown is
{(1,1), (2,2) (3,3), (4,4), (5,5) (6,6)} ie., 6 ways.
Probability of success is getting a doublet
6 1 1 5
∴ p = 36 = 6 ; q = 1 − p = 1 − 6 = 6

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Let X be the number of success.

We have P[X = x] = nC px qn−x
x
1 4 5 6
(a) P(4 successes) = P[X = 4] = 10C 6 6
4   
210 × 56 35 5 6
= = 216 6
610  
(b) P (no success) = P(X = 0)

= 10C 5 10 = 5 10

0 6  6
Example 10.19 : In a Binomial distribution if n = 5and P(X = 3) = 2P(X = 2)
find p
Solution : P(X = x) = nC px qn−x
x
P(X = 3) = 5C p3q2 and P(X = 2) = 5C p2q3
3 2

∴ 5C p3q2 = 2 5C p2q3
( )
3 2
∴ p = 2q
2
p = 2 (1 − p) ⇒ 3p = 2 ; p = 3
Example 10.20 : If the sum of mean and variance of a Binomial Distribution is
4.8 for 5 trials find the distribution.
Solution : np + npq = 4.8 ⇒ np(1 + q) = 4.8
5 p [1 + (1 − p) = 4.8
p2 − 2p + 0.96 = 0 ⇒ p = 1.2 , 0.8
∴ p = 0.8 ; q = 0.2 [‡p cannot be greater than 1]
∴ The Binomial distribution is P[X = x] = 5C (0.8)x (0.2)5−x, x = 0 to 5
x
Example 10.21 : The difference between the mean and the variance of a
Binomial distribution is 1 and the difference between their squares is 11.Find n.
Solution : Let the mean be (m + 1) and the variance be m from the given
data.[Since mean > variance in a binomial distribution]
(m +1)2 − m2 = 11 ⇒ m = 5
∴ mean = m + 1 = 6
5 1
⇒ np = 6 ; npq = 5 ∴ q = 6 , p = 6 ⇒ n = 36.

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EXERCISE 10.3
(1) The mean of a binomial distribution is 6 and its standard deviation is 3. Is
this statement true or false? Comment.
(2) A die is thrown 120 times and getting 1 or 5 is considered a success. Find
the mean and variance of the number of successes.
(3) If on an average 1 ship out of 10 do not arrive safely to ports. Find the
mean and the standard deviation of ships returning safely out of a total of
500 ships
(4) Four coins are tossed simultaneously. What is the probability of getting
(a) exactly 2 heads (b) at least two heads (c) at most two heads.
(5) The overall percentage of passes in a certain examination is 80. If 6
candidates appear in the examination what is the probability that atleast 5
pass the examination.
(6) In a hurdle race a player has to cross 10 hurdles. The probability that he
5
will clear each hurdle is 6. What is the probability that he will knock
down less than 2 hurdles.
10.4.2 Poisson Distribution :
It is named after the French Mathematician Simeon Denis Poisson
(1781 − 1840) who discovered it. Poisson distribution is also a discrete
distribution.
Poisson distribution is a limiting case of Binomial distribution under the
following conditions.
(i) n the number of trials is indefinitely large ie., n → ∞.
(ii) p the constant probability of success in each trial is very small
ie., p → 0.
(iii) np = λ is finite where λ is a positive real number. When an event
occurs rarely, the distribution of such an event may be assumed to
follow a Poisson distribution.
Definition : A random variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution if the
e−λ λx
probability mass function of X is P(X = x) = , x = 0,1,2, …for some λ > 0
x
The mean of the Poisson Distribution is λ, and the variance is also λ.
The parameter of the Poisson distribution is λ.

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Examples of Poisson Distribution :

(1) The number of alpha particles emitted by a radio active source in a
given time interval.
(2) The number of telephone calls received at a telephone exchange in a
given time interval.
(3) The number of defective articles in a packet of 100, produced by a good
industry.
(4) The number of printing errors at each page of a book by a good
publication.
(5) The number of road accidents reported in a city at a particular junction
at a particular time.
Example 10.22 : Prove that the total probability is one.
∞ ∞ e−λ λx e−λ λ0 e−λ λ1 e−λ λ2
Solution : ∑ p(x) = ∑ = + + + ...
x=0 x=0 x 0 1 2

λ2
= e−λ [1 + λ + + . . . ] = e−λ . eλ = e0 = 1
2
Example 10.23 : If a publisher of non-technical books takes a great pain to
ensure that his books are free of typological errors, so that the probability of any
given page containing atleast one such error is 0.005 and errors are independent
from page to page (i) what is the probability that one of its 400 page novels
will contain exactly one page with error. (ii) atmost three pages with errors.
[e−2 = 0.1353 ; e−0.2. = 0.819].
Solution : n = 400 , p = 0.005
∴ np = 2 = λ
(i) P(one page with error) = P(X = 1)
e−λ λ1 e−221
= = = 0.1363 × 2 = 0.2726
1 1
(ii)P(atmost 3 pages with error) = P(X ≤ 3)
3e−λ λx 3 e−2(2)x  2 22 23 
= ∑ =∑ = e2 1 + + + 
x=0 x 0 x  1 2 3

= e−2  3  = 0.8569
19
 

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Example 10.24 : Suppose that the probability of suffering a side effect from a
certain vaccine is 0.005. If 1000 persons are inoculated, find approximately the
probability that (i) atmost 1 person suffer. (ii) 4, 5 or 6 persons suffer.
[e−5 = 0.0067]
Solution : Let the probability of suffering from side effect be p
n = 1000 , p = 0.005 , λ = np = 5.
(i) P(atmost 1 person suffer) = p(X ≤ 1)
= p(X = 0) + p(X = 1)
e−λ λ0 e−λλ1
= + = e−λ [1 + λ]
0 1

= e−5 (1 + 5) = 6 × e−5
= 6 × 0.0067 = 0.0402
(ii) P(4, 5 or 6 persons suffer) = p(X = 4) + p(X = 5) + p(X = 6)
e−λ λ4 e−λ λ5 e−λ λ6 e−λ λ4  λ λ2
= + + = 1 + 5 + 30
4 5 6 4  

e−5 54  5 25 e−5 54 17 10625

= 24  1 + 5 + 30 = 24  6  = 144 × 0.0067
= 0.4944
Example 10.25 : In a Poisson distribution if P(X = 2) = P(X = 3) find P(X =5)
[given e−3 = 0.050].
Solution : Given P(X = 2) = P(X = 3)
e−λ λ2 e−λ λ3
∴ =
2 3

⇒ 3λ2 = λ3
⇒ λ2 (3 − λ) = 0 As λ ≠ 0. λ = 3
e−λ λ5 e−3 (3)5 0.050 × 243
P(X = 5) = = = 120 = 0.101
5 5

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Example 10.26 : If the number of incoming buses per minute at a bus terminus
is a random variable having a Poisson distribution with λ=0.9, find the
probability that there will be
(i) Exactly 9 incoming buses during a period of 5 minutes
(ii) Fewer than 10 incoming buses during a period of 8 minutes.
(iii) Atleast 14 incoming buses during a period of 11 minutes.
Solution :
λ for number of incoming
(i) = 0.9
buses per minute
∴ λ for number of incoming
buses per 5 minutes = 0.9 × 5 = 4.5
P exactly 9 incoming buses e−λ λ9

during 5 minutes  = 9

e−4.5 × (4.5)9
i.e., P(X = 9) =
9
fewer than 10 incoming buses
(ii) 
during a period of 8 minutes  = P(X <10)
Here λ = 0.9 × 8 = 7.2
9 e−7.2 × (7.2)x
∴ Required probability = ∑
x=0 x
P atleast 14 incoming buses
during a period of 11 minutes  = P(X ≥ 14) = 1 − P(X < 14)
(iii) 

Here λ = 11 × 0.9 = 9.9

13 e−9.9 × (9.9)x
∴ Required probability = 1 − ∑
x=0 x
(The answer can be left at this stage).
EXERCISE 10.4
(1) Let X have a Poisson distribution with mean 4. Find (i) P(X ≤ 3)
(ii) P(2 ≤ X < 5) [e−4 = 0.0183].
(2) If the probability of a defective fuse from a manufacturing unit is 2% in a
box of 200 fuses find the probability that
(i) exactly 4 fuses are defective (ii) more than 3 fuses are defective
[e−4 = 0.0183].

