INTRODUCTION

Experiments play a crucial role in the progress of science. A large number

of path breaking discoveries and inventions have been possible through
investigations done usually in laboratories. The experimental work is,
therefore, an essential component of any course in science. A course on
practical work in science curricula in schools at the secondary stage is
essentially designed to acquaint the learners with the basic tools and
techniques used in a science laboratory. It also envisages developing
problem-solving skills. These skills help the learner to acquire ability to
identify a problem, to design and to set up the experiment, to collect and
analyse data through experiment, and to interpret data to arrive at plausible
solution in due course of time. These are, in fact, the long term objectives
of laboratory work and become the nucleus of the philosophy of construction
of knowledge by the learner.
A school science laboratory is a place where basic experimental skills
are learnt by systematically performing a set of prescribed and suitably
designed experiments. Performing experiments by one’s own hands is not
only a thrilling experience but is also important because it entails learning
by doing. It also facilitates understanding the concepts of science. The
experiments and project work suggested at the secondary stage intend to
develop basic skills of measurement; handling of some common measuring
instruments, equipment and chemicals; setting simple apparatus; handling
microscope and preparing slides; making observations; collecting data and
presenting it in appropriate format; interpreting and drawing conclusions;
and preparation of report.
There are certain rules and regulations that every student must be
familiar with before undertaking practical work in a laboratory. A student
is required to be acquainted with the general facilities and the equipment
available in the laboratory and follow the rules and regulations. Generally,
in the beginning of the session, the teacher takes the students around the

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laboratory to familiarise them with the general facilities available in the

laboratory and informs them about certain do’s and don’ts while performing
the experiments in the laboratory.
Laboratory Manual in Science for Class IX is an exercise to familiarise
pupil with the general facilities, equipment, measuring instruments,
chemicals and glassware, specimen available in a school science laboratory.
The precautions and measures for safety to be observed in a laboratory are
also mentioned. The format adopted for description of experiments includes
the aim of the experiment, theory or the principle involved in the experiment,
list of materials required on the basis of method to perform the experiment,
steps involved in performing the experiment, recording observations, the
formula required for calculations and stating the results. An emphasis on
drawing conclusions and initiating discussions is also made. Though the
precautions that are necessary to be taken care of in performing the
experiments are merged with the procedure itself, these along with the
possible sources of errors are also mentioned separately with more
reasoning. There could be some certain prerequisites for preparing the
laboratory for performing an experiment, and additional information to
teachers on a particular experiment. Such issues have been raised in almost
all experiments in column titled Note for the Teacher. Authors have also
used this column to communicate with teachers. It is hoped that teachers
would find this column useful. The method used in the experiment may
also be used to extend understanding in some applications. A column titled
Applications has been added occasionally for addressing such issues. At
the end of every experiment some thought provoking questions are also
included. These questions are based on the procedures involved in the
experiment. Many questions provoke pupil for relating their everyday
life experiences with scientific principles. It is believed that such
questions will be helpful in inculcating scientific temper and attitude
among students. In these write-ups, it can be seen that the columns
such as Materials Required and Note for the Teacher often address the
issues related with the alternate materials and even alternate procedures
that can be used for performing the experiment. It is however important
to mention that the suggestions given for conducting the experiments
are suggestive and may be modified depending on the facilities available
in a particular situation. For example, if the material suggested for a
particular experiment is not available, a suitable alternate material may
be used. In addition to these experiments, a student may also conduct
any other experiment of interest. However, it is important that every
student of science must pay proper attention to the practical work and
should try to acquire basic laboratory skills and develop a keen sense of
observation and acquire a sound training in the reporting of the work
done. Many experiments are so chosen that these can be performed
using low cost and locally available materials without loosing the rigor

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 Introduction

of science. The suggestions for maintaining the equipment have also been
given wherever possible.
Questions at the end of each experiment may be dealt with meticulously
and must be discussed with peers and teachers to arrive at appropriate
and convincing answers.

1.1 GENERAL LABORATORY FACILITIES

In a science laboratory, we usually find working tables, some items of
common utility and space for storing equipment, chemicals and glassware.
The working tables in a science laboratory are usually provided with–
• Sinks with water taps for washing purposes and liquid waste disposal.
It is expected that the students will use taps only when required and
will not waste the water. A regular cleaning of sinks is essential.
• Reagent columns for keeping bottles of chemicals and reagents of
frequent use. These reagent bottles are arranged in a definite order.
• Heating facilities provided in the form of gas taps fitted with a burner
or spirit lamp. A gas tap should be opened only when the gas is required
for lighting the burner. Leakage, if any, should be immediately brought
to the notice of the teacher or other laboratory staff. Every laboratory
must be equipped with a few fire extinguishers fixed at convenient
places.
• In the science laboratory, the equipment and glassware of common
use are stored separately in an almirah. They are generally issued to
the students at the time of performing experiments.
• In some laboratories, equipment like balances and microscopes may
be permanently placed in a place as these are used quite frequently.
The type of balance used depends on how accurate the weighing must
be and what to balance? At secondary stage, a physical balance is a
good choice. Teachers are advised to train students appropriately to
use a physical balance before they are asked to perform experiment
that requires weighing measurements (Fig. 1). For weighing powders
or solid materials, one must use weighing tubes or butter paper
depending on the nature of the material. The pan of the balance must
be kept clean. The microscopes (Fig. 2) must be placed near the window
to ensure the availability of sufficient sunlight needed.
• A water distillation plant should also preferably be installed in the
laboratory. However a proper arrangement for water supply and
drainage should also be made close to the place of installation of
distillation plant. Ensure the water supply through the plant before
switching ON the electric power.
• Provision for fuming hood or exhaust may be made in the laboratory
for gases.

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Fig. 1 : A physical balance

Fig. 2 : A compound microscope

• Electrical connections must be provided with all working tables for

performing electricity and magnetism experiments.
• Utility items like soldering rod, hammer, drill machine with drill bits,
pliers, hacksaw, cutter, screw driver set, spanners, torchlight etc. must
be placed at a convenient place inside the laboratory. Common electrical
measuring devices such as a multimeter may also be placed.
• A demonstration table is relevant for teacher demonstration.
• For the purpose of disposal of solid waste, a dustbin may be provided
either near each working table or at a common place in the laboratory.

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Petridish

Trough Woulfe’s bottle Coverslip

Plastic squeeze bottle Round bottom
(wash bottle) flask

Bar Magnet

Convex lens Concave mirror Beakers Thermometer

Slide

Extension
clamp

Delivery tube
Boiling tube Ring
Test tube holder clamp
Test tube

Measuring cylinder

Crucible tongs
Wire gauze
H-base burner
Forceps Tripod stand
Laboratory stand

Galvanometer

Sprit lamp Test tube

Rheostat
Magnifying lens brushes

Stopwatch

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Test tube stand

Resistance box

Needle

Spring balance

Erlenmeyer flasks
(or conical flasks) Funnels

Mortar and pestle China dish

Droppers
Glass
Watch glasses tube Glass
rod

Thistle
funnel
Fig. 3 : Common laboratory equipment and glassware

• Equipment, glassware, and reagent bottles are kept at proper and

specified place. Some of the common laboratory equipment and
glassware are shown in Fig. 3.

1.2 PREPARING STUDENTS FOR LABORATORY WORK

Students must be groomed for laboratory work and experience in order to
benefit from them. Students must know why they are expected to participate

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in an activity and what they will derive from it. Science teachers are expected
to facilitate students in arranging pre-laboratory discussion, giving
directions, and post-laboratory discussions.
Pre-laboratory discussion must give students the clearest possible
picture and understanding of what they are to do in the laboratory. This
will help the students concentrate on what they are doing and make the
experience more meaningful. If special equipment or difficult procedures
are involved, the teacher should show the students how to use the
equipment and procedures. Pre-laboratory discussions should be as concise
but meaningful enough to thoroughly orient the students in the laboratory
work. Sometimes these discussions are given a day before the laboratory
period to give students plenty of time for the assigned laboratory activity.
The directions for laboratory exercises must be explicit and clear. They
can be given orally or in written form or discussed during the pre-laboratory
session. Sometimes it may also be helpful to summarise directions on the
blackboard that have already been given.
Students should present and analyse their data during the post-
laboratory discussion. Here the information can be analysed and related
to the objectives of the experiment. The post-laboratory discussion is very
helpful in broadening students’ understanding the content and processes
of science.

1.3 GENERAL LABORATORY RULES

In a science laboratory, the following rules are to be observed by all users–
• Students prepare in advance for the experiment they would perform
in the laboratory.
• Students must accompany/carry their practical notebook, laboratory
manual, geometry box, pencil, sharpener, and eraser to the practical
class. They should also wear laboratory coat or apron, if available,
while working in the laboratory.
• Students follow strictly the instructions given by the teacher and
perform the experiments carefully at the allotted places. They should
not move around unnecessarily in the laboratory. The teacher may
be consulted for any help or guidance. Disposal of reagents must be
done with care.
• All equipment such as microscope, physical balance, measuring items
and glassware must be handled with care and after understanding
their functions.
• Labels on the reagent bottles should be read carefully before using.
The reagent bottles and chemicals must be kept back at their specified
places after use. Cap the bottle with the stopper immediately after
using a chemical reagent. To prevent contamination of reagents glass
rods, filter papers, dropper should never be dipped directly into the

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reagent bottles. Partially used material should not be poured back

into the reagent bottles.
• The mouth of the test tube should not be pointed towards any pupil
including you while heating or adding a reagent (Fig. 4).

Fig.4 : Correct method of heating a boiling tube and to know the smell (or odour)

• For smelling the vapours, fan the vapours gently with your hands
towards the nose (Fig. 5). Avoid direct smelling of chemicals or vapours.

Fig.5 : Correct way of adding acid to water for dilution

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• Acid is diluted by adding water. Never add water to acid. (Fig. 5).
• Do not handle chemicals with hands and do not taste any chemical.
• Keep your working table and surroundings clean. Replace all
laboratory equipment to its assigned place in the laboratory once the
practical work is over.
• Do not eat or drink in the laboratory. Always wash your hands after
the laboratory class.
• Be acquainted with the handling of first aid kit and fire extinguisher.
In case of any accident or injury or breakage of apparatus, report to
the teacher immediately.

1.4 FIRST AID TREATMENT

A first aid kit is an essential part of any science laboratory, which is placed
at an easily accessible place. Accident occur in the science laboratory mostly
due to the lack of attention. In such a case, first aid treatment must be
provided immediately. The victim should be taken to the doctor, if required.
Some common injuries caused due to accidents and their first aid
treatments are given below.

BURNS
In the laboratory, burns can be caused due to steam, hot water, acids or
alkali. The first aid treatment required for burns caused due to each one of
them is different. The first treatment to be provided for some of them is as
follows–
• For burns caused by steam or hot water, wash the affected part with
cold running water. Do not use ice. Once the affected part is cool, dry
it gently with clean cloth and then apply an antiseptic ointment.
• For an acid burn, wash the wounded part with water and apply a
dilute solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate. Wash again with water.
Dry gently with a clean cloth and apply an antiseptic ointment.
• For an alkali burn, wash with ample of water to remove all the alkali
and then wash with dilute acetic acid. Dry the affected part with a
clean cloth and apply an antiseptic ointment.

GLASS CUTS AND WOUNDS

Carefully remove all the visible pieces of glass from the wound. Protect the
wound from dirt and dust. Wash with cold water to remove smaller pieces
of glass sticking to the wound, if any. Control the bleeding by pressing a
clean piece of cotton or cloth on the wound. Apply on antiseptic solution
antiseptic cream. Take the victim to the doctor, if required.

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EYE INJURIES
In case of injury to eyes, wash the eyes with cold water. Do not rub the
eyes. Consult the doctor immediately.

FIRES
One should not run around if clothes catch fire. Immediately lie down on
the floor and roll. If a container with inflammable liquid catches fire while
heating, turn off the gas burner immediately, and take the container away
from all reagents and chemicals. Cover the mouth of the container with a
damp cloth. Fire extinguishers should be used if the fire goes out of control.
In case the fire is because of the short-circuiting of electrical circuits, switch
off the main switch of the electric supply and through soil in the affected
area. Do not use water in such a case.

INHALATION OF GASES
If gases such as sulphur dioxide, chlorine or bromine are inhaled by any
student, take the student at once to the open air and let the victim breathe
deeply and then ammonia vapours. If the gas inhaled is ammonia, drink
any fruit juice or lemon juice. Inhale dilute ammonium hydroxide if acid
vapours are inhaled.
Report the accident to your teacher immediately to get the medical
attention at the earliest.

1.5 RECORDING OF EXPERIMENT

Preparing a report on each practical performed in the laboratory and
maintaining a record of the work done is an essential requirement. The
report on each experiment should be such that it informs all steps involved
in performing the experiment and the result obtained. It is therefore
imperative that the report on an experiment should be presented under
different headings so that it is easily understood. A format for presentation
of report is suggested below.

AIM
It should explicitly state the objective of the experiment.

THEORY
It must explain the basic principle(s), laws or theories on which the
experiment is based or which it is meant to verify. Wherever necessary, the

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fundamental laws involved in the experiment should be supplemented with

mathematical formulae or equations or with neat and labeled diagrams.

MATERIALS REQUIRED
List all equipment, measuring devices and other items or materials to be
used for performing the experiment.

PROCEDURE
Various steps followed in carrying out the experiment should be mentioned
sequentially under this heading. Labeled diagrams, if any, should be drawn
to present a pictorial view of the experimental set up.

OBSERVATIONS
All observations taken while performing the experiment must be recorded
as observed and properly. This may be in a tabular form, drawings, or
statements or a combination of them depending on the nature of the
observations. All measurements must be expressed with their proper units.

