Why Test Wiring, Components and Connectors in Electrical Products?

Production testing of insulated wiring, components and connectors can reduce waste and re-work
time, optimize the manufacturing process and most importantly, ensure end-user safety. It is
important to understand what levels of testing, product performance and end-user safety are
required. A defective AC power cord can result in destruction of the product or worse,
electrocution of the user. The manufacturer must be able to know with certainty that the product
will be functional, meet customer’s objectives and comply with the relevant safety requirements.
These factors must be considered collectively to determine the level of testing that is necessary,
whether that method is simply a quick visual inspection or a 100% test regimen including
functional, low and high voltage tests.

It is generally accepted that a wiring harness or power cord should have effective insulation and
proper connections with no miswires or intermittent faults. A component should fall within its
prescribed tolerance range while an active component should be able to perform the required
function or action. Similarly, a complex product (e.g. an aircraft or train) containing some or all
of these elements will typically undergo a final assembly test that can include evaluation of all of
the above.

Insulation, connections and intermittent faults can be verified to different degrees using low-
voltage, high voltage and, where necessary, high current testing methods. Basic continuity
testing can range from a very quick ‘pass/fail’ assessment of a wire connection to precise
resistance measurement (generally this can range from a few milliohms to several ohms for a
simple cable). For power cords and appliances, high-voltage testing is used to ensure the
integrity of the line, neutral and ground circuits. In other cases, high current may be required to
energize a component or assembly in order to evaluate it. Some of the most common types of
production tests that can be performed on wired electrical products are summarized in the
following table.

Introduction to Cable Testing 1

 Table 1: Summary of Typical Production Tests for Wired Electrical Products1
Applied Applied Test Typical Typical
Test Type Test Objective Voltage Current Duration ‘Pass’ Product
Range Range (sec/point) Criterion Tested
Low detection of R>X
Voltage, unterminated or 5 – 50 ‘X’ varies
Open Circuit 5mA .001 sec
Low broken VDC from mΩ
Current conductors to Ω
detection of
R<X
unintentional
5 – 50 ‘X’ varies
Short Circuit metal-to-metal 5mA .001 sec
VDC from mΩ
contact between
to Ω data cables,
conductors
wire harnesses
detection of power cords,
All points
conductors 5 – 50 backplanes
Miswire 5mA .001 sec connected
terminated to VDC
as expected
the wrong point
detection of
No faults
unintended
detected
Intermittent opens and shorts 5 – 50
5mA Variable during
Open/Short when a VDC
sample
mechanical
cycle
force is applied
Low resistance Measured
2-wire or Simplex
Voltage, measurement of 5 – 40 < 1 sec accuracy of Wire harnesses,
resistance 250mA
High values greater VDC 5% or cables, resistors
measurement
Current than 1 ohm greater
4-wire or Kelvin sub-ohm Measured precision
5 – 40 10µA –
resistance resistance < 1 sec accuracy of components,
VDC 1A
measurement measurement 1% or less. IC’s
energization of
Required IC’s, relays,
components or
5 – 40 250mA – Varies by action is diodes,
Functional Testing assemblies to
VDC 72 A Product performed instrument
ensure proper
correctly panels
operation
detection of
power cords,
poor ground 12 - 20
Ground Integrity2 1 – 30 A < 1 sec Vo = Io Rwire appliances,
connection or VDC
computers
continuity
High data cables,
detection of
Voltage, 250V – 5 – 250 ‘Pass’ if IR wire harnesses,
Insulation Resistance insulation 1 – 60 sec
Low 30kVAC mA ≥ 5 MΩ power cords,
defects
Current3 backplanes,
detection of ‘Pass’ if no bulk wire,
Dielectric Withstand 250V – 5 – 250 locomotives,
insulation 1 – 60 sec breakdown
(HiPot) 30kVAC mA aircraft
defects is detected
detection of
‘Pass’ if no
stray conductors 2.5kV – power cords
Skin Test (HiPot) 5 mA 1 – 60 sec arcing is
at the plug 6.0kVAC and cord sets
detected
surface

1
Table 1 is intended to illustrate typical examples of production electrical tests and general test criteria. In
all cases, the appropriate standard or criteria must be observed when performing these tests.
2
In the context of this paper, the production Ground Integrity test is discussed in terms of power cords and
cord sets only. A separate Ground Integrity test is performed on appliances, computers and medical
devices.
3
Some high voltage specifications allow DC voltage to be used in place of the prescribed AC test voltage.
In these cases, the AC voltage should be multiplied by a factor of 1.414 to obtain the equivalent DC
voltage.