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(3) 20% of the bolts produced in a factory are found to be defective. Find the
probability that in a sample of 10 bolts chosen at random exactly 2 will
be defective using (i) Binomial distribution (ii) Poisson distribution. [e−2
= 0.1353].
(4) Alpha particles are emitted by a radio active source at an average rate of
5 in a 20 minutes interval. Using Poisson distribution find the probability
that there will be (i) 2 emission (ii) at least 2 emission in a particular 20
minutes interval. [e−5 = 0.0067].
(5) The number of accidents in a year involving taxi drivers in a city follows
a Poisson distribution with mean equal to 3. Out of 1000 taxi drivers find
approximately the number of drivers with (i) no accident in a year
(ii) more than 3 accidents in a year [e−3 = 0.0498].
10.4.3 Normal Distribution :
The Binomial and the Poisson distribution described above are the most
useful theoretical distribution for discrete variables i.e., they relate to the
occurrence of distinct events. In order to have mathematical distribution
suitable for dealing with quantities whose magnitude is continuously varying, a
continuous distribution is needed. The normal distribution is also called the
normal probability distribution, happens to be the most useful theoretical
distribution for continuous variables. Many statistical data concerning business
and economic problems are displayed in the form of normal distribution. In fact
normal distribution is the ‘corner stone’ of Modern statistics.
Like the Poisson distribution, the normal distribution may also be regarded
as a limiting case of binomial distribution. Indeed when n is large and neither
p nor q is close to zero the Binomial distribution is approximated by the normal
distribution inspite of the fact that the former is a discrete distribution, where as
the later is a continuous distribution. Examples include measurement errors in
scientific experiments, anthropometric measurements of fossils, reaction times
in psychological experiment, measurements of intelligence and aptitude, scores
on various tests and numerous economic measures and indication.
Definition : A continuous random variable X is said to follow a normal
distribution with parameter µ and σ (or µ and σ2) if the probability function is
1 x − µ2
−2
e 
1 σ 
f(x) = ; −∞ < x < ∞, − ∞ < µ < ∞, and σ > 0.
σ 2π

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X ∼ N(µ, σ) denotes that the random variable X follows normal distribution

with mean µ and standard deviation σ.
Note : Even we can write the normal distribution as X∼ N(µ, σ2) symbolically.
In this case the parameters are mean and variance.
The normal distribution is also called Gaussian Distribution. The normal
distribution was first discovered by De-Moivre (1667 − 1754) in 1733 as a
limiting case of Binomial distribution. It was also known to Laplace not later
than 1744 but through a historical error it has been credited to Gauss who first
made reference to it in 1809.
Constants of Normal distribution :
Mean = µ
Variance = σ2
Standard deviation = σ
-∞ ∞
The graph of the normal curve is x =µ
shown above. z =0
Fig. 10.3
Properties of Normal Distribution :
(1) The normal curve is bell shaped
(2) It is symmetrical about the line X = µ ie., about the mean line.
(3) Mean = Median = Mode = µ
1
(4) The height of the normal curve is maximum at X = µ and is the
σ 2π
maximum height (probability).
(5) It has only one mode at X = µ. ∴ The normal curve is unimodal
(6) The normal curve is asymptotic to the base line.
(7) The points of inflection are at X = µ ± σ
(8) Since the curve is symmetrical about X = µ, the skewness is zero.
(9) Area property :
P(µ −σ < X < µ + σ) = 0.6826
P(µ −2σ < X < µ + 2σ) = 0.9544
P(µ −3σ < X < µ + 3σ) = 0.9973
(10) A normal distribution is a close approximation to the binomial
distribution when n, the number of trials is very large and p the
probability of success is close to 1/2 i.e., neither p nor q is so small.
(11) It is also a limiting form of Poisson distribution i.e., as λ → ∞ Poisson
distribution tends to normal distribution.

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Standard Normal Distribution :

A random variable X is called a standard normal variate if its mean is zero
and its standard deviation is unity.
A normal distribution with mean µ and standard deviation σ can be
converted into a standard normal distribution by performing change of scale and
origin.
The formula that enables us to change from the x scale to the z – scale and
X−µ
vice versa is Z =
σ
The probability density function of the standard normal variate Z is given by
1
1 − 2 z2
ϕ(z) = e ; −∞ < z < ∞
2π
The distribution does not contain any parameter. The standard normal
distribution is denoted by N(0,1).
The total area under the normal probability curve is unity.
∞ ∞ 0 ∞
i.e., ⌠
⌡ f(x) dx = ⌠
⌡ ϕ (z)dz = 1 ⇒ ⌠
⌡ ϕ (z)dz = ⌠
⌡ϕ (z)dz = 0.5
−∞ −∞ −∞ 0

Area Property of Normal Distribution :

The Probability that a random variable X lies in the interval
(µ − σ, µ + σ) is given by
µ +σ
P(µ −σ < X < µ + σ) = ⌠
⌡ f(x) dx
µ −σ
X−µ
substituting X = µ − σ and X = µ + σ in Z =
σ
1
P(−1< Z< 1)= ⌠
⌡ ϕ (z)dz
−1
1 -∞ ∞
-1 0 1
= 2⌠
⌡ ϕ (z)dz (by symmetry) Fig. 10.4
0
= 2 × 0.3413, (from the area table)
= 0.6826

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Also P(µ −2σ < X < µ + 2σ)

µ +2σ
= ⌠
⌡ f(x) dx
µ −2σ -∞ ∞
-2 0 2
2
P(−2 < Z < 2) = ⌠
⌡ϕ (z)dz
−2
Fig. 10.5
2
= 2⌠
⌡ϕ (z)dz , (by symmetry)
0
= 2 × 0.4772 = 0.9544
Similarly P(µ −3σ < X < µ + 3σ)
µ +3σ 3
= ⌡ f(x) dx = ⌠
⌠ ⌡ϕ (z)dz -∞
-3 0 3
∞
µ −3σ −3
= 2 × 0.49865 = 0.9973 Fig. 10.6
Therefore the probability that a normal variate X lies outside the range
µ ± 3σ is given by
P( | X − µ | > 3σ) = P( | Z | >3) = 1 − p(−3 < Z < 3) = 1 − 0.9973 = 0.0027
Note : Since the areas under the normal probability curve have been tabulated
interms of the standard normal variate Z, for any problem first convert X to Z.
The entries in the table gives the areas under the normal curve between the
mean (z = 0) and the given value of z as shown below :
Therefore entries corresponding to
negative values are unnecessary because
the normal curve is symmetrical. For
-∞ ∞
example 0 z
P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.2) = P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ 0)
Fig. 10.7
Example 10.27 : Let Z be a standard normal variate. Calculate the following
probabilities.
(i) P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.2) (ii) P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ 0)
(iii) Area to the right of Z = 1.3 (iv) Area to the left of Z = 1.5
(v) P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ 2.5) (vi) P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ − 0.5) (vii) P(1.5 ≤ Z ≤ 2.5)

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Solution :

(i) P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.2)

P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.2) = area between
Z = 0 and Z = 1.2 -∞ ∞
z =0 z =1.2
= 0.3849
Fig. 10.8
(ii) P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ 0)

P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ 0) = P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.2) -∞

z =-1.2 z =0
∞

by symmetry
= 0.3849 Fig. 10.9
(iii) Area to the right of Z = 1.3
P(Z > 1.3) = area between Z = 0 to Z = ∞
− area between Z = 0 to Z = 1.3 -∞
z =0 z =1.3
∞

= P(0 < Z < ∞) − P(0 ≤ Z <1.3)

= 0.5 − 0.4032 = 0.0968 Fig. 10.10
(iv) Area of the left of Z = 1.5
= P(Z < 1.5)
-∞ ∞
= P(−∞ < Z< 0) + P(0 ≤ Z < 1.5) z =0 z =1.5

= 0.5 + 0.4332
= 0.9332 Fig. 10.11
(v) P(−1.2 ≤ Z < 2.5)
= P(− 1.2 < Z < 0) + P(0 < Z < 2.5)
= P(0 ≤ Z < 1.2) + P(0≤ Z ≤ 2.5) -∞ ∞
-1.2 z =0 2.5
[by symmetry]
= 0.3849 + 0.4938
= 0.8787 Fig. 10.12
(vi) P(−1.2 ≤ Z ≤ −0.5)
= P(−1.2 < Z < 0) − P(−0.5 < Z < 0)
= P(0 < Z < 1.2) − P(0 < Z < 0.5) -∞
z =0
∞
z =-1.2 z =-.5
[due to symmetry]
= 0.3849 − 0.1915 = 0.1934 Fig. 10.13

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(vii) P(1.5 ≤ Z ≤ 2.5)

Required area
= P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 2.5) − P(0 ≤ Z ≤ 1.5) = 0.4938 − 0.4332 = 0.0606
Example 10.28 : Let Z be a standard normal variate. Find the value of c in the
following problems.
(i) P(Z < c) = 0.05 (ii) P(−c < Z < c) = 0.94
(iii) P(Z > c) = 0.05 (iv) P(c < Z < 0) = 0.31
Solution :
(i) P(Z < c) = 0.05 i.e., P(− ∞ < Z < c) = 0.05
As area is < 0.5, c lies to the left of Z = 0. . 45
-∞ ∞
From the area table Z value for the area c 0
0.45 is 1.65. ∴c = − 1.65 Fig. 10.14
(ii) P(−c < Z < c) = 0.94
As Z = −c and Z = +c lie at equal distance from Z = 0,
0.94 . 94
∴ We have P(0 < Z < c) = 2 = 0.47.