CALCULATIONS
In case, calculations based on the observations are required to obtain the
result of an experiment, correct formulae and units must be used while
substituting the data. All calculations must be carried out carefully. The
result or the answer should be stated with proper SI units. In some
experiments, drawing of graphs may also be required as a part of
calculations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All results and findings of an experiment must be stated in clear and
unambiguous language.

PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERRORS

All the precautions taken or observed while performing an experiment
should be noted and the same should be stated in the report. Although
some of the precautions taken during some experiments may be common,
these usually change from one experiment to another depending on the
nature of the experiment, the available facilities and equipment. In addition

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to precautions, the possible sources of errors (that arise because of

limitation of equipment, due to change in atmospheric conditions or any
other reason) should also be stated.
The report on each experiment must begin from a fresh page and a
proper index of the experiments performed should be made in the beginning
of the practical notebook.

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 


To study the different parts of a simple (dissecting) microscope.


The human eye cannot distinguish objects smaller than 0.1 mm. Hence,
we cannot observe cells, tissues, and minute organisms through naked
eyes. Before the invention of microscope, biologists used lenses that could
magnify minute objects only up to some extent. Subsequently scientists
started using combination of lenses that led to the invention of microscope.
Microscopes are instruments designed to produce magnified visuals of
smaller objects.
The simple microscope, also known as dissecting microscope, has a
single lens system through which the image of an object is seen. The simple
microscope is infact a magnifying lens mounted on a metallic frame in
such a way that lens can be mechanically moved up and down or sideways
to get a magnified view of the object under observation. Its principle is not
different from an ordinary lens used by a watch repairer.


A simple (dissecting) microscope, permanent slides of plant (or animal)
materials, parts of plants (or small insects), a slide, forceps, and a needle.

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
A simple (dissecting) microscope (Fig. 1.1) consists of the following parts.
1. Base – It is the basal part that is bifurcated and supports the weight
of the microscope. It is generally horse-shoe shaped and is made of
metal.
2. Stand – It is a short, hollow cylindrical rod fixed to the base. Another
small cylindrical rod called vertical limb fits into the stand, at the
other end. The vertical limb can be moved up and down, with the
help of an adjustment knob attached to the upper end of the stand.

Lens
Folding
arm

Vertical limb

Stage Clip

Adjustment
knob

Mirror
Stand

Base

Fig. 1.1 : A simple (dissecting) microscope

3. Folding arm – To the upper end of vertical limb, a flat horizontal

folding arm is attached. This can move sideways.
4. Stage – It is a rectangular glass plate fitted with a pair of clips on its
upper surface. The clips are used to hold the object or slide on
the stage.
5. Mirror – A movable plano-concave mirror is attached to the stand
below the stage for reflecting light onto the stage.
6. Lens – A simple convex lens (known as eye piece) is mounted on the
folded arm. The magnification of a dissecting microscope depends on
the magnification of the lens which is normally 5X, 10X or 20X.
(‘X’ denotes the number of times a lens magnifies an object).

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
1. Clean the stage, lens and mirror with a soft and dry cloth or with a
tissue paper.
2. Place a permanent slide or a slide with an object mounted on it on
the stage.
3. Adjust the mirror to get maximum (reflected) light on to the object.
4. Align the microscope lens over the object under observation.
5. Rotate the adjustment knob to bring the object to clear focus.


• Keep the microscope in its box after use.
• Clean the lens and mirror with a lens cleaning solution. Always wipe
the lens and mirror with a piece of silk cloth.
• Always carry the microscope in an upright position. Use both your
hands to hold it.
• Clean the stage properly before placing the slide.
• Take care to prevent the microscope lens coming in contact with the
slide or an object.


• A dissecting microscope is used to observe whole mounts of small
organisms, parts of plants or animals and for dissecting small
organisms.
• It is important to acquaint the students with the precautions to
be adhered to while handling a microscope before they proceed
for using it.
• It is advised to mount a suitable material on a slide and
demonstrate to students.


• What is the magnification of the simple microscope you have used?
• Why is a simple microscope also called a dissecting microscope?
• Which type of mirror is fitted in the simple microscope? What is
its function?

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 


To study the different parts of a compound microscope.


A compound microscope uses a combination of simple lenses in the objective
and the eye piece. It offers a much higher magnification of an object than
the simple microscope.


A compound microscope and permanent slides.


The compound microscope (Fig. 2.1) consists of the following parts–
1. Base – It is the basal part that is bifurcated and supports the weight
of the microscope. It is made of a metal.
2. Arm – It is curved and supports the body tube, knobs for coarse and
fine adjustments, stage and mirror. It is used for holding the
microscope. The arm is attached to the base by an inclination joint.
3. Body tube – It is a hollow tube attached to the upper end of the arm.
It has the eye piece at the upper end and a circular, movable metallic
ring called nose piece at the lower end. Objective lenses are screwed

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into the grooves present beneath the nose piece. Usually two objective
lenses of 10X (low power) and 40X (high power) magnification
are provided.
4. Stage – It is a rectangular platform attached to the lower end of the
arm. There is a hole at the centre of the stage which allows light from

Eye piece

Revolving nose piece Coarse adjustment

Low power objective knob
lens
High power objective Fine adjustment
lens knob
Stage

Stage clip Arm

Iris diaphragm

Mirror

Stand

Fig. 2.1 : A compound microscope

the mirror to pass through it and to fall on mounted slide. A pair of

clips is provided to hold the slide firmly on the stage.
5. Diaphragm – It is present below the stage and is used for adjusting
the intensity of light.
6. Coarse adjustment knob – It is attached to the arm and it moves the
body tube up and down for focusing the object.
7. Fine adjustment knob – It is attached to the arm and moves the body
tube up and down very slowly. The fine adjustment is very essential
for fine focusing of object, particularly in high power.
8. Mirror – A plano-concave adjustable mirror is fitted below the stage
to reflect light onto the objective.

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
1. The microscope should be placed safely on the working table with the
arm facing yourself.
2. Clean the eye piece, objectives, and the mirror with a soft and dry silk
cloth.
3. Rotate the nose-piece slowly till it clicks in position to bring the low
power objective in line with the body tube.
4. Adjust the diaphragm for allowing optimum light to pass on to the
stage.
5. Observe through the eye piece. Tilt and turn the mirror towards the
light source and adjust its position till the microscopic field appears
bright.
6. Place the slide on the stage and move it so as to view the object on the
slide.
7. Move the body tube with the help of coarse adjustment knob until
the image of the object is seen. Sharpen the focus with the help of
fine adjustment knob.
8. For viewing the object under high power turn the nose piece to high
power objective after the object is focused under low power. Using the
fine adjustment knob, focus the object.


• While carrying the microscope, hold its arm with one hand and support
the base with the other [see Fig. 2.2(a)].
• Place the microscope with its arm facing yourself [see Fig. 2.2(b)].
• Do not tilt the microscope, keep it in upright position [see Fig. 2.2(c)].
• Do not use coarse adjustment when viewing through high power
objective [see Fig. 2.2(d)]. The slide may break.
• Use a tissue paper (or clean silk or muslin cloth) for cleaning lenses
and mirror [Fig. 2.2(e)].
• Place the microscope gently on the working table about 15 cm away
from the edge of the table to prevent its accidental fall [Fig. 2.2(f)].
• Do not allow direct sun-rays to strike the mirror. Use plane mirror for
natural day light and concave mirror for artificial light.
• After use, lower the body tube and keep the microscope in its box.

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Do Don’t Do Don’t

(a) (b)

Do Don’t Do Don’t

(c) (d)

Do Don’t Do Don’t

(e) (f)

Fig. 2.2 : Handling of a compound microscope

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
• It is important to acquaint the students with the precautions
to be followed for handling a microscope before they proceed to
use it.
• Magnification of lenses is often written on the surface of the
objectives and eye pieces. It denotes the number of times the
object is magnified. In a compound microscope, generally an eye
piece is 10X or 15X and an objective is 10X and 40X or 45X. The
magnification (M) of a compound microscope is the product of
magnification of eye piece lens and that of objective lens. For
example, the magnification of a compound microscope with 10X
eye piece and 40X objective is 10 × 40, that is 400.


• What will be the magnification of a microscope when 15X eye
piece and 40X objective are used?
• Why is it suggested not to reflect the sunlight directly into the
body tube of the microscope?
• What is the difference between a simple (dissecting) and compound
microscope?
• What is the function of an adjustment knob in a microscope?
• Which of the following part supports the weight of microscope?
(a) arm (b) stage (c) body tube (d) base.
• Name the part of a microscope with which objective lenses are
fitted?
(a) nose piece (b) diaphragm (c) stage (d) arm.
• What holds the slide firmly on the stage of a microscope?
(a) diaphragm (b) clips (c) nose piece (d) objective.
• Which of the following regulates the intensity of illumination in a
compound microscope.
(a) diaphragm (b) body tube (c) stage (d) mirror.

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 


To determine the density of a liquid (other than water) by using a spring
balance and a measuring cylinder.


The density ( ρ ) of a given substance is the mass of its unit volume. For a
substance of mass M and volume V, the density is given by the ratio:
M
ρ =
V

In this experiment the density of a liquid will be determined by finding

the mass of its known volume.


A spring balance (0 – 500 g), measuring cylinder (100 mL), polythene bag
according to the size of the measuring cylinder, and the given liquid
(kerosene, turpentine oil or any other).


1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance and the measuring
cylinder. (Hint: To determine the least count of a spring balance or a



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measuring cylinder, note the value of the physical quantity measured

by it between any of its two adjacent numerically marked divisions.
Dividing this value by the number of smaller divisions between them
gives the least count of the device.)
2. Hold the spring balance vertically and ensure that its pointer is at
zero mark. Place the empty cylinder in a polythene bag and suspend
it from the spring balance as shown in Fig. 3.1. Note the reading, M1
of spring balance.
3. Place the measuring cylinder on a horizontal surface like a table.
Pour the given liquid (whose density is to be determined) in the
measuring cylinder. Note the volume, V, of the liquid (Fig. 3.2).
4. Put the liquid-filled cylinder in the polythene bag and again suspend
it from the spring balance. Note the reading, M2, of the spring balance.

Fig. 3.1 : Measurement of mass of a

measuring cylinder using a Fig. 3.2 : Measurement of volume of
spring balance given liquid


(i) Range of the spring balance = ______ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = ______ g
(iii) Range of the measuring cylinder = ______ mL
(iv) Least count of the measuring cylinder = ______ mL

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(v) Mass (M) of the given liquid:

(i) Mass of the empty cylinder in the polythene bag, M1 = ______ g
(ii) Mass of the liquid-filled cylinder (in the bag) M2 = ______ g
(iii) Mass of the liquid, M (= M2 – M1) = ______ g
(vi) Volume of the given liquid, V = ______ mL


Volume of the given liquid V = ______ mL
Mass of the given liquid M = ______ g
M
Density of the liquid ρ = = ______ g/mL
V
= ______ kg/m3 ( 1kg/m3 = 0.001 g/mL)


The density of the given liquid is ________ kg/m3.
Find the standard value of density of the given liquid and compare it with
the observed result (see Appendix – C).


• The measuring cylinder must be clean and dry.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring volume of the given liquid.
• While observing the liquid meniscus the line-of-sight should be at the
same horizontal level as that of the lowest meniscus.
• There should be no air bubble in the liquid while measuring its volume.
• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurement.
• Before making use of spring balance it must be ensured that its pointer
is at the zero mark.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.


• The graduations marked on the measuring cylinder and on spring
balance may not be evenly spaced.
• A spring balance is primarily meant for measuring the weight (force) of
a body. However in laboratories, a spring balance is often used to
measure the mass of a body. It should be remembered that the



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calibration of spring balance scale is done at the place of its manufacture

and depends on the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at that
place. Therefore, if a spring balance is used to measure mass at any
other place where the value of g is different, an error in the measurement
of mass will appear.


• A spring balance calibrated in newton, reads 19.6 N. What
will be its mass in grams at your place?
• You are given two measuring cylinders of least count 1.0
mL and 2.5 mL, respectively. Which one will you prefer to
determine the density more accurately?
• Write two precautions that you will observe while measuring
the volume of a liquid with the help of a measuring cylinder.
• Two bottles of equal volume are filled with glycerine and
water respectively. Which of the bottle will be heavier? Give
reason for your answer.
• Why is the density of water at 80 °C less than its density at
30 ºC?



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 


To determine the density of a non-porous solid (insoluble and denser than
water) by using a spring balance and a measuring cylinder.


The density ( ρ ) of a given substance is the mass of its unit volume. For a
substance of mass M and volume V, the density is given by the ratio:

M
ρ=
V


A spring balance (0 – 500 g), measuring cylinder (100 or 200 mL), a piece
of thread, water, and a small piece of experimental solid.


1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance and the measuring
cylinder (Explained in Experiment 3).
2. For finding the mass of the given solid, suspend it from the spring
balance with the help of thread (Fig. 4.1). Note the reading of the
spring balance.

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3. Place the measuring cylinder on a horizontal surface like a table-top

and fill it with water, say, up to the half of its range. Note the reading
of the water meniscus as the initial volume.
4. Tie the given solid with a thread and lower it slowly in water in the
measuring cylinder. What happens to the level of water in the cylinder?
Let the solid to immerse completely in the water. Next, note the reading
of water meniscus as the final volume (Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.1 : Measuring of mass of solid Fig. 4.2 : Determination of volume of

using spring balance a non-porous solid

5. Take out the solid from the measuring cylinder. Dry it and repeat the
activity by taking different initial volume of water in the cylinder. In
each case note the initial and final readings of water meniscus.


(i) Range of spring balance = _____ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = _____ g
(iii) Range of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(iv) Least count of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(v) Mass (M) of the given solid = _____ g
(vi) Volume (V) of the given solid–
Sl. Initial Reading Final Reading Volume of Solid Mean value
No. of water meniscus, V1 water meniscus, V2 V= V2 – V1 of volume of solids

(mL) (mL) (mL) V (mL)

1.
2.
3.
4.