Introduction to Cable Testing 2

Fortunately, modern Automated Test Equipment (ATE) offers functionality and performance that
enables:

• low-voltage continuity, isolation, and intermittent fault detection/location;

• high-voltage tests including ‘Dielectric Withstand’ and ‘Insulation Resistance’;

• high-current stimulus to perform ‘Ground Integrity’ tests as well as high-accuracy

resistance measurement and functional tests;

• measurement accuracy that is several times greater than the most sensitive
components in the Product Under Test (PUT);

• guided-assembly capability (also known as “Build-Aid”) to test the product as it is

assembled so that a ‘zero-defect’ product is guaranteed;

• automatic test list/program generation based on data from CAD-CAM packages;

• integration with other automated and operator-controlled test equipment;

• test speeds in excess of several thousand measurements per second;

• test system expandability from 10 points to tens of thousands; and

• automated assembly line integration.

With all of these options to select from, the test engineer must establish what equipment is
necessary to ensure product compliance with local regulations and minimize the consequences of
re-work, scrap and litigation associated with the manufacture of a defective product. Can the
product be adequately tested by visual inspection? Is it less expensive to reject a failed product
than to take the time to repair it? Are there safety issues or compliance standards that have to be
addressed? What are the legal and moral implications of a defective product reaching the end
user? All of these factors must be considered when selecting the method and equipment required
to cost-effectively satisfy the test objectives.

Introduction to Cable Testing 3

Low Voltage, Low Current Testing
The detection of unintended opens, shorts, miswires and faults in cords, cables, wire harnesses
and other components typically involves the use of low-voltage and low-current test equipment.
This equipment can range from simple hand-held voltmeters, ohmmeters and ammeters, to fully
automated wiring analyzers and cord testers that measure, interpret and record the results. Using
a stimulus that is generally less than 5mA at 50 volts DC (and commonly ranging from 5 – 12
VDC), a voltage is applied between two points to determine whether they are connected or
isolated (Figure 1).

Connector ‘A’ Connector ‘B’

Product Under Test (PUT)
1A 1B
Test 2A 2B Test
Probe 3A 3B Probe

Rwire Iwire

Vtotal

Rlead Itotal
Constant
Current
If: Vtotal > Vlimit Stimulus
Then: Conductor is OPEN
Voltage
Where: Vlimit is pre-selected Comparator

And: Vtotal = Itotal x (Rlead + Rwire)

Figure 1: Basic analog continuity testing on a 3-conductor cable.

Intermittent opens and shorts can be caused by a number of factors such as loose strands caused
by improper crimping, damaged insulation and contaminated terminator contacts. When wiring
defects exist in a complex product, it may be important to identify the type of fault, where it is
located and whether or not it is intermittent. For instance, cable harnesses with multiple
connectors and wire bundles can be costly to assemble and much more expensive to repair
without a clear understanding of what faults exist and where they are occurring. As well,
products that are subjected to flexing and vibration in service may need further evaluation to
detect intermittent opens and shorts during both the production and maintenance stages.

Introduction to Cable Testing 4

Using the appropriate test equipment, opens and shorts can be located accurately using
comparative capacitance and resistance measurements relative to all other points in the product.
To identify intermittent continuity faults, a ‘flex test’ can be performed by applying a constant
stimulus while an operator, vibration table or robot manipulates the product. The test equipment
takes continuous measurements during the flex cycle and records any detection of an open or
short. While this type of flex test can be a useful tool for detecting intermittent continuity, it
cannot be relied on to detect loose conductor strands and improper connections. This is because
the change in resistance caused by one or two loose strands is much less than the resistance
change that can occur due to minor variations in temperature, connector surface condition and the
total conductor length. To detect improper connections and loose strands, it is usually more
reliable and practical to perform visual and mechanical inspections prior to final assembly
electrical testing.