Z value for the area 0.47 from the table . 47 . 47

-∞ ∞
is 1.88 ∴ c = 1.88 and − c = − 1.88 z =-c z =0 z =c

Fig. 10.15
(iii) P(Z > c) = 0.05 ⇒ P(c < Z < ∞) = 0.05
From the data it is clear that c lies to the right of Z = 0
The area to the right of Z = 0 is 0.5
P(0 < Z < ∞) − P(0 < Z < c) = 0.05
0.5 − P(0 < Z < c) = 0.05 . 45
0.05
-∞ ∞
z =0 z =c
∴ 0.5 − 0.05 = P(0 < Z < c)
0.45 = P(0 < Z < c) Fig. 10.16
From the area table Z value for the area 0.45 is 1.65 ∴ c = 1.65
(iv) P(c < Z < 0) = 0.31
As c is less than zero, it lies to the left of Z = 0. From the area table the Z
value for the area 0.31 is 0.88. As it in to the left of Z = 0, c = − 0.88
Example 10.29 : If X is normally distributed with mean 6 and standard
deviation 5 find. (i) P(0 ≤ X ≤ 8) (ii) P( | X − 6 | < 10)

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Solution : Given µ = 6, σ = 5
(i) P(0 ≤ X ≤ 8)
X−µ
We know that Z =
σ
0−6 −6 -∞ ∞
When X = 0, Z = 5 = 5 = − 1.2 z =-1.2 z =0 z =.4

8−6 2 Fig. 10.17

When X = 8, Z = 5 = 5 = 0.4
∴ P(0 ≤ X ≤ 8) = P(−1.2 < Z < 0.4)
= P(0< Z <1.2) + P(0 < Z < .4) (due to symmetry)
= 0.3849 + 0.1554
= 0.5403
(ii) P( | X − 6| < 10) = P(−10 < (X − 6) < 10) ⇒ P(−4 < X < 16)
−4 − 6 −10
When X = −4, Z = 5 = 5 = −2
16 − 6 10 -∞
z =-2 z =0 z =2
∞
When X = 16, Z = 5 = 5 = 2
Fig. 10.18
P(− 4 < X < 16) = P(−2 < Z < 2)
= 2 P(0 < Z < 2) (due to symmetry)
= 2 (0.4772) = 0.9544
Example 10.30 : The mean score of 1000 students for an examination is 34 and
S.D is 16. (i) How many candidates can be expected to obtain marks between
30 and 60 assuming the normality of the distribution and (ii) determine the limit
of the marks of the central 70% of the candidates.
Solution : µ = 34, σ = 16, N = 1000
X−µ
(i) P(30 < X < 60) ; Z =
σ
30 − µ 30 − 34
∴ X = 30, Z1 = =
σ 16
−4 -∞ ∞
= 16 = −0.25 x =30 x =34 x =60
z1 z2
Z1 = −0.25
Fig. 10.19
60 − 34 26
Z2 = 16 = 16 = 1.625
Z2 ≈ 1.63 (app.)
P(−0.25 < Z < 1.63) =P(0 < Z< 0.25) + P(0 < Z < 1.63) (due to symmetry)

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= 0.0987 + 0.4484 = 0.5471

No of students scoring 
between 30 and 60  = 0.5471 × 1000 = 547.


(ii) limit of central 70% of Candidates :

Value of Z1 from the area table 
 = − 1.04
for the area 0.35 
[ as Z1 lies to left of Z = 0] . 35 . 35
-∞ ∞
Similarly Z2 = 1.04 z1 z =0 z2

Fig. 10.20
X − 34 X − 34
Z1 = 16 = 1.04 Z2 = 16 = − 1.04
X1 = 16 × 1.04 + 34 X2− 34 = − 1.04 × 16 + 34
= 16.64 + 34 X2 = − 16.64 + 34
X1 = 50.64 X2 = 17.36
∴ 70% of the candidate score between 17.36 and 50.64.
Example 10.31 : Obtain k, µ and σ2 of the normal distribution whose
probability distribution function is given by
2
f(x) = k e−2x + 4x −∞ < X < ∞
Solution : Consider
−2x2 + 4x = −2 (x2 − 2x) = −2 [(x −1)2 − 1] = −2 (x − 1)2 + 2
2 2
∴ e−2x + 4x = e2. e−2(x −1)
2
1 (x −1) 1 x −1 2
−2 −2  1/2 
1/4  
= e2. e = e2. e
Comparing it with f(x) we get
1 x −µ  2
−2 
e  σ 
−2x2 + 4x 1
ke =
σ 2π
1 x −1 2 1 x −µ 2
−2  1  −2  
e  σ 
1
⇒ ke 2
e  /2  =
σ 2π
1 1 2e−2 2 1
we get σ = 2 = µ = 1 and k = 1 . e−2 = ,σ =4
2 2π
2π

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Example 10.32 : The air pressure in a randomly selected tyre put on a certain
model new car is normally distributed with mean value 31 psi and standard
deviation 0.2 psi.
(i) What is the probability that the pressure for a randomly selected tyre
(a) between 30.5 and 31.5 psi (b) between 30 and 32 psi
(ii) What is the probability that the pressure for a randomly selected tyre
exceeds 30.5 psi ?
Solution : Given µ = 31 and σ = 0.2
X−µ
(i) (a) P(30.5 < X < 31.5) ; Z =
σ
30.5 − 31 −0.5
When X = 30.5, Z = 0.2 = 0.2 = −2.5
∞
31.5 − 31 0.5 -∞
x =30.5 µ =31 x =31.5
When X = 31.5, Z = 0.2 = 0.2 = 2.5
Fig. 10.21
∴ Required probability
P(30.5 < X < 31.5) = P( −2.5 < Z < 2.5)
= 2 P(0< Z < 2.5)
[since due to symmetry]
= 2(0.4938) = 0.9876
(b) P(30 < X < 32)
30 − 31 −1
When X = 30, Z= 0.2 = 0.2 = − 5
-∞ ∞
32 − 31 1 µ =31
When X = 32, Z= 0.2 = 0.2 = 5
Fig. 10.22
P(30 < X < 32) = P(−5 < Z < 5) = area under the whole curve = 1 (app.)
30.5 − 31 −0.5
(ii) When X = 30.5 , Z = 0.2 = 0.2 = −2.5

P(X > 30.5) = P(Z > − 2.5)

= 0.5 + p(0 < Z < 2.5)
= 0.5 + 0.4938 = 0.9938 -∞ ∞
z =-2.5
Fig. 10.23

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EXERCISE 10.5
(1) If X is a normal variate with mean 80 and standard deviation 10,
compute the following probabilities by standardizing.
(i) P(X ≤ 100) (ii) P(X ≤ 80)
(iii) P(65 ≤ X ≤ 100) (iv) P(70 < X)
(v) P(85 ≤ X ≤ 95)
(2) If Z is a standard normal variate, find the value of c for the following
(i) P(0 < Z < c) = 0.25 (ii) P(−c < Z < c) = 0.40
(iii) P(Z > c) = 0.85
(3) Suppose that the amount of cosmic radiation to which a person is
exposed when flying by jet across the United States is a random
variable having a normal distribution with a mean of 4.35 m rem and a
standard deviation of 0.59 m rem. What is the probability that a person
will be exposed to more than 5.20 m rem of cosmic radiation of such a
flight.
(4) The life of army shoes is normally distributed with mean 8 months and
standard deviation 2 months. If 5000 pairs are issued, how many pairs
would be expected to need replacement within 12 months.
(5) The mean weight of 500 male students in a certain college in 151
pounds and the standard deviation is 15 pounds. Assuming the weights
are normally distributed, find how many students weigh (i) between
120 and 155 pounds (ii) more than 185 pounds.
(6) If the height of 300 students are normally distributed with mean 64.5
inches and standard deviation 3.3 inches, find the height below which
99% of the student lie.
(7) Marks in an aptitude test given to 800 students of a school was found to
be normally distributed. 10% of the students scored below 40 marks and
10% of the students scored above 90 marks. Find the number of
students scored between 40 and 90.
(8) Find c, µ and σ2 of the normal distribution whose probability function
2
is given by f(x) = c e−x + 3x , − ∞ < X < ∞.

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OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Choose the correct or most suitable answer :
(1) The gradient of the curve y = − 2x3 + 3x + 5 at x = 2 is
(1) − 20 (2) 27 (3) −16 (4) − 21
(2) The rate of change of area A of a circle of radius r is
dr dr dr
(1) 2 π r (2) 2 π r dt (3) π r2 dt (4) π dt
(3) The velocity v of a particle moving along a straight line when at a
distance x from the origin is given by a + bv2 = x2 where a and b are
constants. Then the acceleration is
b a x x
(1) x (2) x (3) b (4) a
(4) A spherical snowball is melting in such a way that its volume is
decreasing at a rate of 1 cm3 / min. The rate at which the diameter is
decreasing when the diameter is 10 cms is
−1 1
(1) cm / min (2) cm / min
50π 50π
−11 −2
(3) cm / min (4) cm / min.
75π 75π
(5) The slope of the tangent to the curve y = 3x2 + 3sin x at x = 0 is
(1) 3 (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) − 1
2
(6) The slope of the normal to the curve y = 3x at the point whose
x coordinate is 2 is
1 1 −1 1
(1) 13 (2) 14 (3) 12 (4) 12

(7) The point on the curve y = 2x2 – 6x – 4 at which the tangent is parallel
to the x – axis is
−5 – 17 −5 17
(1)  2 , 2  (2)  2 , 2  (3)  2 , 2  (4)  2 , 2 
5 – 17 3 – 17
       
x3
(8) The equation of the tangent to the curve y = 5 at the point (−1, −1/5)
is
(1) 5y + 3x = 2 (2) 5y − 3x = 2 (3) 3x − 5y = 2 (4) 3x + 3y = 2