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M
Density of the solid ( ρ = ) = _____ g/mL= _____ kg/m3
V
(1 kg/m3 = 0.001g/mL.)


The density (ρ) of the given solid is ______ kg/m3.
Find the standard value of density of the given solid and compare it with the
observed result (see Appendix – B).


• The measuring cylinder must be dry and clean.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
reading the water meniscus.
• While observing the liquid meniscus the line-of-sight should be at the
same horizontal level as that of the lowest meniscus.
• There should be no air bubble in the liquid while measuring its volume.
• The spring balance should be held verical while taking measurement.
• Before making use of spring balance it must be ensured that its pointer
is at the zero mark.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• The solid piece should be wiped with a dry cloth before repeating the
activity.


• The graduations marked on the measuring cylinder and on spring
balance may not be uniform and evenly spaced.
• A spring balance is primarily meant for measuring the weight (force) of
an object. However in laboratories, a spring balance is often used to
measure the mass of an object. It should be remembered that the
calibration of spring balance scale is done at the place of its manufacture
and depends on the value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at that
place. Therefore, if a spring balance is used to measure mass at any
other place where the value of g is different, an error in the measurement
of mass will appear.

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
• The method describe above is useful for small solid objects. In
case of larger objects, one should make use of an overflow can
rather than measuring cylinder.
• This method is only useful for non-porous and water insoluble
solid objects. Therefore it is advised to use a metallic solid.
• Some error in the measurement of volume of the solid piece may
occur even if it has meagre porosity.
• The density of solid should be more than the density of water so
that the solid can sink in water. If the density of solid is less than
the density of water then a sinker can be used to perform the
experiment.
• Earlier Experiment titled “To determine the density of a liquid
(other than water) by using a spring balance and a measuring
cylinder” also uses a spring balance. It is therefore advised that
students may perorm the earlier experiment first to be aware of
the instruments used in this experiment.


• Can you determine the density of a porous solid by using a spring
balance and a measuring cylinder? Give reasons in support of
your answer.
• How the presence of an air bubble in the liquid taken in the
measuring cylinder can affect the volume of the solid?
• Density of sealing wax is 1.8 g/cm3. Express it in kg/m3.
• A metal cylinder is melted and the whole mass is cast in the
shape of a cube. What happens to its density? Give reasons.
• At which temperature is the density of water maximum?



16-04-2018
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 


To show that gases are readily compressible and liquids are not.


The density of gases varies considerably with pressure but not for liquids.
That is, gases are readily compressible while liquids are not. In this
experiment we shall use a plastic syringe to demonstrate it.


A plastic syringe of maximum available size (such as 25 mL or 50 mL)
without needle, water, some other liquids such as mustard oil, kerosene,
and fruit juice etc.


1. Hold the cylinder of a plastic syringe of maximum available size in
one of your hand.
2. Insert the piston into the syringe cylinder and bring it to a certain
level inside the syringe cylinder. In this situation air (gas) is inside
the syringe. Note and record the reading of the piston in the syringe.
This is your initial reading.
3. Close (or plug) the outlet nozzle of the syringe strongly by one of the
finger of the same hand holding the syringe cylinder.
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4. Apply a little force on the piston to push it in the syringe cylinder

(that is to compress the air). Are you able to push it (Fig. 5.1)?
5. Keep on applying the force on the piston to push it further inside the
syringe cylinder. Do you find that after some attempts, the piston
stops pushing in further? Are you able to further compress the air
inside the syringe? Note and record the reading of the piston in the
syringe cylinder. This is the final piston reading.
6. Take out the piston from Rubber Air Piston
the syringe and unplug cork
the nozzle.
7. Fill the syringe cylinder
with water. Insert the
piston into the syringe
cylinder. Slowly push it
inside the cylinder to
allow the air pass
through the nozzle of the
syringe. Ensure that Fig. 5.1
there is no air bubble
inside the cylinder. Note the reading of the piston in the syringe. This
is your initial reading for water inside the syringe.
8. Again close (or plug) the nozzle of the syringe strongly.
9. Apply force on the piston to push it in (or to compress the water
inside). What do you observe? Does the water compress? Note and
record the final reading.
10. Repeat the experiment with other liquids. Record observations.


Sl. No. Material Initial reading of piston in Final reading of piston in
syringe syringe
1. Air
2. Water
3. Oil
4.


Infer from your observations that the gases are readily compressible while
liquids are not. This shows that gases have more vacant space between the
constituent particles.

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  

• Use a cloth to safely and tightly close or plug the nozzle of the
syringe cylinder.
• The motion of piston inside the syringe cylinder must be tight
otherwise air (or liquid) may leak from the gas-piston boundary
(or liquid-piston boundary).
• The needle of the syringe must not be used as it may hurt.


• What do you conclude about the inter-particle space in case of
liquids and gases?
• Was it easy to compress gas (air)? What happened when you
released pressure on the piston?
• What do you think which is present between the particles of air?
• Where do you come across the phenomenon of compressibility of
gases and liquids in daily life?



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 


To study the changes in state of sublimate solids on heating.


A change in state directly from solid to gas on heating without changing
into liquid state, or vice-versa is called sublimation. That is,
heat
→ Vapour (gas)
Solid ←
cool


Ammonium chloride (or camphor or naphthalene or iodine or any other
sublimable solid), china dish, funnel, cotton plug, burner, tripod stand,
and a wire gauge,


1. Take powdered sublimable solid in a china dish.
2. Put an inverted funnel over the china dish.
3. Insert a cotton plug on the stem of the funnel.
4. Put china dish over the wire gauge on the tripod stand.
5. Heat the china dish slowly with the help of a burner.

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Fig. 6.1 : Sublimation of ammonium chloride

6. Cover the outer surface of the funnel with wet cotton to sublime the
vapours quickly.


A sublimable solid on heating directly get converted into vapours,
that sublimes back on cooling directly into solid again on the walls of
the funnel.


A sublimable solid on heating directly converts into gaseous state. How? Is
it because of the high vapour pressure of the liquid state of the solid. The
liquid state is practically non-existant.


• Heat the sample carefully.
• Take care in plugging the stem of the funnel securely with cotton.
• The size of the mouth of the funnel and china dish should be
comparable.
• Do not remove the funnel when hot.



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
• Moth repellent balls are easily available which can be crushed
and can also be used as a sample in this experiment.


• In your view, what could be the reason for direct conversion of
some solids to vapours and vice-versa?
• In the above experiment, you have observed conversion of solid
to vapours. Is this a physical or a chemical change?
• Could you think of some applications of this change in daily life?



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 


To study the process of evaporation.


Particles of matter are always moving and are never at rest. At a given
temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there are particles with different
amount of kinetic energies. In the case of liquids, a small fraction of particles
at the surface, having higher kinetic energy than the bulk is able to break
away from the forces of attraction of other particles and gets converted
into vapour. This phenomenon of change of a liquid into vapours (gases) at
any temperature below its boiling point is called evaporation.


Water, china dish, tripod stand, burner, and spirit.


1. Take about 50 mL tap water in a china dish.
2. Heat the china dish slowly with the help of burner.
3. Observe how the contents in the china dish disappear with time.
4. Continue heating untill all the water evaporates.
5. Repeat the experiment taking spirit as a sample.



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6. Take about 10 to 15 mL spirit in a china dish and mark

its level.
7. Keep it for some time. Do not heat it.
8. Observe the contents in the china dish and continue
observing till all the spirit evaporates.


Water evaporates on heating whereas spirit evaporates at room
temperature.


Fig. 7.1 : Evaporation of
water
Some solvents evaporate even at room temperature. The
tendency of the liquid to vapourise depends on the nature of
the liquid through the molecule-molecule (intermolecular)
interaction in the bulk of the liquid.


• A container containing spirit must never be heated directly on a
flame. Instead a water bath may be used, if required.
• The solvents which evaporate fast at room temperature are called
‘highly volatile’ solvents. Examples of highly volatile solvents are
ether, acetone, petroleum ether, benzene etc.


• How is the crystallisation of sugar from its solution related to the
above phenomenon?
• How would the presence of sodium chloride in water effect its
evaporation tendency?
• Do you think that the process of evaporation increases if the
surface area of a container containing the solvent increases?
• Will an increase of temperature effect the rate of evaporation?
Justify your answer.
• On a rainyday, the rate of evaporation decreases. Why?
• Amongst evaporation and condensation which process is more
indisciplined? Justify your answer.



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 


To determine the boiling point of water and melting point of ice.


The temperature at which a solid changes into its liquid state is known as
its melting point. Once a solid attains its melting temperature, the
temperature remains same until the entire solid converts into liquid.

The temperature at which a liquid changes into its vapour state is known
as its boiling point. Once a liquid attains its boiling point, the temperature
remains same until all the liquid changes into its vapour.


Round bottom flask (250 mL), a double bored cork, beaker (100 mL),
thermometer (–10 ºC − 110 ºC), stop-watch (or a stop-clock), spirit lamp
(or gas burner), tripod stand with wire gauze, spring balance, a glass tube,
a polythene bag, laboratory stand, water, crushed ice, and thread.


A. Determination of boiling point of water.
1. Note the range and the least count of the thermometer.



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2. Take about 150 mL water in the round bottom flask

and close its mouth with a two-holded stopper. Fix
the thermometer through one of the holes in the cork
and a glass tube through the other [Fig. 8.1]. Make
sure that the bulb of thermometer hangs in air and
is not in contact with water in the flask.
3. Place wire gauze on a tripod stand and keep the flask
over it. Start heating the water with a spirit lamp or a
gas burner.
4. Switch on the stop-watch (or stop-clock) and note
the reading of the thermometer after fixed intervals
of time, say after every two minutes. Once the
temperature rises above 80 ºC, the time interval to
read the thermometer should be reduced, say to one
Fig. 8.1 : Determination of minute.
Boiling point of
water
5. Continue recording the thermometer readings for
4-5 minutes even after the water in the flask begins
to boil.
B. Determination of melting point of ice.
1. Take a beaker and fill it up to half with crushed ice.
2. Insert the bulb of the thermometer into the ice and let it stand in a
vertical position (Fig. 8.2).
3. Switch on the stop-watch or the stop-clock and note the reading of
thermometer and the state of ice in the beaker after every one minute
till the whole of ice melts.
4. Continue recording the temperature till the temperature of the water
so formed rises up to 2 − 3 ºC.


Record your observations on heating of water in
Table 1 and those on melting of ice in Table 2.

Fig. 8.2 : Determination of melting point of ice

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A. Table 1: Observations for Heating of Water

Sl.No. Time (minute) Temperature of water (ºC)

1.

2.
3.

B. Table 2: Observations for Melting of Ice

Sl. State of the ice Time (minute) Temperature (ºC)

No. solid/partly solid/partly liquid/liquid

1.

2.

3.


Study the observations recorded in Table 1 and find the temperature that
remains constant even when the water begins to boil. Infer the boiling
point of water. Study the observations recorded in Table 2 and find the
temperature that remains constant as long as the ice gets converted into
water. Infer the melting point of ice.


A. Determination of boiling point of water
• Thermometer in the flask should be fixed in a manner that its bulb
does not touch the water surface in the flask.
• Recording of temperature and time should be done simultaneously.

B. Determination of melting point of ice

• The bulb of the thermometer should be completely inside the crushed
ice.
• The thermometer should not touch the wall of the beaker.
• Recording of temperature and time should be done simultaneously.

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 
• The boiling point of water under standard conditions is taken as 100ºC.
However, it may differ due to impurities in water and atmospheric
pressure.
• The melting point of pure ice under standard conditions is taken as
0ºC. However, it may change due to impurities in ice and atmospheric
pressure.


• Why is the bulb of thermometer kept above the surface of water
while determining the boiling point of water?
• Why does the temperature remain unchanged until the entire
solid changes into liquid even if we are heating the solid?
• Why do we fix a two holed-cork in the round bottom flask while
determining the boiling point of water?



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 


To prepare a saturated solution of common salt in distilled water and to
determine its solubility at room temperature.


A solution in which no more solute dissolves in the given solvent at a
particular temperature is a saturated solution. The solubility of a substance
in a saturated solution is defined as the mass of solute dissolved in 100 g
of solvent. In this experiment we shall prepare a saturated solution of
common salt in water at room temperature and then will determine its
solubility.


Common salt or sugar, distilled water, three beakers (250 mL), stirring
rod, filter paper, funnel, china dish, watch glass, tripod stand, burner,
spring balance ( 0 g – 250 g, preferably having least count of 1 g), a polythene
bag, a measuring cylinder (100 mL), and a thermometer (–10 ºC − 110 ºC).


1. Hang the thermometer freely in the room. Note and record its reading
to find the room temperature.

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A. Preparation of saturated solution

1. Using a measuring cylinder take 100 mL distilled water in a 250 mL
beaker. Dry the measuring cylinder after use.
2. Dissolve some common salt in distilled water with the help of a stirring
rod.
3. Warm the solution slightly and keep on adding common salt in the
solution with constant stirring till no more common salt dissolves in
it.
4. Stop warming the solution and allow the beaker to cool till it comes
to the room temperature.
5. Filter the solution into another beaker in order to separate undissolved
salt, if any. The filtered solution is the saturated solution of sodium
chloride (common salt) in distilled water at room temperature.

B. Determination of Solubility

(i) Density Method

1. Determine the mass of the third beaker of 250 mL. (See Experiment 3
for details), using a spring balance and a polythene bag.
2. Pour 100 mL of prepared saturated solution in the weighed beaker,
using the measuring cylinder.
3. Determine the mass of the beaker containing saturated solution (using
a spring balance and a polythene bag).
4. Find the mass of the 100 mL of saturated solution.