In general, the basic set of ‘open/short/miswire’ low-voltage, low-current tests should be used to
quickly identify whether a circuit is wired properly. When a product is subjected to low-voltage,
low-current tests only, the integrity of the electrical insulation is unknown and end-user safety is
not likely a factor. To detect meaningful insulation breakdown between isolated conductors,
higher voltages are required. Similarly, component-specific testing and high-accuracy resistance
measurement must be performed as a separate test set that requires higher test current (e.g.
generally above 250mA for IC’s) than the levels normally used for open, short and miswire
detection.

Low-Voltage, High Current Testing

Simplex vs. Kelvin Resistance Measurement

Resistance measurement can be used to quickly verify that two points in a cable, wire harness or
other product are connected and continuous. The simplest type of resistance test uses two wires
or test leads to connect the Product Under Test (PUT) into the test circuit. Referred to as
‘Simplex’ or ‘2-wire’ testing, this method uses a constant current stimulus, voltage comparator
and two test leads to measure resistance based on Ohm’s law (i.e. V = IR) and the voltage drop
across the PUT (Figure 1). This type of test is usually performed in the 5 – 40V range and is
satisfied by pass criteria that can range from a few milliohms to several ohms.

Introduction to Cable Testing 5

When the simplex method is used, accurate resistance measurement is not likely a part of the test
criteria. This type of resistance measurement will always include the actual resistance of the PUT
(RPUT) plus a second resistance component associated with the test leads (Rlead). Since the internal
resistance of the voltmeter is much greater than the combined resistance of the test leads and the
PUT (Figure 2), the current flow through the voltmeter will be negligible compared to the current
flow through the PUT. Using Ohm’s law, the total measured resistance (Rmeas) will be equal to
the sum of the voltage drop across the test leads and the PUT (i.e. Vlead + VPUT), divided by the
total current (Io).

Constant
Current
Ilead Stimulus

Rlead Itotal

V
Ivoltmeter

Connector ‘A’ Connector ‘B’

Product Under Test (PUT)
1A 1B
2A 2B
3A 3B
Simplex Rwire Simplex
Probe Iwire Probe

Since: Rvoltmeter ≈ ∞ And: Rvoltmeter >> Rlead + Rwire

Then: Ivoltmeter ≈ 0 And: Iwire ≈ Ilead ≈ Itotal

Therefore: Rmeas = (Vlead + Vwire) / Itotal = Rlead + Rwire

Figure 2: Simplex or 2-Wire Resistance Measurement Circuit

High-current carrying devices and precision components that have sub-ohm resistances cannot be
measured accurately using the 2-wire method if the test leads’ resistance is several times larger
than the resistance of the product under test (PUT). Although the resistance associated with the
test leads can typically be compensated for by taring the test instrument, it is possible that the
tared resistance can fluctuate with changes in temperature and humidity. In this case, it may be
necessary to remove the PUT and re-tare the instrument each time a new measurement is made.
When a more accurate method of performing resistance measurements is required, the ‘4-wire’ or
‘Kelvin’ method can be used.

Using the 4-wire (Kelvin) method, the test system uses a discrete pair of test leads to energize the
component while a second pair connects the component to a high-input impedance device that
actually measures the voltage drop (Figure 3). In this way, the voltage drop across the

Introduction to Cable Testing 6

energization leads does not affect the measurement taken by the high impedance device. By
combining the 4-wire Kelvin method with the use of a high current source (typically greater than
250mA), it is possible to measure resistances of less than 10 mΩ with an accuracy of +/- 1mΩ.