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1
(9) The equation of the normal to the curve θ = t at the point (−3, − 1/3) is
(1) 3 θ = 27 t – 80 (2) 5 θ = 27t – 80
1
(3) 3 θ = 27 t + 80 (4) θ = t
x2 y2 x2 y2
(10) The angle between the curves 25 + 9 = 1 and 8 − 8 = 1 is
π π π π
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 6 (4) 2
(11) The angle between the curve y = emx and y = e–mx for m >1 is
(1) tan−1  2  (2) tan−1
2m 2m 

m -1  1− m2 
−2m 
(3) tan−1  (4) tan−1  2
2m 
2  
1+ m  m +1 
(12) The parametric equations of the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 are
(1) x = a sin3 θ ; y = a cos3 θ (2) x = a cos3 θ ; y = a sin3 θ
(3) x = a3 sin θ ; y = a3 cos θ (4) x = a3 cos θ ; y = a3 sin θ
(13) If the normal to the curve x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 makes an angle θ with the
x – axis then the slope of the normal is
(1) – cot θ (2) tan θ (3) – tan θ (4) cot θ
(14) If the length of the diagonal of a square is increasing at the rate of
0.1 cm / sec. What is the rate of increase of its area when the side
15
is cm?
2
(1) 1.5 cm2/sec (2) 3 cm2/sec (3) 3 2 cm2/sec (4) 0.15 cm2/sec
(15) What is the surface area of a sphere when the volume is increasing at
the same rate as its radius?
1 4π
(1) 1 (2) (3) 4π (4) 3
2π
(16) For what values of x is the rate of increase of x3 − 2x2 + 3x + 8 is twice
the rate of increase of x
(1) − 3 , − 3 (2) 3 , 3 (3) − 3 , 3 (4) 3 , 1
1 1 1 1
       
(17) The radius of a cylinder is increasing at the rate of 2cm / sec and its
altitude is decreasing at the rate of 3cm / sec. The rate of change of
volume when the radius is 3cm and the altitude is 5cm is
(1) 23π (2) 33π (3) 43π (4) 53π

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(18) If y = 6x − x3 and x increases at the rate of 5 units per second, the rate of
change of slope when x = 3 is
(1) − 90 units / sec(2) 90 units / sec
(3) 180 units / sec (4) − 180 units / sec
(19) If the volume of an expanding cube is increasing at the rate of
4cm3 / sec then the rate of change of surface area when the volume of
the cube is 8 cubic cm is
(1) 8cm2/sec (2) 16cm2 / sec (3) 2 cm2 / sec (4) 4 cm2 / sec
(20) The gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 at the point
where the curve cuts the y-axis is
(1) 8 (2) 4 (3) 0 (4) − 4
(21) The Angle between the parabolas y2 = x and x2 = y at the origin is
π π
(1) 2 tan−1 4 (2) tan− 1 3 (3) 2
3 4
(4) 4
   
(22) For the curve x = et cos t ; y = et sin t the tangent line is parallel to the
x-axis when t is equal to
π π π
(1) − 4 (2) 4 (3) 0 (4) 2
(23) If a normal makes an angle θ with positive x-axis then the slope of the
curve at the point where the normal is drawn is
(1) − cot θ (2) tan θ (3) − tan θ (4) cot θ
a
(24) The value of ‘a’ so that the curves y = 3e and y = 3 e−x intersect
x

orthogonally is
1
(1) − 1 (2) 1 (3) 3 (4) 3
3 2
(25) If s = t − 4t + 7, the velocity when the acceleration is zero is
32 − 16 16 − 32
(1) 3 m/sec (2) 3 m/sec (3) 3 m/sec (4) 3 m/sec
(26) If the velocity of a particle moving along a straight line is directly
proportional to the square of its distance from a fixed point on the line.
Then its acceleration is proportional to
(1) s (2) s2 (3) s3 (4) s4
2
(27) The Rolle’s constant for the function y = x on [− 2, 2] is
2 3
(1) 3 (2) 0 (3) 2 (4) − 2

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(28) The ‘c’ of Lagranges Mean Value Theorem for the function
f(x) = x2 + 2x − 1 ; a = 0, b = 1 is
1
(1) − 1 (2) 1 (3) 0 (4) 2

x
(29) The value of c in Rolle’s Theorem for the function f(x) = cos 2 on
[π, 3π] is
π 3π
(1) 0 2) 2π (3) 2 (4) 2

(30) The value of ‘c’ of Lagranges Mean Value Theorem for f(x) = x when
a = 1 and b = 4 is
9 3 1 1
(1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 2 (4) 4

x2
(31) lim x is =
x→∞
e

(1) 2 (2) 0 (3) ∞ (4) 1

x x
a −b
(32) lim x x
x→ 0 c − d
ab log (a/b)
(1) ∞ (2) 0 (3) log cd (4)
log (c/d)
(33) If f(a) = 2; f ′(a) = 1 ; g(a) = − 1 ; g ′(a) = 2 then the value of
g(x) f(a) − g(a) f(x)
lim is
x−a
x→a
(1) 5 (2) − 5 (3) 3 (4) − 3
(34) Which of the following function is increasing in (0, ∞)
1
(1) ex (2) x (3) − x2 (4) x−2

(35) The function f(x) = x2 − 5x + 4 is increasing in

(1) (− ∞, 1) (2) (1, 4) (3) (4, ∞) (4) everywhere
2
(36) The function f(x) = x is decreasing in
(1) (− ∞, ∞) (2) (− ∞, 0) (3) (0, ∞) (4) (− 2, ∞)

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(37) The function y = tan x − x is

π
(1) an increasing function in 0 , 2
 
π
(2) a decreasing function in 0 , 2
 
π π π
(3) increasing in 0 , 4 and decreasing in 4 , 2
   
π π π
(4) decreasing in 0 , 4 and increasing in 4 , 2
   
(38) In a given semi circle of diameter 4 cm a rectangle is to be inscribed.
The maximum area of the rectangle is
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 8 (4) 16
2
(39) The least possible perimeter of a rectangle of area 100m is
(1) 10 (2) 20 (3) 40 (4) 60
(40) If f(x) = x2 − 4x + 5 on [0, 3] then the absolute maximum value is
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5
−x
(41) The curve y = − e is
(1) concave upward for x > 0 (2) concave downward for x > 0
(2) everywhere concave upward (4) everywhere concave downward
(42) Which of the following curves is concave down?
(1) y = − x2 (2) y = x2 (3) y = ex (4) y = x2 + 2x − 3
(43) The point of inflexion of the curve y = x4 is at
(1) x = 0 (2) x = 3 (3) x = 12 (4) nowhere
3 2
(44) The curve y = ax + bx + cx + d has a point of inflexion at x = 1 then
(1) a + b = 0 (2) a + 3b = 0 (3) 3a +b = 0 (4) 3a + b = 1
y ∂u
(45) If u = x then is equal to
∂x
(1) yxy − 1 (2) u log x (3) u log y (4) xyx − 1
x4 + y4
(46) If u = sin−1  2  and f = sin u then f is a homogeneous function of
x + y2
degree
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 4
1 ∂u ∂u
(47) If u = , then x + y is equal to
x2 + y2 ∂x ∂y
1 3
(1) 2 u (2) u (3) 2 u (4) − u

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(48) The curve y2 (x − 2) = x2 (1 + x) has

(1) an asymptote parallel to x-axis (2) an asymptote parallel to y-axis
(3) asymptotes parallel to both axes (4) no asymptotes
∂r
(49) If x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, then is equal to
∂x
(1) sec θ (2) sin θ (3) cos θ (4) cosec θ
(50) Identify the true statements in the following :
(i) If a curve is symmetrical about the origin, then it is symmetrical
about both axes.
(ii) If a curve is symmetrical about both the axes, then it is
symmetrical about the origin.
(iii) A curve f(x, y) = 0 is symmetrical about the line y = x
if f(x, y) = f(y, x).
(iv) For the curve f(x, y) = 0, if f(x, y) = f(− y, − x), then it is
symmetrical about the origin.
(1) (ii), (iii) (2) (i), (iv) (3) (i), (iii) (4) (ii), (iv)
x2 + y2 ∂u ∂u
(51) If u = log  xy  then x + y is
  ∂x ∂y
(1) 0 (2) u (3) 2u (4) u−1
(52) The percentage error in the 11th root of the number 28 is approximately
_____ times the percentage error in 28.
1 1
(1) 28 (2) 11 (3) 11 (4) 28

(53) The curve a2y2 = x2 (a2 − x2) has

(1) only one loop between x = 0 and x = a
(2) two loops between x = 0 and x = a
(3) two loops between x = − a and x = a
(4) no loop
(54) An asymptote to the curve y2 (a + 2x) = x2 (3a − x) is
(1) x = 3a (2) x = − a/2 (3) x = a/2 (4) x = 0
2 2
(55) In which region the curve y (a + x) = x (3a − x) does not lie?
(1) x > 0 (2) 0 < x < 3a (3) x ≤ − a and x > 3a (4) − a < x < 3a
∂2u
(56) If u = y sin x, then is equal to
∂x ∂y
(1) cos x (2) cos y (3) sin x 4) 0