(ii) Evaporation Method

1. Determine the mass of the china dish, using a spring balance and a
polythene bag.
2. Using the measuring cylinder, take 25 mL of prepared saturated
solution in a china dish.
3. Heat the china dish until all the water (solvent) evaporates out. The
dish will now contain only the solute (common salt).
4. Stop heating the china dish and allow it to cool.
5. Determine the mass of the china dish containing the solute, using
the spring balance and polythene bag.
6. Find the mass of solute that was dissolved in 25 mL saturated solution.


Room temperature = _____ °C = _____ K.

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(i) Determination of solubility by Density Method

Mass of empty beaker, m1 = _____ g
Mass of the beaker containing 100 mL
of prepared saturated solution, m2 = _____ g
Mass of 100 mL of saturated solution, m3 = _____ g
(m3 = m2 − m1)
Density of distilled water, ρ (given) = _____ 1 g/mL
Mass of 100 mL distilled water (= ρ ×100 mL) = 100 g
Mass of the solute (common salt) in
100 mL of distilled water, m = m3 − 100 g = _____ g.

Solubility of common salt, m g per 100 g of distilled water

= _____ g per 100 g of distilled water.
(ii) Determination of solubility by Evaporation Method
Mass of empty china dish, m1 = _____ g
Mass of china dish and common salt, m2 = _____ g
Mass of salt in 25 mL of prepared saturated solution, m3 = (m2 – m1)
= _____ g
Density of distilled water, ρ (given) = 1 g/mL
Mass of 25 mL distilled water (= ρ ×25 mL) = 25 g.

25 mL (or 25 g) of distilled water dissolves m3 g of common salt to

prepare a saturated solution. Thus the 100 mL (or 100 g) of distilled
m 3 × 100
water would require g of common salt to get a saturated
25
solution at room temperature.

Solubility of common salt, m g per 100 g of distilled water

m 3 × 100
= g per 100 g of distilled water
25
= ___ g per 100 g of distilled water.


Compare the solubility of common salt in distilled water to form a saturated
solution at room temperature obtained by density and evaporation methods.
Using density method the solubility of common salt in a saturated solution
at room temperature ( ___ °C or ___ K) is ______ g per 100 g of distilled water.

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Using evaporation method the solubility of common salt in a saturated

solution at room temperature ( ___ °C or ___ K) is ______ g per 100 g of
distilled water.


• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurements.
• Before making use of the spring balance it must be ensured that its
pointer is at zero mark. If not then ask your teacher to help.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring the volume of the distilled water and solution.
• While preparing the saturated solution, the warming of the solution
should be slow and to a temperature slightly (2 °C to 5 °C) more than
the room temperature. Similarly the cooling of solution must also be
slow.
• While performing evaporation method, heating of saturated solution
must be stopped as soon as all the water evaporates from the solution.


• In place of common salt, some students may be suggested to
perform this experiment with sugar.
• Experiment 3 and 4 explains a simple method to find the mass of
a measuring cylinder using a spring balance and
a polythene bag. Since in this experiment too a beaker and a
china dish (empty as well as filled) are to be weighed, it is therefore
suggested that students may be asked to perform either of
experiment 3 and 4 first.
• If the spring balance is not sufficiently sensitive, students may
be suggested to use a physical balance. However a physical
balance might be new equipment for them, it is advised to kindly
guide them in making use of a physical balance to weigh the
objects more accurately.
• In case, if distilled water is not available, the experiment may be
performed with filtered water or drinking water. Its density may be
assumed as 1 g/mL.
• If students find it lengthy to determine the solubility using both
density and evaporation methods, suggest them to perform only
one method.

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
• How does the solubility of a solute in solvent change with an
increase in temperature?
• What is a supersaturated solution in your opinion?
• How can a supersaturated solution of salt in water be prepared?
• What will happen if a saturated salt solution prepared at high
temperature is (i) cooled slowly? (ii) cooled suddenly?
• Would the solubility of sodium chloride (common salt) in water
increase or decrease in presence of water sample containing
magnesium/calcium chloride? Give explanation.

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 


To prepare a solution of common salt of 10% composition by mass.


The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given
amount (mass or volume) of the solution. Mass percent concentration is
defined as a mass (g) of the solute per 100 g mass of the solution. A 10%
solution by mass means, 10 g of solute dissolved in 90 g of solvent to
result into 100 g of solution.


Common salt, distilled water, watch glass, stirring rod, physical balance,
measuring cylinder (100 mL), and a beaker (250 mL).


1. Calculate the volume of solvent (distilled water) and mass of solute
(sodium chloride or common salt) required to prepare 100 g of 10%
by mass solution. This may be done as follows–
10 g solute is required for 100 g solution (distilled water + salt). Thus the
amount of water required would be 100 g – 10 g = 90 g. Since the density of
distilled water is 1 g/mL, therefore the volume of distilled water (required to
prepare 100 g of 10% by mass solution with 10 g of common salt) is 90 mL.

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2. Weigh an empty watch glass on a physical balance. Also weigh 10 g of

sodium chloride (common salt) on the watch glass now.
3. Take 90 mL (90 g) of distilled water in a 250 mL beaker with the help
of a measuring cylinder.
4. Transfer 10 g of salt from the watch glass to the beaker containing 90
mL distilled water.
5. Stir the solution untill all the salt dissolve in it.


(i) Mass of empty watch glass (m1) = _____ g
(ii) Mass of watch glass + sodium chloride (m1 + 10 g) = _____ g
(iii) Mass of sodium chloride (common salt) = 10 g.


The concentration of prepared solution is 10% by mass of common salt in
water. This way of expressing concentration is one amongst many.


• Use of physical balance must be done with all precautions. Ask your
teacher acquaint you with the working of a physical balance.
• The readings of the physical balance should be taken only when its
pointer comes to rest.
• The measuring cylinder should be placed on a horizontal surface while
measuring the volume of the distilled water and solution.


• In place of common salt, some students may be suggested to
perform this experiment with sugar.
• This experiments requires to use a physical balance to weigh
10 g of common salt or sugar using a watch glass. A physical
balance is a sophisticated equipment. It is suggested to acquaint
students with the working of a physical balance. They may be
asked to practice with this balance before performing this
experiment.
• In case, if distilled water is not available, the experiment may be
performed with filtered water or drinking water. Its density may be
assumed as 1 g/mL at the experimental temperature.

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
• Why should the density of a 10% common salt be more than the
density of pure water at a specified temperature? Offer qualitative
explanation.
• A student is asked to prepare 250 mL sugar solution 15% by
mass concentration. How much amount of sugar and water should
be taken for preparation of the solution?
• If 50 mL of water is added to the above solution. What will be the
change in the mass percentage of the solute?
• 830 g of salt solution contains 50 g of common salt in it. Calculate
its concentration in terms of mass percentage?



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 


To separate the components of a mixture of sand, common salt and
ammonium chloride.


Sand, common salt, and ammonium chloride form a heterogeneous mixture
and can be separated easily by physical methods of separation. By selecting
the right order of methods of separation, the three can be easily separated:
(i) ammonium chloride sublimes on heating;
(ii) sand is insoluble in water; and
(iii) common salt can be recovered by evaporation of its aqueous solution.


A china dish, a funnel, a beaker (250 mL), a cotton plug, burner, tripod
stand, wire gauge, sand, common salt, ammonium chloride, water, and
filter paper.


1. Take mixture of ammonium chloride, sand and common salt in a
china dish.

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(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 11.1 : Separation of components of a mixture of ammonium chloride, sand and

common salt. (a) Separation of ammonium chloride by sublimation;
(b) Residue containing sand and common salt dissolved in water;
(c) Separation of sand by filtration; and (d) Obtaining common salt by
evaporation

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2. Set up a sublimation apparatus as shown in Fig. 11.1(a).

3. Heat the mixture. Ammonium chloride will be separated on the
walls of the inverted funnel.
4. The residue left behind in the china dish contains sand and
common salt.
5. Dissolve this residue mixture in water. Common salt will dissolve
but sand will not [Fig. 11.1(b)].
6. Filter the sand from the mixture using a filter paper [Fig. 11.1(c)].
7. Sand is separated as residue and the filterate is salt solution in
water.
8. Heat the filterate (salt solution) to evaporate the water and to
get the dry sample of common salt [Fig. 11.1(d)].

   

Using methods of separation sequentially, ammonium chloride, sand
and common salt have been separated from their mixture.


• Sublimation process should be carried out carefully.
• Take care while filtering so that the filter paper does not tear off.

   

• If soil is taken instead of sand for formation of mixture, it
will form colloidal solution and clear filterate may not be
obtained.
• As in the laboratory the sublimation apparatus is not air
tight, recovery of ammonium chloride will not be 100%.
• The outer surface of funnel must be covered with wet cotton
to separate sublimation product (ammonium chloride in this
case) easily.
• To make the process of separation easily workable, it is
desired that one water soluble component be separated by a
process other than solubility and that is sublimation in this
experiement.

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 
• If in the first step the mixture had been dissolved in water
what would have been the difficulty in separation.
• Instead of common salt if one component in the given mixture
is sulphur, how would you carry out separation process then?
• Can the two components of a mixture that are soluble in water
be separated by any technique? Justify your answer.



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 


To prepare solutions of various substances and to identify them as true
solutions and suspensions.


A true solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The
solute and solvent particles can not be observed by the naked eye as they
are very small (of the order of 1nm). A suspension is a hetrogeneous mixture
of two or more substances. The solute particles of a suspension are often
visible by the naked eyes as the size of particles is more than 0.1 mm.


Powder samples of sodium chloride (or common salt), sugar, baking soda,
chalk powder, sand, and sulphur etc., a beaker (250 mL), water, and a
glass stirrer rod.


1. Take a small amount of a solid sample as solute.
2. Dissolve it in 100 mL water taken in a beaker with the help of a glass
stirrer rod. Stir the mixture for some time.
3. Allow it to stand for some time.

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4. Observe and record whether the mixture formed is homogeneous or

heterogeneous.
5. Repeat the experiment for different solid solutes.


Sl. No. Solute Homogenous or Type of mixture formed
heterogeneous (true solution or suspension)

1.
2.
3.
4.


(a) Samples ____________, ______________ , _____________ , form true
solution in water. Which are homogeneous.
(b) Samples ____________ , ____________ form suspension in water.


• Students may be provided fine powder samples.
• If a light beam from a torch is passed through suspensions,
scattering of light may also be observed.


• Why are the particles of a true solution not visible to naked eye?
• What is the order of the size of a particle that can be seen by
naked eyes?
• What different techniques of seperation can be employed for
separation of components of homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixture?
• What will be your observation, when a beam of light is passed
through a true solution and through a suspension respectively?



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 


To prepare a colloidal solution of sulphur and differentiate it from a true
solution or from a suspension on the basis of transparency and filtration.


A collodial solution of sulphur in water can be obtained by the oxidation of
hydrogen sulphide by nitric acid.

H2S (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2H2O (l) + S (s) + 2NO2 (g)

A true solution is homogenous and transparent. It can be completely
filtered through a filter paper. It remains stable on standing.
A colloidol solution is heterogenous, it appears translucent. It can be
filtered completely through filter paper. Here solute particles do not easily
settle down on standing.
A suspension is heterogenous mixture. The particles of a suspension
are visible to the naked eye. They settle down on standing and can be
separated by filtration.


Kipp’s apparatus to get hydrogen sulphide gas, concentrated nitric acid,
common salt, chalk powder, funnel, four boiling tubes, glass rod, test
tube stand, and filter paper.

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
(i) Preparation of Colloidal Solution of Sulphur
1. Take about 20 mL distilled water in a boiling tube and pass H2S gas
through it for about 5 minutes. The solution would smell like a rotten egg.
2. Add few drops of concentrated nitric acid
in it. Stir the solution. Continue adding
few more drops of nitric acid untill
solution becomes milky.
3. Transfer the contents into a another
clean boiling tube. Label this boiling
tube as tube A.
(ii) Preparation of True Solution
4. Take about 20 mL distilled water in a
clean boiling tube.
5. Add approximately 1- 2 g of sodium
chloride (or common salt) into it.
Fig. 13.1 6. Stir the solution till it becomes clear.
Label this boiling tube as tube B.
(iii) Preparation of suspension
7. Take about 20 mL of distilled water in another clean boiling tube.
8. Add approximately 1- 2 g of powdered chalk into it.
9. Stir the mixture with the help of glass rod. Label this boiling tube
as tube C.


Sl.No. Experiment Boiling tube Inference

1. Transparency A

Observe the contents of B

different boiling tubes C

2. Filtration

Filter the contents of A

different tubes through B

an ordinary filter paper C

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
Colloidal and suspension are heterogenous mixtures where as true solutions
are homogenous mixtures. They differ form each other only on the basis of
their particle size.


• Arrangement for the preparation of H 2S gas may be done in
advance in the laboratory using the Kipp’s apparatus. It requires
ferrous sulphide and conc. sulphuric acid.
• When sulphur is formed by an insitu reaction the particle size is
in the colloidal range as particles of sulphur remain aggregate in
water, forming a colloidal solution.
• Sulphur can form true solution in carbon tetrachloride or carbon
disulphide solvent.
• A suspension of sulphur can be formed in water by mixing sulphur
powder in distilled water.
• Colloidal solution of sulphur can also be obtained by adding dil.
HCl or conc. H2SO4 to sodium thiosulphate solution
Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + SO2 + S + H2O
(sodium thiosulphate (colloidal
or hypo solution) sulphur)


• What will be the effect of passing light through colloidal solution
of sulphur?
• What is the difference in the particle size of colloid, true solution
and suspension.
• Classify the following as a true solution, as a suspension, or as
a colloid: (i) milk; (ii) CuSO4 solution; (iii) jam; (iv) gum; (v) soil
in water; and (vi) sand in water



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 


To study the process of separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids.