Constant
Current
Itotal Stimulus

Rlead

Connector ‘A’ Connector ‘B’

Product Under Test (PUT)
1A 1B
2A 2B
3A 3B

Kelvin Rwire Iwire Kelvin

Probe Probe

Ivoltmeter
V
Rsense

Since: Rvoltmeter ≈ ∞ Then: Ivoltmeter ≈ 0 And: Iwire ≈ Itotal

Therefore: Rmeas = (Vwire) / Itotal = Rwire

Figure 3: Kelvin or 4-Wire Resistance Measurement Circuit

When selecting equipment for automated testing, it is important to remember that four discrete
test points are required to perform Kelvin resistance measurement while the Simplex method
requires only two. This can often increase the cost and size of the test equipment significantly
since the number of required test points doubles when performing Kelvin measurement on the
PUT.4 Despite this, the Kelvin method is extremely useful for high-accuracy resistance
measurement, especially in sensitive components where low test voltages are required.

Component testing can be generally divided into ‘active’ component testing and ‘passive’
component testing. Active components are used to perform a specific action or group of actions
in response to an energy stimulus and often require the application of current to verify their

4
Many wiring analyzers will not allow for multiple use of its test points. In such cases, each point must be
dedicated to performing a single function, such as Kelvin measurement, Simplex measurement or
stimulus. All CableTest Wiring analyzers allow for any test point to be used for any function, whether
for stimulus or Kelvin, Simplex, voltage or current sense.

Introduction to Cable Testing 7

functionality (e.g. a 12V, 1A relay). Passive components such as diodes, resistors and capacitors
may require simple ‘PASS/FAIL’ testing or they may require accuracy testing to ensure that their
tolerance will be suitable for the intended end-use.

Low voltage production testing of passive components focuses on determining whether:

[a] the component is defective (i.e. the component does not lie within the required tolerance); or

[b] the wrong component has been used (e.g. a 100mΩ resistor was placed where a 1 Ω resistor
should have been); or

[c] the polarity of the component is correct (e.g. diodes, capacitors, etc.).

Where passive components require tolerance testing, the tester should offer an accuracy that is
several times greater than the component itself. This will prevent unnecessary component
rejection that can occur if the tester is not sensitive enough to recognize that the component’s
tolerance is within the acceptable range.

Although high current may often be required (e.g. greater than 250mA), component testing is
typically performed at low voltages to avoid damaging embedded components that may be
included in the test circuit. Components that require high voltage testing (e.g. varistors, zener
diodes, LED’s) must be isolated from any components that cannot withstand the associated
voltage drop. Damage to such components can be avoided by careful auditing of the test circuit or
the test program when automated test equipment is used. Even at low voltages, test personnel
must ensure that the current is low enough to avoid damaging sensitive components such as IC’s
and capacitors

Introduction to Cable Testing 8

High Voltage, Low Current Testing
High voltage testing is the most effective method of ensuring that isolated conductors in an
electrical product will perform as designed at the rated voltage and current levels. In many cases,
the performance of these tests by the manufacturer is required by law and is critical to ensuring
the safety of the end-user. Whether the ‘Product Under Test’ (PUT) is a simple power cord or an
aircraft control panel, the main objective of high voltage testing is to ensure that the end user will
not be exposed to electrocution or other hazard should an electrical fault occur.

The high voltage tests most commonly performed during the production process include the
insulation resistance and dielectric strength tests. These tests are typically performed at voltages
above 250V. Unlike low voltage tests5 that are used to verify product functionality, circuit
continuity, isolation and component tolerance, these tests are used to verify the integrity of the
insulation between conductors in the PUT.

Each of these high voltage tests relies on the measurement of leakage current that flows through a
conductor’s insulation to determine whether the PUT has satisfied the test criteria when high
voltage is applied. The main difference between the insulation resistance and the dielectric
strength tests is the method used to evaluate the insulation’s integrity. While the insulation
resistance test measures the leakage current between two or more conductors when high voltage
is applied, the dielectric strength test monitors leakage current to detect arcs between two or more
conductors when high voltage is applied.

5
Low voltage testing is commonly carried out below 50V and typically between 5 to 12 VDC.

Introduction to Cable Testing 9

Insulation Resistance Test

An ‘Insulation Resistance’ (IR) or ‘Megger’ test can ensure that the insulation between isolated
conductors will maintain a resistance that limits the flow of leakage current to an acceptable level
when high voltage is applied. Typically, the acceptable leakage current for an electrical product
is defined in standards published by a governing safety agency. The objective of the IR test is to
ensure that the cable, cord or component is suitable [a] for safe use by an end-user; and/or [b] for
correct performance when installed into the product or operating environment.