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∂u ∂u
(57) If u = f x then x + y is equal to
y
  ∂x ∂y
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2u (4) u
2 2 2
(58) The curve 9y = x (4 − x ) is symmetrical about
(1) y-axis (2) x-axis (3) y = x (4) both the axes
2 2
(59) The curve ay = x (3a − x) cuts the y-axis at
(1) x = − 3a, x = 0 (2) x = 0, x = 3a (3) x = 0, x = a (4) x = 0
π/2 cos5/3x
(60) The value of ⌠ dx is
⌡ cos5/3x + sin 5/3x
0
π π
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 0 (4) π
π/2 sin x − cos x
(61) The value of ⌠ 1 + sin x cos x dx is
⌡
0
π π
(1) 2 (2) 0 (3) 4 (4) π
1
(62) The value of ⌠ x (1 − x)4 dx is
⌡
0
1 1 1 1
(1) 12 (2) 30 (3) 24 (4) 20
π/2
(63) The value of ⌠ 2 + cosx dx is
sin x
⌡  
− π/2
(1) 0 (2) 2 (3) log 2 (4) log 4
π
(64) The value of ⌠ sin4x dx is
⌡
0
(1) 3π/16 (2) 3/16 (3) 0 (4) 3π/8
π/4 3
(65) The value of ⌠ cos 2x dx is
⌡
0
2 1 2π
(1) 3 (2) 3 (3) 0 (4) 3

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π
(66) The value of ⌠ sin2x cos3x dx is
⌡
0
(1) π (2) π/2 (3) π/4 (4) 0
(67) The area bounded by the line y = x, the x-axis, the ordinates x = 1, x = 2
is
3 5 1 7
(1) 2 (2) 2 (3) 2 (4) 2
(68) The area of the region bounded by the graph of y = sin x and y = cos x
π
between x = 0 and x = 4 is
(1) 2 + 1 (2) 2 − 1 (3) 2 2 − 2 (4) 2 2 + 2
2 2
x y
(69) The area between the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 and its auxillary circle is
a b
(1) πb(a − b) (2) 2πa (a − b) (3) πa (a − b) (4) 2πb (a − b)
2
(70) The area bounded by the parabola y = x and its latus rectum is
4 1 2 8
(1) 3 (2) 6 (3) 3 (4) 3
x2 y2
(71) The volume of the solid obtained by revolving 9 + 16 = 1 about the
minor axis is
(1) 48π (2) 64π (3) 32π (4) 128 π
(72) The volume, when the curve y = 3 + x2 from x = 0 to x = 4 is rotated
about x-axis is
100 100 100
(1) 100 π (2) 9 π (3) 3 π (4) 3
(73) The volume generated when the region bounded by y = x, y = 1, x = 0 is
rotated about y-axis is
π π π 2π
(1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 3
(74) Volume of solid obtained by revolving the area of the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 about major and minor axes are in the ratio
a2 b2
(1) b2 : a2 (2) a2 : b2 (3) a : b (4) b : a
(75) The volume generated by rotating the triangle with vertices at
(0, 0), (3, 0) and (3, 3) about x-axis is
(1) 18π (2) 2π (3) 36π (4) 9π

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(76) The length of the arc of the curve x2/3 + y2/3= 4 is

(1) 48 (2) 24
(3) 12 (4) 96
(77) The surface area of the solid of revolution of the region bounded by
y = 2x, x = 0 and x = 2 about x-axis is
(1) 8 5 π (2) 2 5 π (3) 5π (4) 4 5π
(78) The curved surface area of a sphere of radius 5, intercepted between
two parallel planes of distance 2 and 4 from the centre is
(1) 20π (2) 40π (3) 10π (4) 30π
dy y 4x
(79) The integrating factor of dx + 2 x = e is
(1) log x (2) x2 (3) ex (4) x
dy
(80) If cos x is an integrating factor of the differential equation dx + Py = Q
then P =
(1) − cot x (2) cot x (3) tan x (4) − tan x
(81) The integrating factor of dx + xdy = e−y sec2y dy is
(1) ex (2) e−x (3) ey (4) e−y
dy 1 2
(82) Integrating factor of dx + x log x .y = 2 is
x
1
(1) ex
(2) logx (3) x (4) e−x
dx
(83) Solution of dy + mx = 0, where m < 0 is

(1) x = cemy (2) x = ce−my (3) x = my + c (4) x = c

2
(84) y = cx − c is the general solution of the differential equation
(1) (y′)2 − xy′ + y = 0 (2) y′′ = 0
(3) y′ = c (4) (y′)2 + xy′ + y = 0
dx 2
(85) The differential equation dy + 5y1/3 = x is
 
(1) of order 2 and degree 1
(2) of order 1 and degree 2
(3) of order 1 and degree 6
(4) of order 1 and degree 3
(86) The differential equation of all non-vertical lines in a plane is
dy d2y dy d2y
(1) dx = 0 (2) 2 = 0 (3) dx = m (4) 2 = m
dx dx

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(87) The differential equation of all circles with centre at the origin is
(1) x dy + y dx = 0 (2) x dy − y dx = 0
(3) x dx + y dy = 0 (4) x dx − y dy = 0
dy
(88) The integrating factor of the differential equation dx + py = Q is

⌠Q dx
(1) ⌠
⌡ pdx (2) ⌠
⌡ Q dx (3) e⌡ (4) e ∫pdx

(89) The complementary function of (D2 + 1)y = e2x is

(1) (Ax + B)ex (2) A cos x + B sin x (3) (Ax + B)e2x (4) (Ax + B)e−x
(90) A particular integral of (D2 − 4D + 4)y = e2x is
x2 x
(1) 2 e2x (2) xe2x (3) xe−2x (4) 2 e−2x
(91) The differential equation of the family of lines y = mx is
dy
(1) dx = m (2) ydx − xdy = 0

d2y
(3) =0 (4) ydx + x dy = 0
dx2
dy 1/3 d2y
(92) The degree of the differential equation 1 + dx
  = dx2
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 6
2/3
1 + dy3
 dx 
(93) The degree of the differential equation c = where c is a
d3y
dx3
constant is
(1) 1 (2) 3 (3) − 2 (4) 2
(94) The amount present in a radio active element disintegrates at a rate
proportional to its amount. The differential equation corresponding to
the above statement is (k is negative)
dp k dp dp dp
(1) dt = p (2) dt = kt (3) dt = kp (4) dt = − kt
(95) The differential equation satisfied by all the straight lines in xy plane is
dy d2 y dy d2y
(1) dx = a constant (2) 2 = 0 (3) y + dx = 0 (4) 2 + y = 0
dx dx

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(96) If y = keλx then its differential equation is

dy dy dy dy
(1) dx = λy (2) dx = ky (3) dx + ky = 0 (4) dx = eλx
(97) The differential equation obtained by eliminating a and b from
y = ae3x + be− 3x is
d2y d2y d2 y dy d2y
(1) + ay = 0 (2) − 9y = 0 (3) − 9 = 0 (4) + 9x = 0
dx2 dx2 dx2 dx dx2
(98) The differential equation formed by eliminating A and B from the
relation y = ex (A cos x + B sin x) is
(1) y2 + y1 = 0 (2) y2 − y1 = 0
(3) y2 − 2y1 + 2 y = 0 (4) y2 − 2y1 − 2 y = 0
dy x − y
(99) If dx = x + y then

(1) 2xy + y2 + x2 = c (2) x2 + y2 − x + y = c

(3) x2 + y2 − 2xy = c (4) x2 − y2 − 2xy = c
(100) If f ′(x) = x and f(1) = 2 then f(x) is
2 3
(1) − 3 (x x + 2) (2) 2 (x x + 2)
2 2
(3) 3 (x x + 2) (4) 3 x ( x + 2)
(101) On putting y = vx, the homogeneous differential equation
x2dy + y(x + y)dx = 0 becomes
(1) xdv + (2v + v2)dx = 0 (2) vdx + (2x + x2)dv = 0
(3) v2dx − (x + x2)dv = 0 (4) vdv + (2x + x2)dx = 0
dy
(102) The integrating factor of the differential equation dx − y tan x = cos x is

(1) sec x (2) cos x (3) etanx (4) cot x

2 2x
(103) The P.I. of (3D + D − 14)y = 13e is
2x 2x
(1) 26x e (2) 13x e (3) x e2x (4) x2/2 e2x
(104) The particular integral of the differential equation f(D)y = eax where
f(D) = (D − a) g(D), g(a) ≠ 0 is
eax xeax
(1) meax (2) g(a) (3) g(a)eax (4) g(a)

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(105) Which of the following are statements?

(i) May God bless you. (ii) Rose is a flower
(iii) Milk is white. (iv) 1 is a prime number
(1) (i), (ii), (iii) (2) (i), (ii), (iv) (3) (i), (iii), (iv) (4) (ii), (iii), (iv)
(106) If a compound statement is made up of three simple statements, then the
number of rows in the truth table is
(1) 8 (2) 6 (3) 4 (4) 2
(107) If p is T and q is F, then which of the following have the truth value T ?
(i) p ∨ q (ii) ∼ p ∨ q (iii) p ∨ ∼ q (iv) p ∧ ∼ q
(1) (i), (ii), (iii) (2) (i), (ii), (iv)
(3) (i), (iii), (iv) (4) (ii), (iii), (iv)
(108) The number of rows in the truth table of ∼ [p ∧ (∼ q)] is
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8
(109) The conditional statement p → q is equivalent to
(1) p ∨ q (2) p ∨ ∼ q (3) ∼ p ∨ q (4) p ∧ q
(110) Which of the following is a tautology?
(1) p ∨ q (2) p ∧ q (3) p ∨ ∼ p (4) p ∧ ∼ p
(111) Which of the following is a contradiction?
(1) p ∨ q (2) p ∧ q (3) p ∨ ∼ p (4) p ∧ ∼ p
(112) p ↔ q is equivalent to
(1) p → q (2) q → p (3) (p → q) ∨ (q → p) (4) (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
(113) Which of the following is not a binary operation on R
(1) a * b = ab (2) a * b = a − b
(3) a * b = ab (4) a * b = a2 + b2
(114) A monoid becomes a group if it also satisfies the
(1) closure axiom (2) associative axiom
(3) identity axiom (4) inverse axiom
(115) Which of the following is not a group?
(1) (Zn , +n) (2) (Z, +) (3) (Z, .) (4) (R, +)
(116) In the set of integers with operation * defined by a * b = a + b − ab, the
value of 3 * (4 * 5) is
(1) 25 (2) 15 (3) 10 (4) 5
(117) The order of [7] in (Z9 , +9) is
(1) 9 (2) 6 (3) 3 (4) 1
(118) In the multiplicative group of cube root of unity, the order of w2 is
(1) 4 (2) 3 (3) 2 (4) 1