The separation of two immiscible liquids by a separating funnel depends
on the difference in their densities. A less denser liquid floats over a liquid
whose density is more.


Separating funnel (250 mL)(with its stop-cock), two beakers (250 mL), and
two immiscible liquids such as water and kerosene.


1. Take a mixture of two immiscible liquids (say water and kerosene) in
a separating funnel (Fig. 14.1).
2. Allow it to stand for some time.
3. The mixture separates into two liquid layers according to their
densities.
4. Collect the lower layer carefully in a beaker by opening the stop-cock
of the separating funnel.
5. Similarly collect the upper layer in another beaker.

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Separating Funnel
Kerosene
Water

Fig. 14.1 : Separation of immiscible liquids


Water and kerosene are immiscible and can be separated by using
separating funnel. Miscibility and immiscibility of liquid pairs depends
upon the effectiveness of intermolecular interaction.


• It is essential to remove the lid of the separating funnel while
opening the stop cock of the separating funnel.
• In order to get the two components in pure form, it is advisable to
discard a part of the mixture at the junction of the two layers.


• Arrange the two liquids used in the above experiment according
to the increasing order of their densities?
• Think of a technique that you can use to separate the above
immiscible liquids if separating funnel is not available?
• Is the mixture used in the above experiment heterogenous or
homogenous in nature?
• Which of the two sea water or pure water has got higher density?
• Can there be any way of varifying that lower layer in the separating
funnel is water layer. Explain either way.



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 


To separate a mixture of two miscible liquids by simple distillation.


The separation of two miscible liquids (having at least a difference in their
boiling points of 25 K) can be separated by a simple distillation method.
Distillation depends on the difference in their boiling points. The liquid
which has lower boiling point evaporates first and faster than the liquid
which has a higher boiling point.


Mixture of two miscible liquids (water and acetone), measuring cylinder, a
round bottom flask (250 mL), thermometer (-10 °C - 110 °C), condenser,
two beakers (250 mL), burner, tripod stand, and a wire gauge.


1. Take a mixture of 50 mL water and 50 mL acetone in a round bottom
flask.
2. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the Fig. 15.1.
3. Heat the mixture of acetone and water slowly and carefully monitor
the rise in temperature.

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4. Observe and note the temperature at which the first component of

the mixture distils out, that is, vapours get cooled and collected in a
beaker kept at the other end of the condenser.
5. Continue heating and similarly observe and note the temperature at
which the second component distills out.

Cork
Hot
Clamp
Cork water out

Distillation
flask

Clamp
Water condenser

Solution of acetone
and water

Cold water in

Fig. 15.1 : Laboratory apparatus for distillation



Component Component

I II

Temperature
Name of the component



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
The two components of the miscible liquids are separated by distillation.
The difference in the boiling points of the liquids depend upon the attraction
between the particles of the liquid.


• The intermediate fraction may be rejected as it may contain both
the components.
• For distillation, in place of round bottom flask and condenser, a
distillation apparatus is easy to use.
• The process of distillation can be stopped after the separation of
first component, as the second component of the mixture is left
in the round bottomed flask.
• A discussion on the difference between bottled mineral water and
distilled water may be initiated in the class room.


• In the above experiment you have found the boiling points of
water and acetone. Use this information to arrange acetone and
water in the order of (i) increasing force of attraction between the
particles of water (water-water); particles of acetone (acetone-
acetone); and (ii) increasing densities.
• You are provided with a mixture of methanol and ethanol having
boiling points 61 ºC and 78 ºC respectively. Can you separate the
two components by simple distillation method? Explain.
• You are given a sample of tap water, suggest a technique for
obtaining pure and salt free water (distilled water) from it?
• What is the natural technique of obtaining distilled water from
the nature?
• What is the utility of acetone in daily life?



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 


To differentiate between a mixture (containing two components) and a pure
compound.


The components of a mixture retain their individual properties. In a mixture
these components can have any ratio while components of a mixture lose
their individual properties once the compound is formed. Ratio of
components in a compound is fixed. Merely mixing two components is a
physical change and converting these into a compound is a chemical change.


Sulphur powder, iron filings, dil. hydrochloric acid (or dil. sulphuric acid),
lead acetate solution, carbon disulphide solvent, a bar magnet, two beaker
(100 mL), three test tubes, china dish, watch glass, glass rod, filter paper,
tripod stand, burner, wire gauge, splinter (or candle), and a mortor and
pestle.


1. Take iron fillings (5.6 g) and sulphur powder (3.2 g) in a beaker. Mix
them properly. Label this mixture as A.



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2. Take half of this mixture A in a china dish and heat it slowly with
constant stirring untill black mass is formed.
3. Cool the contents of china dish.
4. Grind the black mass with the help of mortar and pestle and put it in
another beaker and mark it as B.
5. Perform various tests (as suggested in the table below) with samples
A and B and record your observations.


Sl. Experiment Observation Inference
No. with sample

A B

1. Magnet test
Move a magnet over the sample A
and powdered black mass in sample
B several times.

2. Gas test
Take a small amount of mixture
from sample A in a test tube and
add 5 mL dil. hydrochloric acid or
dil. H2SO4 carefully. Test the evolved
gas by
(a) bring a burning splinter or
lighted candle near the mouth
of the test tube;
(b) bring a filter paper dipped in
lead acetate solution near the
mouth of the test tube.
Repeat the same test with
sample B.

3. Solubility test
Take a pinch of A and B in test
tubes. Add 5 mL carbon disulpide
(CS2) and shake the mixture. Filter
the solution.


• Do not inhale hydrogen sulphide gas as it a poisonous gas.
• Carbon disulphide is inflammable, so keep it away form the flame.



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
• In order to simplify the performance part of this experiment, it
is suggested that 5.6 g of iron filings and 3.2 g of sulphur
powder may be provided to the students.
• It is important to maintain the proper stoichiometry in the
reaction of iron with sulphur. In case of excess iron the product
will be attracted towards magnet.
• A mixture containing iron and sulphur shows the properties of
both its contituents. Iron filings are attracted towards a bar
magnet and react with dil. hydrochloric acid or dil. sulphuric
acid to liberate hydrogen. Hydrogen burns with the pop sound at
the mouth of the test tube. This reaction is highly exothermic
and therefore, must be performed carefully.
2Fe (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2FeCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g);
2Fe (s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) → Fe2(SO4)3 (aq) + 3H2 (g);

Sulphur is soluble in non polar solvent like carbon disulphide

(CS2). The compound iron sulphide (FeS) is formed on heating
iron (Fe) and sulphur (S).
heat
Fe (s) + S (s)  → FeS (s)
Iron sulphide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid forms hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) gas which turns lead acetate paper into shiny black.
Iron sulphide is insoluble in carbon disulphide solvent.
2FeS (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2FeCl2 (aq) + H2S (g);2FeS (s) +
2H2FeS (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → 2FeSO4 (aq) + H2S (g);
(CH3COO)2 Pb (aq) + H2S (g) → PbS (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq).
(Black)


• How would you proceed to test that a mixture of NH 4Cl and
CuSO4 give test for NH+4 ,Cl − , Cu2+ and SO42- ions?
• Which one is the more appropriate statement amongst the
following and Why? (i) Air is an oxidising agent; (ii) Oxygen of the
air is an oxidising agent.
• Why does brass react with dilute hydrochloric acid and is corroded
in rainy season to form CuCO3. Cu(OH)2?



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 


To verify the law of conservation of mass in a chemical reaction.


Law of conservation of mass states that the mass remains conserved during
a chemical reaction. In this experiment we shall verify the law of
conservation of mass using a precipitation reaction. This reaction is
considered as the simplest method to verify this law.


Barium chloride (BaCl2.2H2O), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4.10H2O), distilled
water, two beakers (150 mL), one beaker (250 mL), physical balance, spring
balance (0 – 500 g) and a polythene bag, two watch glasses of known masses,
and a glass stirrer.


1. Pour 100 mL distilled water in two beakers (150 mL).
2. Using the physical balance and a watch glass of known mass, weigh
7.2 g of BaCl2.2H2O and dissolve it in a beaker (150 mL) containing
100 mL distilled water.
3. Similarly, weigh 16.1 g of Na2SO4.10H2O in another watch glass of
known mass and dissolve it in another beaker (150 mL) containing
100 mL distilled water.
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4. Take the third beaker (250 mL) and weigh it using a spring balance
and polythene bag (see Experiment no. 3 for details).
5. Mix both solutions of 150 mL beakers in the third beaker (250 mL).
Mix the contents using a glass stirrer.
6. On mixing white precipitate of BaSO 4 appears due to precipitation
reaction.
7. Weigh the beaker containing the reaction mixture again to determine
the mass of the precipitation reaction products.
8. Compare the masses of before and after the chemical reaction.


(i) Mass of 100 mL distilled water = 100.0 g
(The density of distilled water is 1 g/mL.)
(ii) Mass of BaCl2.2H2O = 7.2 g
(iii) Mass of BaCl2 solution = 107.2 g
(iv) Mass of Na2SO4.10H2O = 16.1 g
(v) Mass of Na2SO4 solution = 116.1 g
(vi) Total Mass of reactants = 223.3 g
(solutions of BaCl2 and Na2SO4)
(vii) Mass of empty 250 mL beaker, m1 = _____ g
(viii) Initial mass of reaction mixture and empty
beaker (before the precipitation), m2 = (m1+ 223.3 g) = _____ g
(ix) Final mass of reaction mixture in the beaker
after the precipitation, m3 = _____ g.


Compare the initial mass (m 2 ) of the reaction mixture (before the
precipitation) with the final mass (m3) of the reaction mixture (after the
precipitation). Are they same? If the two masses are same within the
reasonable limits, then the law of conservation of mass stands verified.
The verification of the law rests on accurate mass measurements in the
laboratory.
The chemical reaction involved is
BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
White precipitate
and more precisely
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)

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
• The spring balance should be held vertical while taking measurements.
• Before making use of the spring balance it must be ensured that its
pointer is at zero mark. If not then ask your teacher to help.
• The readings of the spring balance should be noted only when its pointer
comes to rest.
• Mixing of barium chloride and sodium sulphate solutions be done slowly
with constant stirring.


A physical balance is a sophisticated equipment. It is advised
that students may be trained to use a physical balance and they
must be properly supervised while they use the physical balance.
This experiment involves several weighings that may take lot of
time. In case if the weighing measurements takes lot of time, the
required quantities of barium chloride and sodium sulphate may
be provided to the students on two separate watch glasses. This
will facilitate students to concentrate on the reaction dynamics
rather than on the weighing skills.


• What are the other precipitation reactions that can be conveniently
studied in the laboratory to verify this law?
• How can the law be verified by studying combination reaction?
Suggest a procedure for the same.



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

 


To prepare a stained, temporary mount of onion peel and to study
its cells.


All living organisms are composed of cells. New cells arise by the division
of pre-existing cells. Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. In
plants, cells have an outermost rigid cell wall beneath which is a cell
membrane. The cell membrane encloses cytoplasm, cell organelles, and
a nucleus.


An onion bulb, slides, cover slips, two watch glasses, needle, brush, forceps,
razor blade, compound microscope, blotting paper, methylene blue (or
safranin) solution, glycerine, and water.


1. Take one fleshy scale leaf of an onion. Break it into two and using a
forcep pull out a thin membranous peel adhering to the inner surface
of the leaf. This is the epidermal peel.
2. Place the peel in a watch glass containing water and cut it into small
rectangular pieces.

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3. Mix 1 or 2 drops of methylene blue or safrarin in a small quantity of

water taken in another watch glass and transfer the peels into it.
Leave the peels for about 3 minutes. Dip the peel in water to remove
excess stain.
4. Take a clean slide with a drop of glycerine in the middle and using a
brush transfer the washed and stained peel on to it.
5. Place a cover slip over it by slowly lowering it with a needle. Avoid
entry of air bubbles.
6. Remove excess glycerine from the edges of cover slip with the help
of a piece of blotting paper.
Fig. 18.1 : (a) 7. Observe the slide under the microscope, first in low power and then
Method of in high power.
removing an
epidermal peel 8. Draw a labelled diagram of the cells as seen under microscope.
from onion leaf 9. Note the features listed in the observation table.

Cell wall

Cell membrane
Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Fig. 18.1 : (b)

Staining and Fig. 18.2 : Epidermal cells of an onion peel
mounting the
onion peel


Sl.No. Feature Observation

1. Shape of cells spherical/oval/rectangular/square

2. Arrangement of cells compact/loose
3. Inter-cellular spaces present/absent
4. Nucleus present/absent
5. Cell wall present/absent
6. Stained portions of cell cell wall/cytoplasm/nucleus
7. Unstained portions of cell cell wall/cytoplasm/vacuole

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
The cells that form the peel are rectangular in shape, compactly arranged
and without any intercellular spaces. Each cell has a distinct cell wall, a
prominent nucleus and a vacuole. The cells form the outer layer of the leaf
known as epidermis.


• Staining of the peel must be appropriate. Excess stain can be removed
by rinsing the peel with water taken in a watch glass.
• Use a brush to transfer the peel on to the slide.
• While placing the cover slip care should be taken to avoid air bubbles.


• What is the size of nucleus in relation to size of cell?
• Name the stained parts of the cell.
• Pick the odd one out. (a) plastids, (b) large vacuoles, (c) cell wall,
(d) centrioles.
• Which of the following is a correctly labeled cell of an onion peel?

Nucleus Cell wall

Cell
membrance
Cell
Nucleus membrane
Cell wall Vacuole

Vacuole
(a) (b)
Nucleus
Cell wall
Cell wall
Cell
Cell membrane
membrane Vacuole

(c) (d) Nucleus

Vacuole

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 


To prepare a temporary mount of human cheek epithelial cells, and to
study its characteristics.