Typically, IR testing is conducted at voltages above 250 VDC. The test fails when the product’s
insulation resistance falls below the acceptable limit while a test voltage is applied for a specific
time period (e.g. 1000VDC is applied for 10 seconds; IR must not fall below 10MΩ during the
test period). IR failure typically occurs well before an arc between conductors occurs. Since IR
testing does not stress a conductor’s insulation to the point of dielectric breakdown, it is generally
considered to be non-destructive and can be used both during production testing as well as at any
point thereafter to re-confirm the integrity of the insulation.

The IR test involves the application of an AC or a DC voltage across the conductors of the PUT
as shown in Figure 4. A conductor’s insulating material is characterized by its dielectric
resistance or IR. The resistance of the insulation is typically measured in terms of the leakage
current that passes through it when high voltage is applied.

Programmable
High Voltage
Source
(AC or DC) Connector ‘A’ Connector ‘B’
Product Under Test (PUT)
1A 1B
2A 2B
3A 3B

Ileakage
Rleakage = Vtest / Ileakage

V A

Figure 4: Insulation Resistance Test on a 3-conductor cable.

Introduction to Cable Testing 10

The current that flows through the PUT when this high voltage is applied is known as the leakage
current and the insulation resistance is calculated based on Ohm’s law as the quotient of the
applied voltage divided by the leakage current (i.e. R = V/I).

During an AC HiPot test, isolated conductors create a capacitive circuit as well as a resistive
circuit when energized by high voltage. While the leakage current associated with the
conductors’ insulation resistance is in phase with the applied voltage, there is also a capacitive
current associated with the charging of the isolated conductors. Since the total current measured
when an AC voltage is applied equals the vector sum of the resistive (or ‘real’) current and the
capacitive (or ‘reactive’) current, the test equipment must be able to eliminate or ‘neutralize’ the
capacitive component of the current measurement in order to obtain accurate current leakage
measurements. This is particularly true in cases where the capacitive current is much larger than
the resistive current (Figure 5).

AC Neutralization

1000 1.5
800
1.0
600
400
0.5

Current [mA]
Voltage [V]

200
0 0.0
-200
-0.5
-400
-600
-1.0
-800
-1000 -1.5

Voltage Resistive Current

Capacitive Current Total Current

Figure 5: Effect of Capacitance on AC Leakage Current Measurement

Where test standards allow, DC HiPot testing can eliminate the error associated with capacitive
current since only resistive leakage current across the conductors’ insulation flows once the
conductors are fully charged. At the beginning of the IR test when DC voltage is applied, a delay
or ‘dwell’ period is often required while the insulated conductors become increasingly charged

Introduction to Cable Testing 11

with current as shown in Figure 6, below. During the charging period, capacitive current can
represent the largest component of the total current if the voltage ramp up rate does not allow the
product sufficient time to discharge. In this case, the leakage current cannot be accurately
measured while the PUT is charging. As a result, the IR test should not begin until the voltage
has reached the specified HiPot limit and the leakage current has stabilized.

DC Charging

2.0 1000
1.8 900
1.6 800
1.4 700
Current [mA]

Voltage [V]
1.2 600
1.0 500
0.8 400
0.6 300
0.4 200
0.2 100
0.0 0
Time

Current Voltage

Figure 6: Current response during DC charging of insulated conductors.

Once the voltage stabilizes and the conductors are fully charged, a ‘soak’ period may be required
while the insulation material absorbs trace amounts of remaining capacitive current associated
with the polarization of the conductors. During the soak period, the capacitive current decays as
the insulator saturates (Figure 7).

Introduction to Cable Testing 12

 DC Soak

0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
Current [mA]

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Time

Soaking Current Leakage Current

Figure 7: Current response following DC charging of insulated conductors.

At the end of the soak period, a stable current will flow through the insulation between
conductors and this can be measured as the true leakage current. It is this current that should be
used to calculate the actual insulation resistance of the PUT.