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(119) The value of [3] +11 ([5] +11 [6]) is

(1) [0] (2) [1] (3) [2] (4) [3]
(120) In the set of real numbers R, an operation * is defined by

a*b= a2 + b2 . Then the value of (3 * 4) * 5 is

(1) 5 (2) 5 2 (3) 25 (4) 50
(121) Which of the following is correct?
(1) An element of a group can have more than one inverse.
(2) If every element of a group is its own inverse, then the group is
abelian.
(3) The set of all 2 × 2 real matrices forms a group under matrix
multiplication.
(4) (a * b)−1 = a−1 * b−1 for all a, b ∈ G
(122) The order of − i in the multiplicative group of 4th roots of unity is
(1) 4 (ii) 3 (3) 2 (4) 1
(123) In the multiplicative group of nth roots of unity, the inverse of ωk is
(k < n)
(1) ω1/k (2) ω−1 (3) ωn − k (4) ωn/k
(124) In the set of integers under the operation * defined by a * b = a + b − 1,
the identity element is
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) a (4) b
 k x , 0 < x < 3
2
(125) If f(x) =  is a probability density function then the
 0 ,elsewhere
value of k is
1 1 1 1
(1) 3 (2) 6 (3) 9 (4) 12

A 1
(126) If f(x) = ,−∞<x<∞
π 16 + x2
is a p.d.f of a continuous random variable X, then the value of A is
(1) 16 (2) 8 (3) 4 (4) 1

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(127) A random variable X has the following probability distribution

X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X = x) 1/4 2a 3a 4a 5a 1/4
Then P(1 ≤ x ≤ 4) is
10 2 1 1
(1) 21 (2) 7 (3) 14 (4) 2

(128) A random variable X has the following probability mass function as

follows :
X −2 3 1
λ λ λ
P(X = x)
6 4 12
Then the value of λ is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
(129) X is a discrete random variable which takes the values 0, 1, 2 and
144 1
P(X = 0) = 169 , P(X = 1) = 169 then the value of P(X = 2) is

145 24 2 143
(1) 169 (2) 169 (3) 169 (4) 169
(130) A random variable X has the following p.d.f
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P(X = x) 0 k 2k 2k 3k 2 2 2
k 2k 7k + k
The value of k is
1 1 1
(1) 8 (2) 10 (3) 0 (4) − 1 or 10

(131) Given E(X + c) = 8 and E(X − c) = 12 then the value of c is

(1) −2 (2) 4 (3) −4 (4) 2
(132) X is a random variable taking the values 3, 4 and 12 with probabilities
1 1 5
3 , 4 and 12 . Then E(X) is
(1) 5 (2) 7 (3) 6 (4) 3
(133) Variance of the random variable X is 4. Its mean is 2. Then E(X2) is
(1) 2 (2) 4 (3) 6 (4) 8

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(134) µ2 = 20, µ2′ = 276 for a discrete random variable X. Then the mean of
the random variable X is
(1) 16 (2) 5 (3) 2 (4) 1
(135) Var (4X + 3) is
(1) 7 (2) 16 Var (X) (3) 19 (4) 0
(136) In 5 throws of a die, getting 1 or 2 is a success. The mean number of
successes is
5 3 5 9
(1) 3 (2) 5 (3) 9 (4) 5

(137) The mean of a binomial distribution is 5 and its standard deviation is 2.

Then the value of n and p are

(1) 5 ,25 (2) 25, 5 (3) 5 ,25 (4) 25,5

4 4 1 1
       
(138) If the mean and standard deviation of a binomial distribution are 12 and 2
respectively. Then the value of its parameter p is
1 1 2 1
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 3 (4) 4

(139) In 16 throws of a die getting an even number is considered a success.

Then the variance of the successes is
(1) 4 (2) 6 (3) 2 (4) 256
(140) A box contains 6 red and 4 white balls. If 3 balls are drawn at random,
the probability of getting 2 white balls without replacement, is
1 18 4 3
(1) 20 (2) 125 (3) 25 (4) 10

(141) If 2 cards are drawn from a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, the probability
that they are of the same colours without replacement, is
1 26 25 25
(1) 2 (2) 51 (3) 51 (4) 102

(142) If in a Poisson distribution P(X = 0) = k then the variance is

1 1
(1) log k (2) log k (3) eλ (4) k

(143) If a random variable X follows Poisson distribution such that E(X2) = 30

then the variance of the distribution is
(1) 6 (2) 5 (3) 30 (4) 25

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(144) The distribution function F(X) of a random variable X is

(1) a decreasing function
(2) a non-decreasing function
(3) a constant function
(4) increasing first and then decreasing
(145) For a Poisson distribution with parameter λ = 0.25 the value of the
2nd moment about the origin is
(1) 0.25 (2) 0.3125 (3) 0.0625 (4) 0.025
(146) In a Poisson distribution if P(X = 2) = P(X = 3) then the value of its
parameter λ is
(1) 6 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 0
∞
(147) If f(x) is a p.d.f of a normal distribution with mean µ then ⌠
⌡f(x) dx is
−∞
(1) 1 (2) 0.5 (3) 0 (4) 0.25
(148) The random variable X follows normal distribution
2
−1/2 (x − 100)
f(x) = ce 25 Then the value of c is
1 1
(1) 2π (2) (3) 5 2π (4)
2π 5 2π
µ
(149) If f(x) is a p.d.f. of a normal variate X and X ∼ N(µ, σ2) then ⌠ f(x) dx
⌡
−∞
is
(1) undefined (2) 1 (3) .5 (4) − .5
(150) The marks secured by 400 students in a Mathematics test were normally
distributed with mean 65. If 120 students got more marks above 85, the
number of students securing marks between 45 and 65 is
(1) 120 (2) 20 (3) 80 (4) 160

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ANSWERS
EXERCISE 5.1
(1) (i) 100 m / sec (ii) t = 4 (iii) 200m (iv) − 100 m / sec
(2) − 12, 0 (3) (i) 72 km / hr (ii) 60 m
(4) 1.5936°c / sec (5) decreasing at the rate of 1.6 cm / min
195 π 6
(6) km / hr (7) 0.3 m2 / sec (8) m / min (9) ft / min
29 63 5π
EXERCISE 5.2
(1) (i) 8x + y + 9 = 0 (ii) 2x − y − π/2 = 0
x − 8y + 58 = 0 x + 2y − 3π/2 = 0
π
(iv) y − ( 2 + 1) = (2 + 2) x − 4
(iii) y = 2
x = π/6  
− 1  π
y − ( 2 + 1) = x−4
2+ 2  
 2 2  2 2
(2)
2 3, 3 and − 2 3, − 3
(3) (2, 3) and (− 2, − 3) (4) (i) (1, 0) and (1, 4) (ii) (3, 2) and (−1, 2)
(5) 2x + 3y ± 26 = 0 (6) x + 9y ± 20 = 0
log a − log b
(9) θ = tan−1 1 + log a log b
 
EXERCISE 5.3
π
(1) (i) True , c = 2 (ii) Fails , f(0) ≠ f (1)
3
(iii) Fails , At x = 1 the function is not differentiable (iv) True , c = ± 2
(2) (0, 1)
EXERCISE 5.4
3
(1) (i) True , c = 2 (ii) True , c = 2
− 1 + 61
(iii) True , c = 6
7
(iv) Fails , Function is not differentiable at x = 0 (v) True , c = 3
(2) 16

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EXERCISE 5.5
2 3
2x (2x) (2x) x4
(1) 1 + + + +… (2) 1 − x2 + 3 + …
1 2 3

x3 2x5
(3) 1 − x + x2 + … (4) x + 3 + 15 + …

EXERCISE 5.6
(1) − π (2) 2 (3) 1 (4) n2n − 1 (5) 2
(6) − 2 (7) 0 (8) 2 (9) 0 (10) e
(11) 1 (12) 1 (13) 1
EXERCISE 5.7
(3) (i) increasing (ii) st. increasing (iii) st. decreasing
(iv) st. increasing (v) increasing
(5) (i) increasing in (− ∞, − 1/2 ] and decreasing in [−1/2 , ∞)
(ii) increasing in (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞) and decreasing in [− 1, 1]
(iii)strictly increasing on R
π π 5π
(iv) decreasing in 0, 3 ∪  3 , 2π increasing in 3 , 3 
5π
     
(v) increasing in [0, π]
π π π
(vi) increasing in 4 , 2 and decreasing in 0, 4
   
EXERCISE 5.9
Critical numbers Stationary points

(1) (i) x=3

1  , 1
1
3 3
(ii) x = ± 1 (1, − 1) and (− 1, 3)