Like plants, the body of all animals including humans is composed of cells.
Unlike plant cells, animal cells do not have cell wall. The outermost covering
of an animal cell is a cell membrane. The cytoplasm, nucleus and other
cell organelles are enclosed in it. Epithelial tissue is the outermost covering
of most organs and cavities of an animal body.


Methylene blue stain, glycerine, a compound microscope, slide, cover slip,
a clean spatula or a toothpick, a brush, a needle, and a piece of blotting
paper.


1. Rinse your mouth with fresh water.
2. With the help of a clean spatula or a toothpick, gently scrap the inner
side of your cheek.
3. Transfer the scrapped material into a drop of water taken on a clean
slide.

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4. With the help of a needle spread the material uniformly. Cell membrane

5. Add a drop of methylene blue stain. After about 3

minutes put a drop of glycerine over it.
6. Place a clean cover slip over the glycerine. Remove the
excess glycerine from the edges of cover slip with the
help of a piece of blotting paper.
7. Examine the slide under microscope, first under low
power and then under high power.
Nucleus
8. Draw diagrams of cells as seen under the microscope.
Observe and record the features. Cytoplasm

Fig. 19.1 : A few Cheek

 cells

Sl.No. Feature Observation

1. Shape of cells
2. Arrangement
3. Intercellular space
4. Cell wall present/absent
5. Cell membrane present/absent
6. Cell contents
7. Vacuoles


Epithelial cells are small, polygonal in shape and compactly arranged
to form a continuous layer. The cells are without cell wall. Cell
membrane encloses a distinct nucleus and a vacuole. Epithelial tissue
forms the outermost covering of almost all the organs and various
cavities of animals and human.


• Cheeks should be scrapped gently to prevent injury.
• Spread the material on the slide so that it forms a thin uniform
layer.
• Avoid over staining (or understaining) of the material.
• While mounting the cover slip, avoid entry of air bubbles.

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
In such temporary preparations, cytoplasmic organelles are not
visible because they are too small and are not stained by
methylene blue.


• Arrange the following steps in correct sequence–
(i) Putting a drop of glycerine on the cheek cells on a slide,
(ii) Scrapping the inner side of cheek,
(iii) Adding methylene blue stain, and
(iv) Placing the cover slip over the material.
(a) i, ii, iii, iv; (b) ii, i, iv, iii; (c) iv, ii, iii, i; (d) ii, iii, i, iv.
• Which one of the following is absent in animal cells–
(a) Cell membrane, (b) Nucleolus, (c) Cell wall, (d) Cytoplasm
• Cheek epithelial cells are an example of
(a) squamous epithelial cells, (b) cuboidal epithelial cells,
(b) columnar epithelial cells, (d) all of these.
• Why are cheek epithelial cells always moist?
• Name two structures which you would see in cheek cells if you
were using a very high magnifying power of microscope?



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 


To study the phenomenon of osmosis.


Every living cell has an extremely thin, elastic cell membrane, also called
plasma membrane, which separates cell contents from the external
environment. It is the outermost covering of animal cells. In plant cells,
the membrane is present below the cell wall. It is selectively permeable as
it allows solvent molecules and only selected solute molecules to pass
through it. It differs from a permeable membrane which allows all types of
molecules to pass through it. Movement of molecules of water or solvent
from a region of its higher concentration to the region of its lower
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis.
It is of two types – endosmosis and exosmosis. Endosmosis is the entry of
water into the cell while exosmosis is the movement of water out of the cell
into the external solution. Endosmosis takes place, when the cell is placed
in a hypotonic solution. Exosmosis takes place when the cell is placed in a
hypertonic solution.

 
Two raw eggs, dil. hydrochloric acid, a salt (or sugar) solution of about
25% concentration in water (dissolve about 25 g salt in 100 mL water),
beakers and petri dishes.

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
1. Dissolve the shells of two eggs by placing them in two separate
beakers containing dil. HCl. Hydrochloric acid dissolves the
calcium chloride of the egg shells. The eggs will become de-shelled.
2. Carefully drain off the acid from the beakers and wash the eggs
thoroughly with water while they are still in the beakers. Repeat
this process several times till all traces of acid are completely
removed.
3. Observe the de-shelled eggs.
4. Fill one beaker containing one de-shelled egg with water and the
other beaker with another de-shelled egg with the concentrated
salt (or sugar) solution.
5. Leave the set up for about four hours and observe the two de-
shelled eggs.


Observe the de-shelled eggs before and after placing them in water and
concentrated salt (or sugar) solution respectively. And answer the
following–
(i) What has happened to the de-shelled egg placed in water?
(ii) What has happened to the de-shelled egg placed in salt (or sugar)
solution?


The de-shelled egg when placed in water swells because the concentration
of water molecules outside the egg is much higher than the concentration
of water molecules inside the egg, as a result of which endosmosis takes
place and water from the beaker enters into the egg. Exosmosis takes
place when the de-shelled egg is placed in a sugar (or salt) solution. The
water comes out from the de-shelled egg into the (or salt) sugar solution.
The loss of water results in the shrinkage of the egg.


• While washing the de-shelled eggs, care should be taken to prevent
the damage of egg membrane.
• Use dil. hydrochloric acid only lest the egg membrane gets damaged.

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
• What is the difference between endosmosis and exosmosis?
• What will happen if a de-shelled egg is placed in a solution with
the same osmotic concentration as in the egg?
• Why did the egg swell when placed in water?
• Movement of water during osmosis takes place across–
(a) cell wall, (b) cell membrane, (c) cytoplasm, (d) protoplasm.
• The plasma membrane which selectively allows solvent molecules
and solute molecules to pass through it is–
(a) a permeable membrane, (b) a selectively permeable membrane,
(c) an impermeable membrane, (d) a semi-permeable membrane.



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 


To study plasmolysis in leaf epidermal peels of Rhoeo or Tradescantia.


Living cells generally contain plenty of water due to which they are
turgid. Turgidity is an important attribute of cells as it gives shape to
cells. When turgid cell is placed in salt (or sugar) solution, water moves
out of the cell across its membrane into the external solution. As a
result, the volume of protoplast decreases and the cell membrane
withdraws from the cell wall creating an apparent colourless space
within the cell. This shrinkage of protoplast inside a cell is termed
plasmolysis.


Compound microscope, fresh leaves of Rhoeo or Tradescantia, a sugar (or
salt) solution of about 10 per cent concentration in water
(dissolve about 10 g sugar in 100 mL water), a new razor blade, slide, cover
slip, needle, forceps, brush, and a piece of blotting paper.


1. Using a new razor blade, take out three or four small peels from
the lower epidermis of leaf of Rhoeo or Tradescantia.

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2. Mount one peel in a drop of water taken on a slide. Place a cover

slip and observe under the low power of microscope. Notice the
compact arrangement of polygonal cells. Each cell contains pink
coloured protoplast. Draw a neat diagram of few cells in your notebook
and shade the regions covered by the protoplast.
3. Count about 25 cells and note down how many of them are turgid
and how many are plasmolysed.
4. Remove the cover slip. Add about five drops of sugar (or salt) solution
on the peel.
5. After five minutes place a cover slip on the peel, blot out the excess
solution from the sides of the cover slip. Focus the cells under the
low power of microscope and observe.
6. Note down your observations. Draw some cells and shade the extent
of pink coloured region in them.
7. Again count about 25 cells and note down how many of them are
turgid and how many are plasmolysed.

(a) (b)
Fig. 21.1 : (a) A normal cell and (b) a plasmolysed cell


No. of cells counted Number of Number of
turgid cells plasmolysed cells
Peel in water
Peel kept in salt
(or sugar) solution

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
Based on the observations, analyse and reason out the causes
for plasmolysis.


• Perform the experiment using coloured leaf samples like those of Rhoeo,
Tradescantia, Coleus, etc.
• Use concentrated sugar (or salt) solution.
• Ensure complete immersion of peels in the solution.


In the experimental peel, water from the cells moves out into the
external solution by a process called exosmosis. This happens
due to the fact that the cell sap is a weaker solution as compared
to the external (salt or sugar) solution. Consequently, it has more
water molecules than that in external solution. Due to this
difference in the concentration of water inside the cell and the
external solution, a concentration gradient is established. Due
to this gradient, water moves out of the cell into the external
solution. This results in a reduction in volume of protoplasm
inside the cell hence the pink region appears shrunk in these
cells. The phenomenon of losing water from cells leading to
shrinkage of protoplast is called plasmolysis.


• What moves out from the cells in this experiment? Why?
• Why pigments and other cell contents do not move out of the
cells?
• Why are living cells always turgid?
• What will happen if the cells are kept for a very long time in the
salt (or sugar) solution? Explain.
• Between the cell sap and solution (salt or sugar) in the experiment,
which is the hypertonic solution?
• Will plasmolysis occur when cells are placed in isotonic solution?



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 


To test the presence of starch in a given food sample and metanil yellow in
pigeon pea.


The presence of starch in a given food sample (say in potato) can be
determined using iodine solution. Starch is a carbohydrate that produces
blue colour when brought in contact with the iodine solution.
Food products are often adulterated for economic gains. For example,
metanil yellow is used to adulterate pigeon pea (arhar dal). Metanil yellow
turns into pink colour when it reacts with the concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Whereas the pieces of unadultrated sample does not exhibit such a
change.


Potato, pieces of pigeon pea (arhar dal), iodine solution, concentrated
hydrochloric acid, petridish, test tube, knife, and a dropper.


A. To test the presence of starch in potato–
1. Wash a potato alongwith its skin.
2. Take a thin slice of potato in a petridish.

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3. Add a few drops of iodine solution on the surface of the thin potato
slice.
4. Observe the change in colour in the area of slice where iodine soluton
was added.

B. To test the presence of metanil yellow in pigeon pea–

1. Take a few dry pieces of pigeon pea sample in a dry test tube.
2. Add a few drops of conc. HCl to these dry pieces.
3. Does the colour of the reaction mixture change?
4. Conclude whether the sample under test is adulterated or not?


(a) The colour of potato slice changes into _________ on addition of iodine
solution.
(b) The colour of reaction mixture of pigeon pea sample when reacted
with conc. HCl changes into _________ .


On the basis of observations comment on (a) presence of starch in potato
and (b) whether the pigeon pea sample is adulterated with metanil yellow
or not.


• The starch test may also be performed on samples of rice, wheat
flour etc.
• The presence of metanil yellow can also be detected in other food
samples such as turmeric powder.


• In what form the food is stored in plants?
• Which is the common adulterant of arhar dal?
• What are the efects of adulteration of food items.
• Why do the old stock of potato taste sweet?
• What are the different adulterants commonly used in foods?



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 


To study parenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues in plants by preparing
temporary slides.


Flowering plants are structurally complex as they are made up of different
parts like roots, stem, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc. Each part is in turn
an assembly of different types of tissues. Each tissue type has specific
structure and performs a particular function. Plant tissues are broadly
classified into meristematic and permanent tissues. Permanent tissues
may be simple, permanent tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma. Complex permanent tissues are xylem and phloem. The
structural features of tissues like wall characteristics, cell size, lumen
size, and cytoplasmic contents are different in different tissues.


Tender stem of a herb (balsam/Tridax/Petunia/any cultivated
ornamental herb or wild plant), safranin stain solution, dilute glycerine,
chart of transverse section of stem, compound microscope, razor blade,
slide, cover slip, brush, petri dish, and a piece of blotting paper.



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
A. Making a temporary slide
1. Cut a tender stem of any of the above-mentioned plants
into bits of about 3 cm length and place them in water.
2. Hold a piece between the thumb and forefinger in your
left hand as shown in Fig. 23.1 (a).
(a) 3. Pass a wet blade across the stem in quick motion so
as to get a thin, unbroken, circular cross section of
the material [Fig. 23.1 (b) and (c)].
(b)
4. Repeat the process to get about fifteen transverse
sections of the material.
5. Transfer the sections to a petri dish containing water.
Select a thin, transparent section and with a brush
transfer it to a drop of water taken on a slide. Add
three drops of dilute safranin stain solution to the
section and leave it for about five minutes.
(c) 6. Blot the excess stain. Add three drops of dilute
glycerine on the stained section. Place a cover slip on
Fig. 23.1 : (a) Correct way
it. Focus it under the low power of microscope and
of holding the
material; observe the section.
(b) Correct way 7. Now focus the section under high power and observe
of holding the again. Note and record your observations.
razor blade;
and 8. Starting from the outermost layer, locate the epidermis,
(c) cutting the cortex and vascular tissues [Fig. 23.2(a) and (b)].
section compare the layers with the diagram in the chart.
9. In the layers of cells beginning from epidermis, observe the following
features–
a. Cell wall thin/thick;
b. Arrangement compact/loose;
c. Shape of cell circular/oval/rectangular/polygonal;
d. Intercellular spaces
present/absent;
e. Lumen (cell cavity)
small/large;
f. Nucleus present/absent;
g. Staining of cell wall
deeply stained/mildly stained/no
stain; and
h. Cytoplasm: present/absent
10. Record your observations in the given tabular column.

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Cell wall Cell wall

Nucleus
Lumen
Inter cellular
spaces
Cytoplasm

(a) (b)

Fig. 23.2 : (a) Parenchyma; and (b) sclerenchyma


Features Parenchyma Sclerenchyma

a. Cell wall
b. Arrangement
c. Shape of cell
d. Intercellular spaces
e. Lumen
f. Nucleus
g. Staining of wall
h. Cytoplasm


Parenchyma tissue is the most abundant type of tissue in plants. It forms
the major bulk of stem, roots, leaves, fruits and seeds. The tissue is
composed of living cells, with various shapes, sizes and functions. The
cells provide mechanical support to the plant body. The parenchyma also
acts as a storage tissue for food, air and water. Cells of sclerenchyma tissue
are higly lignified with very thick cell walls and obliterated lumen. Cells
are usually elongated and polygonal in shape in cross-section. The tissue
provides the mechanical support and is found below the epidermis and
around the vascular bundles.