Where the humidity levels allow the insulation to retain moisture, it is possible that IR testing will
fail a good product due to higher than normal levels of leakage current flowing through the
moisture-affected insulation. In this situation, it may be necessary to extend the ‘soak’ period
until any moisture dissipates and the insulating material regains its normal dielectric properties.
Once the leakage current stabilizes, it is possible to perform an accurate IR test on the insulation.

To ensure IR measurement accuracy, the tester’s leads should have good shielding and be as short
as possible to avoid the generation of electrostatic discharge or capacitance buildup that could
affect the measurement procedure. It is also important that the selected HiPot tester allows the
user to control the high voltage ramp rate as well as the ‘dwell’ and ‘soak’ times.

Introduction to Cable Testing 13

Dielectric Strength Test

The Dielectric Strength test applies a voltage that is greater than the product’s rated operating
voltage for a specific period of time during which dielectric breakdown must not occur. This test
is also known as a ‘dielectric voltage withstand’, ‘breakdown’ or ‘HiPot’ test. The dielectric
strength test is one of the most common methods used by manufacturers to ensure the integrity of
a conductor’s insulation.

Dielectric breakdown occurs when a conductor’s insulating material fails to act as a dielectric
barrier to current flow and is characterized by the onset of arcing. The voltage that can be applied
before an arc occurs between isolated conductors is referred to as the ‘dielectric withstand
voltage’ (DWV). The primary objectives of the DWV or HiPot test are:

1. to ensure that the insulation will be able to resist overvoltages and current spikes while in
normal service; and

2. to detect potential insulation defects that may have been imparted during the
manufacturing and assembly process.

The HiPot test is performed by applying a high AC or DC voltage across the high potential line
and the low potential or ‘ground’ line of the product. Traditionally, HiPot testing is performed by
energizing one conductor (or net) and grounding all other nets. If there is a high voltage
breakdown, it is clearly between that wire (or net) and at least one of the other nets. This method
is known as the “Linear” HiPot test.

HiPot Testing of Cable Harnesses, Backplanes and Other Wired Products

While the Linear HiPot method conclusively detects all insulation breakdown faults in the PUT
through sequential testing of each discrete wire (or net), it can be a very time-consuming process
when a product has many nets and no high voltage faults (but must be tested nonetheless). In
such cases, the ‘Mass’ HiPot routine offers an equally thorough but much faster method of
verifying the IR and DWV characteristics of the PUT. To illustrate this, a simplified HiPot test
setup using a 16-net cable is shown in Figure 8.

Introduction to Cable Testing 14

 Programmable
High Voltage
Source
(AC or DC) Connector ‘A’ Connector ‘B’
Product Under Test (PUT)
1A 1B
2A 2B
: :
16A 16B

Arc
A Detection
Circuit 1
V

Arc
Detection
Circuit 2

Figure 8: Dielectric Strength or HiPot Test on a 16-conductor cable.

To completely test each line in the cable shown in Figure 8, the test device must repeat the HiPot
process 16 times as shown in Table 2 below.

Table 2: ‘Linear HiPot’ test sequence for a 16-conductor cable.

Test Conductor (Net) Number
Cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
2 - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
3 - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - -
4 - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - -
5 - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - -
6 - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - -
7 - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - -
8 - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - -
9 - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - -
10 - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - -
11 - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - -
12 - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - -
13 - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - -
14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - -
15 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - + -
16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +

Using the Linear HiPot method on the 16-conductor cable, the total test time would be 16 minutes
if the required dwell time was 1 minute per test cycle. If the PUT had 500 nets, the test time

Introduction to Cable Testing 15

would be 8.3 hours if the same 1 minute dwell time and Linear HiPot routine was applied. In
practice, the dwell time for a HiPot test can range from 1 second to several minutes depending on
the industry and the governing safety agency requirements.6

The Mass HiPot routine can dramatically reduce the test time by grouping and energizing
multiple wires (or nets) simultaneously relative to a second group that is connected to the ground
of the wiring analyzer. The grouping of nets is performed using a binary algorithm to minimize
the number of test cycles required to fully test the PUT as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: ‘Mass HiPot’ test sequence for a 16-conductor cable with no faults.
Test Conductor (Net) Number
Cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
2 + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - -
3 + + + + - - - - + + + + - - - -
4 + + - - + + - - + + - - + + - -
5 + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + -
Using a 1 minute dwell time, it would take only 5 minutes to HiPot the 16-net cable and only 9
minutes to HiPot a 500-net product assuming that no faults are detected.