(4, 0) and 7 , 7  7  

8 8 8 4/5 20 2
(iii) x = 0, 4, 7
    
(0, 1) and − 2, − 3
1
(iv) x = 0, − 2
 
π π 3π π π
(0, 0) 4,1 2, 0  4 , 1 (π, 0)
3π
(v) θ = 0, 4 , 2, 4 , π
   
(vi) θ=π (π, π)

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Absolute maximum Absolute minimum

(2) (i) 5 1
(ii) 2 −7
(iii) 66 − 15
(iv) 3 5
2 1
(v) 3 2
(vi) 2 1
π
(vii) π + 2 −6− 3
Local maximum Local minimum
2 −2
(3) (i)
3 3 3 3
− 19
(ii) 12 27
(iii) 0 −9
(iv) Nil −1
(v) 1 Nil
(vi) No maximum and no minimum

EXERCISE 5.10
(1) 50, 50 (2) 10, 10 (5) ( 2 r, 2 r) (6) 20 5

EXERCISE 5.11
Concave upward Convex upward Points of inflection
(1) (− ∞, 1) (1, ∞) (1, 0)
(2) R − Nil

(3)  − 5 , ∞ − ∞, − 5 5 305
− 6 , 54
 6   6
(4) (− ∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) (− 1, 1) (1, − 5), (− 1, − 5)

(5) π , π 0, π π , 0
2   2 2 
(6) (− 2, 1) (− ∞, − 2) ∪ (1, ∞) (1, 9), (− 2, 48)

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EXERCISE 6.1

1 x (2x2 + 1)
(1) (i) dy = 5x4dx (ii) dy = 4 x− 3/4dx (iii) dy = dx
x4 + x2 + 1

(iv) dy =   dx
7
 (v) dy = 2 cos 2x dx
(2x + 3)2
(vi) dy = (x sec2x + tan x) dx

(2) (i) dy = − 2x dx ; dy = − 5 (ii) dy = (4x3 − 6x + 1) dx ; dy = 2.1

1
(iii) dy = 6x (x2 + 5)2dx ; dy = 10.8 (iv) dy = − dx ; dy = − 0.01
2 1−x
(v) dy = − sin x dx ; dy = − 0.025
(3) (i) 6.008 (app.) (ii) 0.099 (app.) (iii) 2.0116 (app.) (iv) 58.24 (app.)

(4) (i) 270 cubic cm (ii) 36 cm2 (5) (i) 0.96 π cm2 (ii) 0.001667
EXERCISE 6.2
No. Existence Symmetry Asymptote Loops
2 −1≤x≤1 Both axes and No asymptotes 2 loops
hence origin between − 1
and 1
3 −2<x≤6 x-axis x=−2 1 loop between
0 and 6
4 x≤1 x-axis No asymptotes 1 loop between
0 and 1
5 x = b and x ≥ a x - axis No asymptotes No loops

EXERCISE 6.3
∂u ∂u ∂u x3 + 2y3 ∂u (y3 + 2x3)
(1) (i)
∂x
= 2x + 3y ;
∂y
= 3x + 2y (ii) = 3 2 ; =−
∂x x y ∂y x2 y3
∂2u ∂2u ∂2u − 6y ∂2u 6x
= 2 ; =2 = 4 ; 2= 4
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂x2 x ∂y y

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∂u ∂u
(iii) = 3 cos 3x cos 4y ; = − 4 sin 3x sin 4y
∂x ∂y
∂2u ∂2 u
2 = − 9 sin 3x cos 4y ; = − 16 sin 3x cos 4y
∂x ∂y2
∂u y ∂u x
(iv) = 2 ; =− 2
∂x x + y 2 ∂y x + y2
∂2u − 2xy ∂2 u 2xy
2 = 2 2 2 ; 2 = 2
∂x (x + y ) ∂y (x + y2)2
5 2 (e2t − e−2t)
(3) (i) 5t4et (ii) (iii) − sin t
(e2t + e−2t)
(iv) 2cos2t
∂w 2 ∂w ∂w ∂w
(4) (i) =r ; =0 (ii) = 4u(u2 + v2) ; = 4v(u2 + v2)
∂r ∂θ ∂u ∂v
∂w 2u ∂w − 2v
(iii) = ; =
∂u 2 ∂v 2
1 − (u2 − v2) 1 − (u2 − v2)
EXERCISE 7.1
π
(3) 2 + 4 sin−1 3
2 5 9 2 1
(1) 4 (2) 3 (4) 4
 
π
(7) log 15
1 1 16 1
(5) 6 (6) 3 tan−1 3 (8) 64 π4
 
2 1 1
(9) 3 (10) e − 2 (11) 10 (e3π/2 − 3) (12) 2 [1 − e−π/2]
EXERCISE 7.2
1 4
(1) 0 (2) 0 (3) 4 (4) 3
2 3
(5) 3 (6) 0 (7) 0 (8) 2
1 π
(9) 132 (10) 12
EXERCISE 7.3
1 3 3 3
(2) (i) − 4 sin x cos x − 8 sin x cos x + 8 x
1 4 8
(ii) 5 cos4x sin x + 15 cos2x sin x + 15 sin x

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5π 128 35π 16 −3 1
(3) (i) 32 (ii) 315 (4) (i) 512 (ii) 105 (5) (i) 4 e−2 + 4 (ii) 27. 6
EXERCISE 7.4
(1) (i) 4 (ii) 4 (2) (i) 57 (ii) 16 (3) 4
55 8a2
(4) 27 (5) 8 (4 − 2) (6) 3

(7) 3  5 + 2 sin−1 3
4 5 9 2
(8) 9 (9) 4
 
178π πa3
(10) πa2 (11) 15 (12) 24
3 4π ab2 1
(13) 5 π (14) 3 (15) 3 πr2h (16) π
EXERCISE 7.5
8πa2
(1) 2πa (2) 4a (3) 3 (2 2 − 1)
EXERCISE 8.1
order degree order degree
(1) (i) 1 1 (vi) 2 3
(ii) 1 1 (vii) 2 1
(iii) 2 1 (viii) 2 2
(iv) 2 2 (ix) 1 3
(v) 3 3 (x) 1 1
(2) (i) y = 2xy′ (ii) x2y′′ − 2xy′ + 2y − 2c = 0
(iii) xy′ + y = 0 (iv) x [(y′)2 + yy′′] − yy′ = 0
(v) y′′ + 3y′ − 10y = 0 (vi) y′′ = 6y′ − 9y
′
(vii) y′′ = 6y′ − 13y (viii) y = e(y /y)x
(ix) y′′ − 4y′ + 13y = 0
2
(3) (i) yy′ = (y′)2x + a (ii) y′ = m (iii) y′′ = 0 [ ]
(4) y2 (y′) + 1 = 1
EXERCISE 8.2
sin 2y cos 7x cos 3x
(1) y + 2 + 7 + 3 = c (2) log y + etan x = c

(3) x = cy e xy(x + y) (4) ex(x2 − 2x + 2) + log y = c

y−4
(5) sin−1  5 + −1 2x + 5
2
  3 tan  3  = c (6) tan (x + y) − sec (x + y) = x + c

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(7) y − tan−1 (x + y) = c (8) exy = x + 1

EXERCISE 8.3
2 2
(1) (y − 2x) = cx2y (2) y3 = cx2 e−x/y (3) y = cex / 2y
(4) 2y = x(x + y) (5) x2 (x2 + 4y2)3 = c (6) y = x log x
EXERCISE 8.4
(1) ex(y − x + 1) = c (2) y(x2 + 1)2 − x = c
−1 −1
(3) xetan y = etan y (tan−1y − 1) + c (4) y(1 + x2) = sinx + c
2
(5) 2xy + cosx2 = c (6) y = 1 + ce− x /2
2
(7) xey = tan y + c (8) x = y − a2 + ce− y/a
EXERCISE 8.5
e 2x e− 3x
(1) y = Ae−4x + Be−3x + 30 (2) y = e2x [A cos 3x + B sin 3x] + 34

x2 4 e−2x 5
(3) y = (Ax + B)e− 7x + 2 e−7x + 49 (4) y = Ae12x + Bex + 42 − 11 xex

(5) y = 2[cos x − sin x] (6) y = ex [2 − 3ex + e2x]

(7) y = Aex + Be−4x − 4 x2 + 2 + 8 
1 3x 13
 
1
(8) y = Ae3x + Be− x + 130 [4 cos 2x − 7 sin 2x]

(10) y = (A + Bx) e3x + 9 + 27 + e2x

x 2
(9) y = (A + Bx) + sin 3x
 
1 2
(11) y = Aex + Be− x − 5 cos 2x + 5 sin 2x

1 1
(12) y = [C cos 5 x + D sin 5 x] + 10 + 2 cos 2x

1
(13) y = e−x [C cos 2 x + D sin 2 x] − 17 [4 cos 2x + sin 2x]
3
(14) y = Ae−x + Be−x/3 + 2 xe−x/3
EXERCISE 8.6
(1) A = 0.9025 A0 (2) 17 years (app.) (3) 38.82° C
(4) 197600 (5) 136 days