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
• For sectioning, select soft, tender herbaceous stem only. Avoid stems
that are hard and woody.
• Take care not to injure your finger while sectioning.
• Always keep the plant materials and sections in water.
• Use dilute safranin stain solution.
• The trachea and tracheids of xylem tissue appear to be very much
similar to sclerenchyma and may be erroneously identified as
sclerenchyma tissue. Xylem is always confined to the vascular bundle
and is generally not seen in the cortex or pith.


• Features of parenchyma and sclerenchyma are given below for
purpose of their identification
Parenchyma
• Parenchyma constitutes the major type of tissue in plants.
• Parenchyma cells have very thin walls, may be circular,
rectangular, oval or polygonal in shape, loosely arranged in most
cases with intercellular spaces between cells. In some plants
intercellular spaces are absent and the cells are compactly
arranged.
• Parenchyma is composed of living cells with large internal space
(lumen). Under the high power of microscope nucleus may be
visible.
• Epidermis, cortex and pith are essentially composed of
parenchyma tissue.
Sclerenchyma
• Sclerenchyma cells are generally found below the epidermis or
just above the vascular bundles.
• The cells have very thick walls and they stain deep red when
stained with safranin.
• Lumen is reduced and there is no nucleus [Fig. 25.3(b)].
• Cells are generally elongated in vertical section and polygonal in
cross section; compactly arranged without any intercellular spaces.



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
• In the transverse section of stem which tissue occupies larger
space-parenchyma or sclerenchyma?
• Draw an outline of the section of stem and indicate the regions
where parenchyma and sclerenchyma are situated.
• Which tissue, when matured, has dead cells?
• Mention the main function of sclerenchyma tissue?
• You can bite fruits like guava, grapes, banana etc. but not a piece
of wood. Why?



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 


To identify and study striated muscle fibre and nerve fibre in animals.


Animal body is made up of groups of similar cells which perform
specific function. Such groups of identical cells are called tissues. There
are four basic types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural.
These tissues vary from each other not only in their structure but also in
their functions.


Permanent slides of striated muscle fibre and nerve fibre, charts of
animal tissues with straited muscle fibre and nerve cell (neuron), and
compound microscope.


1. Place a permanent slide of straited muscle fibre under a compound
microscope.
2. Observe it first under low power and then under high power. Do you
see an alternate arrangement of dark and light bands? Do you also
find some nuclei along the fibre?



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3. Identify the tissues with the help of charts. Draw diagrams of the
tissues as seen under the microscope.
4. Replace the permanent slide of straited muscle fibre by the permanent
slide of a nerve fibre. Identify different parts of a cell with the help of
charts. Draw diagrams.

 Dark and

Striated Muscle Fibre – Under high magnification, the Nucleus light bands
elongated fibre shows the presence of alternate arrangement
of dark and light bands (Fig. 24.1). The dark bands represent
thick filaments and the light bands represent thin filaments.
Many nuclei are also observed along the fibre resulting from
the fusion of many muscle cells. Such a condition is called
syncytium. Cells of the tissue are long, cylindrical, non-
tapering and unbranched.
Nerve Fibres – Under high magnification, the nerve fibre Fig 24.1 : A striated muscle
shows nerve cells which have three parts: a cell body, fibre
dendrites, and axon, The axon may or may not be
surrounded by myelin sheath (Fig. 24.2).


Axon Dendrites

Synaptic
Tissues are organised in a specific proportion and pattern
terminal
to form different organs. Muscular tissue plays an important
Nucleus
role in all the movements of body parts and also in
Cell body (b)
locomotion. It consists of different types of muscle fibres,
such as (i) striated, (ii) smooth, and (iii) cardiac muscle (a)
fibres. The striated muscle fibres work according to our
will (voluntary) and get tired (fatigued) when overworked. Dendrites
Myelin
The functioning of smooth and cardiac muscle fibres are sheath
not under our control (involuntary).
Neural tissue controls the body’s responsiveness to
changing conditions within and outside the body. The Synaptic Axon
function of neural tissue is to allow communication between terminal
Cell
different parts of the body. It is composed of neurons, which body Nucleus
transmit impulses. The neural tissues of an organism form
(b)
its nervous system. The nervous system includes the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves. Neural tissue is made of nerve Fig. 24.2 : (a) Non-myelinated
cells which are distinctly characterised by the axon of the nerve fibre; and
cell that sends nerve impulse to the next cell. (b) Myelinated
nerve fibre



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
• What are the features of striated muscle fibre? Where do we find
these in our body?
• Mention the function of skeletal muscles in our body.
• What are the features observed in a neuron?



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 


To study the characteristics of Spirogyra, Agaricus, moss, fern, Pinus and
an angiosperm plant.


We know that plants of different groups exhibit different characteristics.
Thallophytes, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms
are the five major groups of plants. This classification is essentially based
on the structure of their bodies and methods of reproduction. Thallophytes
have the simplest structure. The plant body becomes more complex from
bryophytes onwards, and reaches its highest complexity in angiosperms.


Permanent slides of Spirogyra, specimen of Agaricus, moss, fern, Pinus,
and an angiosperm such as Petunia, balsam, Amaranthus, Chenopodium,
Tridax or other locally available plants, compound microscope.


1. Observe the permanent slide of Spirogyra under low power of
microscope and record your observations. Draw the diagram of
Spirogyra and label the parts.
2. Likewise, observe and record the characters of Agaricus, moss, fern,
Pinus and an angiosperm plant. Draw their diagrams.
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
Observe and record the features of Spirogyra and Agaricus in Table 1. For
other materials (that is Moss, fern, Pinus, and angiosperm) record you
observations in Table 2.
Table 1: Observations of the general features of Spirogyra and
Agarius (edible mushroom)

Sl.No. Feature Spirogyra Agaricus

1. Size of the plant body:

microscopic/macroscopic
2. Nature of the plant body:
thallus/differentiated into
root, stem and leaves
3. Thallus:
filamentous; branched/
unbranched
4. Stem: present/absent
5. Roots: present/absent
6. Leaf: present/absent
7. Rhizoids: present/absent
8. Fruiting body with spores:
present/absent

Table 2: Observations of the general features of moss, fern,

Pinus, and angiosperm

Sl.No. Feature Moss Fern Pinus Angiosperm

1. Size of the plant body:

microscopic/macroscopic
2. Nature of the plant body:
thallus/differentiated
3. Stem: (i) present/absent
(ii) branched/unbranched
4. Rhizoids/roots: present/absent
5. Leaf:
(i) simple/compound/needle-like
(ii) midrib: present/absent
(iii) Sori/Sporangia: present/absent
6. Cones: present/absent
7. Flower: present/absent
8. Fruits: present/absent
9. Seeds: present/absent

 
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General characteristics of all the specimens are given below for the
purpose of identification.
Spirogyra (Fig. 25.1)
• The plant body is filamentous, unbranched and made up of
cylindrical cells placed one above the other.
• Cells are longer with one or two spiral ribbon shaped chloroplasts.
• Each cell has a single large nucleus and a vacuole.

Agaricus (Fig. 25.2)

Vacuole

Nucleus

Pileus

Chloroplast Stalk

Annulus

Fig. 25.1 : Spirogyra Fig. 25.2 : Agaricus

• We generally see a fruiting body of Agaricus.

• It is macroscopic and fleshy.
• A mature fruiting body is divided into a stalk and an umbrella
like cap called pileus.
• A ring like membranous structure (annulus) is attached at the
base of the stalk.
• The cap on its lower side has gills which bear spores.

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Moss (Fig. 25.3)

• The thallus is about three to five cm long, differentiated into
central axis, leaves, and root-like structures (called rhizoids).
• The central axis is erect, branched or unbranched.
• Tiny flat green leaves are arranged spirally on the stem.
• Rhizoids are long and multiseptate and are present at the base of
the central axis.

Rachis
Capsule
Leaflets
(Pinnules)

Leaf like
structures

Central axis Stem

(Rhizome)
Rhizoids
Adventitious
Roots
Fig. 25.3 : Moss Fig. 25.4 : Fern

Fern (Fig. 25.4)

• The plant body is well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
• Stem is short, stout and underground.
• From the adventitous buds on the stem arise large, compound
leaves. Leaflets are small and arranged on either side of
the rachis.
• Clusters of adventitous roots arise from the underside of the stem
near each node.

Pinus (Fig. 25.5)

• Pinus is a tree with stem, leaves and roots.
• Stem is hard, woody and has branches bearing scaly and needle-
like leaves and cones.
• Male and female cones are the reproductive organs.

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• Male cones are small and tender; female cones are large and
woody when mature.

Angiospermic Plant (Fig. 25.6)

• The plant body is divided into roots, stem, and leaves.
• Stem bears distinct nodes and internodes.
• Leaves arise from nodes.
• Plants bear flowers and fruits.
• Roots may be of fibrous (monocot plants) or tap-roots (dicot
plants).

Male
cone

Needles

(a) (b)

Fig. 25.5 : (a) Male cone of Pinus; (b) Female Fig. 25.6 : An Angiosperm
cone of Pinus (not to the scale)


• Why is a Spirogyra plant green in colour?
• Name two functions that are common to roots and rhizoids?
• What do the cones in pine represent?



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 


To prepare herbarium sheet of a flowering plant.


Herbarium sheets are generally prepared by botanists and stored
systematically in a laboratory for an immediate reference. It consists of a
thick white sheet of a specific dimension on which a dried plant specimen
is mounted. The mounted specimen must have leaves, flowers and fruits
(optional). Only one plant specimen is mounted on a herbarium sheet.
Herbarium sheets have to be carefully preserved to prevent insect
infestation. The term Herbarium refers to the place (such as a laboratory)
where herbarium sheets are preserved systematiclly and are made available
for reference.


Plant specimen or a twig of a plant (20 – 25 cm long) with leaves and
flowers, a thick white sheet (card sheet) of dimension 40 × 28 cm,
old news papers or blotting sheets, adhesive, field press with a long
rope or a heavy mass (such as a brick or a book), sewing needle,
and thread.



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Fig. 26.1 : A sample herbarium sheet



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
1. Collect a plant or a twig with leaves and flowers.
2. Place it inside the folds of a newspaper (or a blotting sheet) and spread
the leaves and flowers gently without damaging them.
3. Turn one of the leaves so that its ventral surface faces upwards.
4. Cover the plant with the other half of the newspaper; place a few
more sheets containing plants and a few newspaper sheets one above
the other and keep a heavy mass (such as a brick or a book) on the
pile. If a field press is available, the sheets of newspaper containing
plant specimen may be stacked one above the other and the field
press should be tied tightly using a long rope.
5. Next day, transfer the plant to a fresh set of dry newspapers and repeat
step 4.
6. Repeat this process for four to five days till the plant becomes dry.
7. Smear a small quantity of adhesive at a few places on the stem or
branches and leaves. Mount the plant on the card sheet as shown in
Fig. 26.1.
8. Stich the twig or stem at a few places using a sewing needle and thread.
9. Keep this sheet in a dry newspaper (or a blotting sheet). Keep the heavy
mass on the newspaper for two to three hours to allow the dried plant
to stick to the card sheet.
10. At the bottom right corner, write your name, name of plant, place and
date of collection. Now the herbarium sheet is ready (Fig. 26.1).


• Do not prepare herbarium sheets of aquatic plants, succulents and
plants with thorns. (Why?)
• Select plants with small leaves and flowers as they are easier to handle.
• Spreading the differernt parts of plant on newspaper sheet has to be
done very carefully before pressing them using a heavy mass.
• Mount the plant specimen after all the moisture and water has been
completely removed from the plant.
• Apply a small quantity of the adhesive only at a few places on the
herbarium sheet. Use of cellophane adhesive tape to stick the plant on
the herbarium sheet must be avoided.


• Professional herbarium keepers treat plants with 1 per cent mercuric
chloride or 4 per cent formalin before mounting them on the

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herbarium sheet. This process is called poisoning the specimen.

As these chemicals are dangerous, and keeping in mind the age of
students, this step has not been mentioned in the procedure here.
Fumigants and naphthalene balls are placed in the cupboards where
herbarium sheets are stored to prevent insect attack.
• Students may also be advised to find information about any five
important international and national herbaria. They may also be
encouraged to use internet or magazines or other information
sources for this purpose.


• What are the advantages of a herbarium sheet?
• Why are water plants not suitable for preparing herbarium sheets?
• Why are plants treated with mercuric chloride or formalin before
mounting on the herbarium sheet?
• What is the difference between a Herbarium and a herbarium
sheet?



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 


To study the features and draw diagrams of earthworm, cockroach, bony
fish and bird.


Animals are variously adapted to different kinds of habitat and environment.
Adaptation is an inherent quality of living organisms which enable them to
survive in specific habitats. Adaptation of organisms are due to certain
modifications that are observed in the organisms at the morphological,
anatomical as well as physiological levels. In this experiment, four
organ isms are con sid er ed f or th e stud y . For ea ch or g a n is m ,
characteristics of the phylum to which it belongs to and a few adaptive
features are studied and correlated with the habitat (or environment)
in which they live.


Preserved specimens of earthworm, cockroach, bony fish, a stuffed bird,
charts showing detailed diagrams of animals under study, and a hand
lens.


1. Observe the given specimens and for each specimen, record one
specific feature of the group (phylum/class) to which it belongs.
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2. Write down one adaptive feature of each specimen with reference to

its habitat.
3. Draw diagrams of the specimens, using the chart(s). Identify the
various parts of organisms observed.