It is important to realize that the Mass HiPot routine is only intended to detect IR and DWV faults
among a group of nets being tested and should not be relied on to isolate the defective net. Once
a fault is detected among a group of nets, a recursive binary or linear HiPot cycle must be
performed on each net in the last group tested. Although the Mass HiPot routine can sometimes
be slower than the Linear method when a high voltage fault exists, the product defect rate is
usually low and the overall time saved when testing ‘good’ product using Mass HiPot outweighs
the time lost when a defective product is encountered. 7

Two common guidelines for selecting the HiPot test voltage are:

1. the HiPot voltage is set equal to three times the PUT’s rated voltage; or

2. the HiPot voltage is set equal to two times the PUT’s rated voltage plus 1000V.

One of the safest methods of applying this load involves the application of half the rated voltage
instantly and then potentio-dynamically ramping up to the final test voltage over a specified time

6
Safety agency contact information can be obtained by visiting www.CableTest.com .
7
For further discussion of the Mass HiPot routine, the document “CableTest Systems – Mass HiPot
Methodology’ is recommended and may be obtained by contacting CableTest or visiting
www.CableTest.com .

Introduction to Cable Testing 16

period (commonly 10 seconds). Once the final test voltage is reached, it is typically held for a
period that can range from seconds to minutes. When an AC load is applied in this manner, it is
important that the test voltage is switched on at zero crossings to minimize the stress applied to
the PUT when dielectric breakdown occurs as shown in Figure 9, below.

AC Ramping

1500

1000

500
Voltage [V]

-500

-1000

-1500

AC Voltage Positive Amplitude

Negative Amplitude RMS Value

Figure 9: AC Voltage ramping prior to HiPot testing.

In production testing environments where it may be impractical to HiPot each product for 1
minute, a common rule of thumb is to apply 110 to 120% of the test voltage that is normally held
for 1 minute, for a period of 1 – 2 seconds. As these rules vary by safety agency and product-
class, the applicable standard must always be observed.

HiPot testing is perhaps the best method of detecting improperly insulated or damaged
conductors. This type of defect cannot be identified using low-voltage/low-current tests.
Nonetheless, it is generally accepted as good practice to perform fault location at low voltages
(c.f. Table 1) before HiPot testing. Whenever possible, it is easier, safer and less expensive to
identify, locate and repair a short before high voltage is applied.

Introduction to Cable Testing 17

High Voltage Setting: AC or DC?
The issue of whether AC or DC voltage should be used can be confusing since there are
advantages and disadvantages associated with both methods. While, most standards allow the use
of either AC or DC voltage, some require the use of both. In many cases where AC testing is
specified, the regulating body does not allow its substitution with a DC test.

Although the power cord industry typically requires AC testing prior to product acceptance
branding, AC HiPot testing is often avoided where the use of DC HiPot methods are allowed.
This may be due to the increased cost, potential for shock hazard and the risk of damaging certain
types of insulation when testing with AC high voltage. Despite these potential disadvantages, AC
HiPot testing can be faster than DC methods since it is unnecessary to soak or discharge the PUT.
This is especially true when the PUT is highly capacitive (e.g. wire bundles, filter connectors,
trains, aircraft, etc.). As well, the use of AC voltage during the HiPot test can be more effective
than DC voltage since it stresses the insulation equally in both voltage polarities. An AC test
voltage can be replaced with an equivalent DC voltage by applying a 1.414 rms conversion factor
to the AC voltage. As an example, a test specification calling for the application of 1000VAC for
1 minute may be satisfied by applying 1500 VDC for 1 minute, assuming the substitution is
allowed by the customer or applicable codes and specifications.