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EXERCISE 9.1
Statements : (1), (2), (3), (5), (6), (10) ; others are not statements.
(11) T (12) T (13) T (14) F (15) T
(16) F (17) F (18) T (19) F (20) F
(21) (i) Anand reads newspaper and plays cricket
Anand reads newspaper or plays cricket.
(ii) I like tea and ice-cream
I like tea or ice-cream
(22) (i) p ∨ q: Kamala is going to school or there are twenty students in the
class.
(ii) p ∧ q : Kamala is going to school and there are twenty students in the
class.
(iii) Kamala is not going to school.
(iv) It is false that there are twenty students in the class.
(v) Kamala is not going to school or there are twenty students in the
class.
(23) (i) p ∧ q (ii) p ∨ q (iii) ∼ p (iv) p ∧ q (v) ∼ p
(24) Sita likes neither reading nor playing.
(25) (i) 5 is not an irrational number.
(ii) Mani is not sincere or not hardworking.
(iii) This picture is nither good nor beautiful.
EXERCISE 9.2
(1) Truth table for pv (∼ q)
p q ∼q p ∨ (∼ q)
T T F T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
(2) Truth table for (∼p) ∧ (∼ q)
p q ∼p ∼q (∼p) ∧ (∼ q)
T T F F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

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(3) Truth table for ∼ (p ∨ q)

p q p∨q ∼ (p ∨ q)
T T T F
T F T F
F T T F
F F F T
(4) Truth table for (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p)
p q p∨q ∼p (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼p)
T T T F T
T F T F T
F T T T T
F F F T T
(5) Truth table for (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ q)
p q p∧q ∼q (p ∧ q)∨(∼ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F F F
F F F T T
(6) Truth table for ∼ (p ∨ (∼ q))
p q ∼q p∨ (∼ q) ∼ (p ∨ (∼ q))
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F
(7) Truth table for (p ∧ q) ∨ (∼ (p ∧ q))
p q p∧q ∼ (p∧q) (p∧q)∨(∼(p∧q))
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T
(8) Truth table for (p ∧ q) ∧ (∼ q)
p q p∧q ∼q (p∧q) ∧ (∼q)
T T T F F
T F F T F
F T F F F
F F F T F

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(9) Truth table for (p ∨ q) ∨ r

p q r p∨q (p ∨ q) ∨ r
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F T T
F F T F T
F F F F F

(10) Truth table for (p ∧ q) ∨ r

p q r p∧q (p ∧ q) ∨ r
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T F T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F T F F F
F F T F T
F F F F F

EXERCISE 9.3
(1) (i) ((∼p) ∧ q) ∧ p contradiction
(ii) (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ (p ∨ q)) Tautology
(iii) (p ∧ (∼ q)) ∨ ((∼ p) ∨ q) Tautology
(iv) q ∨ (p ∨ (∼ q)) Tautology
(v) (p ∧ (∼ p)) ∧ ((∼ q) ∧ p)) Contradiction

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EXERCISE 9.4
(1) Non-commutative but associative (2) Yes, Identity element is 1
(10) 0([1]) = 1, 0 ([2]) = 4, 0([3]) = 4, 0([4]) = 2

EXERCISE 10.1
(1) X 0 1 2 3
p (X = x) 125 75 15 1
216 216 216 216

(2) X 0 1 2
p (X = x) 188 32 1
221 221 221

(3) X 0 1 2
p (X = x) 12 9 1
22 22 22
1 1 11 13
(4) (i) 81 (ii) 9 (iii) 27 (6) (i) 20 (ii) 16

α
(7) (i) α β (ii) e− β(10 )
2x 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(8) f(x) = 0 (i) 0.3125 (ii) 0.25 (iii) 0.4375
elsewhere
1 1 1
(9) c = a (10) (i) (ii) 4 (iii) 2
2π
EXERCISE 10.2
1
(1) Mean = 1, Variance = 2 (2) E(X) = 3.5

2 24
(3) E(X) = − 15 (4) Mean = 13 , Variance = 169

(5) E(X) = − 1.25

(6) Mean = 6.4 , Variance = 16.24

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(7) (i) Mean = 0, Variance = 48

1 1
(ii) Mean = , Variance = 2
α α

(iii) Mean = 2, Variance = 2

EXERCISE 10.3

(1) Not possible as probability of an event can lie between 0 and 1 only.
80
(2) Mean = 40 ; Variance = 3

(3) Mean = 450, standard deviation = 3 5

3 11 11 2048 59
(4) (i) 8 (ii) 16 (iii) 16 (5) (6) 10 (15)
55 6

EXERCISE 10.4

(1) (i) 0.4331 (ii) 0.5368 (2) (i) 0.1952 (ii) 0.5669

48
(3) (i) 45 × 10 (ii) 0.2706 (4) (i) 0.0838 (ii) 0.9598
5

(5) (i) approximately 50 drivers (ii) approximately 353 drivers

EXERCISE 10.5

(1) (i) 0.9772 (ii) 0.5 (iii) 0.9104

(iv) 0.8413 (v) 0.2417

(2) (i) 0.67 (ii) − 0.52 and 0.52 (iii) − 1.04

(3) 0.0749 (4) 4886 pairs

(5) (i) 291 persons (app.) (ii) 6 persons (app.)

e−9/4 3 1
(6) 72.19 inches (7) 640 students (8) c = , µ = 2 , σ2 = 2
π

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KEY TO OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.No Key Q.No Key Q.No Key Q.No Key Q.No Key
1 4 31 2 61 2 91 2 121 2
2 2 32 4 62 2 92 4 122 1
3 3 33 1 63 1 93 2 123 3
4 2 34 1 64 4 94 3 124 2
5 1 35 3 65 2 95 2 125 3
6 3 36 2 66 4 96 1 126 3
7 4 37 1 67 1 97 2 127 4
8 2 38 2 68 2 98 3 128 2
9 3 39 3 69 3 99 4 129 2
10 4 40 4 70 2 100 3 130 2
11 1 41 4 71 2 101 1 131 1
12 2 42 1 72 3 102 2 132 2
13 2 43 4 73 3 103 3 133 4
14 1 44 3 74 4 104 4 134 1
15 1 45 1 75 4 105 4 135 2
16 4 46 3 76 1 106 1 136 1
17 2 47 4 77 1 107 3 137 4
18 1 48 2 78 1 108 2 138 3
19 1 49 3 79 2 109 3 139 1
20 2 50 1 80 4 110 3 140 4
21 3 51 1 81 3 111 4 141 3
22 1 52 2 82 2 112 4 142 1
23 1 53 3 83 2 113 3 143 2
24 2 54 2 84 1 114 4 144 2
25 2 55 3 85 2 115 3 145 2
26 3 56 1 86 2 116 1 146 3
27 2 57 1 87 3 117 1 147 1
28 4 58 4 88 4 118 2 148 4
29 2 59 4 89 2 119 4 149 3
30 1 60 2 90 1 120 2 150 3

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REFERENCE BOOKS
(1) Calculus and Analytical Geometry (International student edition)
George B.Thomas and Ross L. Finney (ninth edition) Addison-Wesley.

(2) Calculus and Analytical Geometry

Philip Gillett
D.C. Health and Company

(3) Calculus with Analytic Geometry (third edition)

Johnson & Kiokmeister

(4) Calculus with Maple Labs

Wieslaw Krawcewiez and Bindhya Chal Rai,
Narosa Pub. House

(5) Differential and Integral Calculus :

Schaum’s Outline Series
Frank Ayres Jr., Elliott Mendelson

(6) Analytic Geometry with Calculus

Robert C. Yates, University of South Florida
Printice – Hall Inc.

(7) Calculus for Scientists and Engineers. An analytical approach

K.D. Joshi

(8) Calculus and Analytic Geometry (Fourth edition)

George B. Thomas Jr., Addison Wesley Pub. Co.

(9) Calculus : An Historical Approach

W.M. Priestly (Springer)

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(10) Inside Calculus

George R-Exner (Springer)

(11) Calculus with Analytic Geometry (Second edition, International edition)

George F. Simmons, The Mcgraw Hill

(12) Mathematical Hand Book Higher Mathematics

M. Vygodsky, MIR Publishers

(13) The Calculus with Analytic Geometry

Louis Leithold, University of Southern California
Harper & Row Publishers

(14) College Mathematics (second edition), Schaum’s Outline Series

Frank Ayres Jr., Phillip A. Schmidt

(15) Differential Equation

Raisinghania

(16) Methods of Real Analysis

Richard R. Goldberg
Oxford & IBH Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd.

(17) Differential and Integral Calculus I

Piskunov, MIR Publishers

(18) Simplified Course in Integral Calculus

Raisinghania, H.C. Saxena, H.K. Dass

(19) Advanced Engineering Mathematics

H.K. Dass, University of Hull, England

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(20) Calculus with Analytic Geometry (second edition)

Howard Anton, Drexel University

(21) Simplified Course in Statistics

H.C. Saxena, H.K. Dass, Raisinghania

(22) Mathematical Statistics

J.N. Kapur, H.C. Saxena

(23) Probability and Statistics (fifth edition)

Jay L. Devore, Thomas Duxbury

(24) Discrete Mathematical Structures with Applications to Computer Science

J.P. Tremblay & R. Manohar

(25) Topics in Algebra

I.N. Herstein

(26) Matrices – Schaum’s Outline Series

Frank Ayres

(27) Matrices − A.R. Vasishtha

(28) A Text Book of Modern Algebra

R. Balakrishnan, N. Ramabhadran
Vikash Publishing House

(29) Complex Variables : Schaum’s Outline Series

M.R. Spiegel

(30) Vector Analysis

M.R. Spiegel

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