Introduction to Cable Testing 18

Testing Guidelines and EU Standardization
Guidelines and standards for electrical testing of wire harnesses, backplanes, cords and
components vary by industry, regulatory agency and product. For example, most power-cord
manufacturers observe standards that are set by the relevant safety agency and by other
manufacturers that use the power cords as part of a larger product or system (e.g. computers,
appliances, medical devices). In the aerospace, military and transportation sectors, the general
guideline for HiPot testing commonly requires that test voltage is based on a factor of three times
the rated operating voltage, or two times the operating voltage plus 1000 volts. Similarly, good
practice in high volume data cable and wire harness industries typically calls for repetitive low
voltage testing for intermittent faults, HiPot testing at 1000 VDC (where pitch ≥ 0.05”) and crimp
force monitoring. Although there are many excellent guidelines concerning test voltages,
acceptable current limits and insulation resistance levels for production testing, manufacturers
must observe and comply with the relevant safety standard in the area where the product will be
sold. Typically safety and regulatory agencies operate at the national level and the standards set
forth by one agency are not always recognized by the equivalent agency in another country. In
recent years, growing emphasis has been placed on ‘harmonization’ of these national regulatory
standards to minimize barriers to international trade.

In an effort to facilitate trade in the European Union (EU), specific directives were created to
regulate all manufacturers that wish to sell product in the EU market.8 The Low Voltage
Directive (LVD) was created to ensure the quality and safety of electrical products that operate in
the voltage range between 50 – 1000 VAC (or 75 – 1500 VDC). Certain products are exempted
from the LVD including electrical equipment for medical purposes, electricity meters, and
“specialized electrical equipment, for use on ships, aircraft or railways which complies with the
safety provisions drawn up by international bodies in which the Member States participate.”9

Products described by the Low Voltage Directive cannot be sold in the EU unless they comply
with harmonized safety standards that are recognized by a National Certification Body (NCB)
under the Certification Body (CB) scheme. The CB scheme is based on the use of IEC standards
by participating countries worldwide. In the UK for example, ASTA and BSI are recognized

8
To demonstrate compliance with the LVD and other EU directives, a manufacturer’s products must bear
the ‘CE’ mark.
9
The Low Voltage Directive (LVD), 73/23/EEC, Annex II

Introduction to Cable Testing 19

NCB’s that grant conformity certificates to electrical products based on harmonized product
safety standards. Some of the harmonized standards as defined by the CB scheme are
summarized in the following table.

Table 4: Examples of harmonized product safety standards

Harmonized Standard Product Category

EN 60950 Information Technology Equipment

EN 60601 Medical Equipment

EN 60335 Domestic Appliances

Production Test Program Management

The foundation of a good production testing program requires not only an understanding of the
relevant industry test standards, but also equipment that is capable of performing the tests
effectively and efficiently. The test program must be developed to ensure that the test
specification meets and exceeds the relevant standards for product performance and safety. It is
also critical to the manufacturing process that the level of test appropriately reflects the costs and
liabilities associated with the target defect rate, whether it is 10% or 0%.

Appropriate test equipment should be selected on the basis of budget and production efficiency
requirements as well as safety and performance test specifications. In some cases, the required
level of product testing can be performed using a hand-held multi-meter or it may require
advanced functionality such as PLC-integration, CAD/CAM test program generation and SPC
test data analysis for process and quality control optimization. Where low-voltage and HiPot
testing is required for quality and/or safety reasons, documentation of test results is critical to
prove that the PUT is actually compliant with the necessary regulations. All CableTest wiring
analyzers are capable of producing fully traceable records using microprocessor control and data-
logging software. For many years, CableTest equipment has been integrated into assembly line
test stations with the data for each test stored and downloaded automatically onto a network
server within the production facility for storage and analysis.

While there are many different types of equipment available to perform the required tests in
accordance with a specified standard, it is ultimately the product’s complexity, production

Introduction to Cable Testing 20

method and intended end-use that determine whether it is practical to perform tests manually
using simple instruments or whether more sophisticated automated test equipment (ATE) is
needed.

Introduction to Cable Testing 21