Table 1
Sl. No. Organism Phylum/Class Features of Adaptive Features Habitat
the phylum observed
observed

1. Earthworm

2. Cockroach

3. Bony fish

4. Bird

Based on your observations, record some more features of the specimens

(at least five for each specimen).
Table 2

Sl.No. Earthworm Cockroach Bony Fish Bird

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.


Some characteristic features of the phylum (or class) and adaptive
features of organisms are given for easy identification.
• Earthworm (Phylum: Annelida)
Specific feature of the phylum – Body surface is characterised by
distinct annular segments or metameres; body is not differentiated.
Adaptive features – Moist and slimy skin, presence of clitellum
(merger of 14 - 17 metameric segments).



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• Cockroach (Phylum: Arthropoda; Class: Insecta)

Specific feature of the class – Segmented body; jointed appendages
with three pairs of legs.
Adaptive feature – Nocturnal habit; body is covered by chitinous
cuticle which is impervious to water; spiracles are present on the
lateral sides of body for respiration.
• Bony fish (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Pisces)
Specific feature of the phylum – Presence of notochord.
Specific feature of the class – Presence of four pairs of gills covered
by an operculum; and presence of fins.
Adaptive feature – They possess a streamlined body for minimum
resistance to water while swimming. Presence of air bladder helps
in their buoyancy.
• Bird (Phylum: Chordata; Class: Aves)
Specific feature of the phylum – Presence of notochord.
Specific feature of the class – Forelimbs are modified into wings.
Adaptive feature – Boat shaped body; presence of feathers; bones
are hollow with air cavities (to reduce the mass).

Clitellum

Metameres Three pairs of legs

(b)

(a)
Fins
Operculum Wings

(c) (d)

Fig. 27.1 : (a) An earthworm, (b) A cockroach; (c) A bony fish; and (d) A bird



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
• Earthworms are known as ‘Farmer’s Friend’ because of their role in
enhancing the fertility of soil. As they burrow into the soil, they ingest
soil along with the organic matter present in it. They excrete the same
soil and bring it on the top as casts. This way, it is able to loosen the
soil. Earthworms are also used to prepare vermicompost that is used
as manure to enhance the fertility of soil.


• Name the phyla to which earthworm, cockroach, bony fish, and
bird belong.
• What is an adaptation?
• In which body segments of an earthworm is the clitellum found?
• How does a cockroach adapt itself to a wide range of habitats?
• Mention two adaptive characters of a bony fish besides the
possession of a streamlined body and air bladder.
• Feathers are an adaptive feature of birds. How are they helpful to
them?



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 


To compare the external features of monocot and dicot plants.


Angiosperms or flowering plants are the most dominant plants on the earth.
They are divided into two major groups, namely monocots and dicots. Seeds
of monocots, as the name suggests, have one cotyledon and those of dicots
have two. Besides this major difference, there are many other distinct
differences in their morphological and anatomical features. Such features
enable us to differentiate between monocots and dicots even when their
seeds are not available to check the number of cotyledons. In this
experiment, we intend to make a comparison of external features of monocot
and dicot plants.


Plants of Hibiscus/rose/Petunia/pea and grass/maize/bamboo/lily/
Chlorophytum/any other ornamental herb with flowers and fruits, simple
or dissecting microscope, a hand lens, slide, cover slip, and a razor blade.


1. From the list given above, select a dicot and a monocot plant with
roots, leaves, flowers, and fruits.

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2. Observe the differences in the external features of stem, leaf, roots,

flowers, and seeds. To study the root system, wash the roots carefully
and spread them on a sheet of paper and study their nature.
3. Study the leaves for their shape and venation.
4. Carefully observe the flower and identify the different floral parts.
Count the number of sepals, petals and stamens in the flower. Take a
transverse section of ovary and count the number of carpels.
5. Remove the seed coat and count the number of cotyledons.
6. Note down your observations; draw diagrams of all the parts you have
studied.

(a) (b)

Fig. 28.1 : (a) A monocot plant; and (b) a dicot plant

(a) (b)

Fig. 28.2 : (a) A monocot leaf showing parallel venation; and

(b) A dicot leaf showing reticulate venation

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(a) (b)

Fig. 28.3 : (a) A monocot flower and (b) A dicot flower

Ovules

(a) (b)
Fig. 28.4 : Transverse section of ovary (a) bicarpellary and (b) tricarpellary

Cotyledon

(a) (b)

Fig. 28.5 : (a) A seed with one cotyledon and (b) a seed with two cotyledons

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
Some important features that distinguish a monocot and a dicot plant are
listed in the table given below. You may observe some more features of
difference between them. Record your observations.

Sl.No. Feature Monocot Dicot

1. Roots: fibrous/tap root

2. Leaf shape: broad/narrow
3. Leaf venation: parallel/reticulate
4. Floral parts: multiple of 3 or 5
5. Sepals: number and colour
6. Petals: number and colour
7. Stamen: number
8. Pistil: number of carpels
9. Cotyledon: one or two


• The study reveals many differences between dicot and monocot plants.
The distinctive features are consistently seen in most other plants
belonging to these groups.


• How do we differentiate betwen fibrous root system and
tap-root system?
• A plant has leaves with reticulate venation and floral parts
consisting of 5 sepals, 5 petals, 5 stamens, and 5 carpels. In
which group of angiosperms would you place this plant? Give
reasons.
• In a plant, name two features which you would examine to
categorise it into a monocot or a dicot plant.
• Do all flowers have all the floral parts? Explore.



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 


To study the life cycle of a mosquito.


Life cycle of a mosquito passes through several stages. Each stage
is morphologically distinct. Even their habitat differs with the adult
being aerial and the earlier stages being aquatic. Though there are
many species of mosquitoes, their life cycles, more or less, exhibit
common features.


Chart showing the life cycle of a mosquito and/or museum specimen of
stages in the life cycle, permanent slides, and compound microscope.


1. Observe the chart carefully and note the different stages in the
life cycle.
2. Recall/discuss the characteristics of each stage.
3. Draw diagrams of all the stages.
4. Observe the preserved speciemen and name the stages.

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Adult

Eggs

Larva

Pupa

Fig. 29.1 : Stages in the life cycle of a mosquito


The eggs of various species of mosquito are deposited on stagnant water
bodies like ponds, ditches, cess pools, lakes etc. Any container with
stagnant water is a potential breeding place for mosquitoes.
The larvae hatch out from the eggs within a few hours and begin
feeding on decaying plant matter. They float on the surface of water and
breath through a specialised siphon tube. The larval stage lasts for a
few days during which several layers of skin are shed. This stage lasts
for a few days to a few weeks. The larval stage is followed by the pupal
stage.
Pupae do not feed but gradually metamorphose or change into adults.
Pupal stage lasts for a few days. From the pupa an adult mosquito
emerges. Before the adult starts flying it rests for a few days during
which its outer cuticle hardens.
After about a week, adult female mosquito begins searching for a
host. It generally feeds on blood, which is a rich source of protein that
is helpful to make a fresh batch of eggs, Eggs are deposited on or near
water. The male mosquito does not seek a blood meal, but prefers a
sugar meal which it obtains by feeding on the nectar of flowers. The
female adults also feed on nectar in between blood meals. Adult
mosquitoes live for several weeks.

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
• The mosquito goes through four distinct stages during its life cycle
(Fig. 29.1)–
(i) egg: deposited in water; hatches in water;
(ii) larva (plural; larvae): lives on the surface of water; moults several
times;
(iii) pupa (plural; pupae): A stage just prior to the adult stage; pupae
do not feed; and
(iv) adult emerges from the pupae, body parts harden and starts
flying.
• Permanent slides of different stages in the life cycle of a mosquito
may be focussed under a compound microscope and shown to the
students. This will enable students to have a better understanding
of life cycle of a mosquito.


• Why is it important to study the life cycle of mosquito?
• At which stage in the life cycle of a mosquito, moulting takes place?
• Why does only the female mosquito require a blood meal?
• What are the conditions that are helpful for breeding of mosquitoes?
• Suggest three measures to check the breeding of mosquitoes.

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 


To study the life cycle of malarial parasite.


Plasmodium is commonly called the malarial parasite. The life cycle of
Plasmodium is complex and involves two hosts, human being and a
mosquito. Plasmodium completes its sexual cycle in mosquito and asexual
cycle in human being. When female Anopheles mosquito infected with the
parasite bites a healthy human, infective sporozoites are injected into the
human blood stream causing the dreaded disease malaria. The mosquito
which transmits the malarial parasite is called the vector.


A chart showing the life cycle of malarial parasite, permanent slides of
malarial parasite, and compound microscope.


1. Study the chart and carefully note down the different stages of the
life cycle of Plasmodium beginning with the mosquito bite.
2. Draw a flow chart of different stages of life cycle.

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Sporozoite Human
Merozoites B
A Mosquito
H
Female
gametocyte
Liver cell Sporozoitc

Red blood cell Zygote Oocyst

G
C
E
Gamctocytes
unit

D Male
gametocyte F
Male
gametocyte
Fig. 30.1 : Life cycle of malarial parasite


• There are about four hundred and thrity five known species of
Anopheles. About thirty to forty of them are vectors of malarial parasite.
The species of Plasmodium which are known to cause malaria are
Plasmodium vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae and P. ovale. Of these, P.
falciparum is considered the most deadly species.
• Symptoms of malarial infection include chills, fever, sweats, headaches,
nausea, vomiting, weakness and body aches. Symptoms specific to
Plasmodium falciparum are jaundice, swollen liver and very rapid
breathing. Complications that may accompany severity of disease are
irregular breathing, accumulation of fluid in lungs, anaemia,
behavioural abnormalities if infection reaches the brain, abnormalities
in blood coagulation and cardiac problems.
• The infection can be confirmed by pathological tests that involve
microscopic examination of blood smears, RDT (Rapid Dignostic Test)
and other tests.
• Drugs administered to treat patients with malaria invariably contain
quinine as the active ingredient.


The life cycle of malarial parasite is completed through the following stages–
• When a mosquito infected with the malarial parasite bites a healthy
human, the slender malarial parasitic cells (sporozoites) are injected
into the human bloodstream (see A in Fig. 30.1).
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• Within thirty minutes, the parasite invades the human liver through
the blood and lymphatic system. It infects the liver cells
(hepatocytes), where it multiplies producing thousands of parasitic
cells within a week (See B in Fig. 30.1).
• The parasitic cells re-enter the blood stream and infect red blood
cells (see C in Fig. 30.1).
• They grow in the red blood cells and undergo another phase of
multiplication, eventually causing rupture of red blood cells and
releasing more parasitic cells along with their toxins. This leads to
manifestation of symptoms of malaria like chills and fever (see D
in Fig. 30.1).
• Some parasitic cells form gametocytes (sex cells). These are of two
types: (i) male gametocytes and (ii) female gametocytes (see E in
Fig. 30.1).
• When another mosquito bites the infected human, it ingests the
sporozoites along with blood (see F in Fig. 30.1).
• In the stomach of mosquito (midgut), the gametocytes mature and
fertilization occurs resulting in the formation of zygote. Zygote
develops an outer covering and becomes the oocyst. Within the
oocyst thousands of sporozoites are formed. The oocysts rupture
and release the sporozoites into the body cavity from where they
migrate to the salivary glands of mosquito (see G in Fig. 30.1).
• When this mosquito bites another human, along with the saliva
the parasites are injected and the life cycle continues.
• Permanent slide of blood smear of persons suffering from malaria
can be shown to the students.


• What are the different species of malarial parasite that cause
malaria?
• When do the symptoms of malaria such as fever and chills appear?
• When a mosquito bites a person infected with Plasmodium, which
stage of the parasite will the mosquito ingest?
• How does the malarial parasite reproduce in the red blood cells?
• Why are people suffering from malaria anaemic?



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 


To collect and study symptoms of diseases in locally available crop plants.


Microbes like fungi, bacteria and virus are capable of causing serious
diseases in plants. Such parasitic microbes affect many of our
commercial crops like cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits etc. Generally
a parasitic infection is specific, that is, it infects a specific plant. Some
microbes are capable of infecting plant species belonging to a particular
group. The infected plant is called the host and the infecting organism
is called the parasite. Parasitic microbes require a living host for
completing their life cycle. They absorb nutrients from the host plants
and may even kill the host. If the disease is not checked, it is capable of
spreading rapidly to other plants causing severe loss. Bacterial blights,
smuts, white rust, black rust, tobacco mosaic are a few common diseases
of crop plants in our country.


Two or three diseased crop plants or ornamental plants or weeds, compound
microscope, permanent slides of some diseased plants, a hand lens, slides,
cover slips, needle, and a brush,



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
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print or moving some of the non-printing elements off
1.the
Collect
page.two to three different kinds of diseased or infected plants.
2. Carefully observe each plant part for visible disease symptoms
such as decolouration, infection spots, coloured patches, soft and
decaying parts.
3. Observe if the entire plant is infected or only some parts like leaves,
flowers or stem are infected.
4. Observe the infected parts and the physical characteristics of infection
and record in the observations table.
5. Scrape the infected spot with a needle/blade and transfer it to a drop
of water on a slide. Place a cover slip and observe under the microscope.
6. Under the low power of microscope, observe the presence of spores/
hyphae and damage caused to plant tissues (or cells).
7. Draw a diagram of the infected part and show the disease symptoms.


Sl.No. Observation Plant 1 Plant 2

1. Infected part is: (Yes/No) (Yes/No)

Stem
Root
Leaf
Flower
Fruit
2. Extent of infection:
Localised
Enitre plant
3. Infection spot
Soft patch
Dry patch
4. Are spores visible?
5. Are hyphae visible?


Draw the diagrams of the infected parts and label the diseased parts. Also
draw diagrams of spore and hyphae.

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


 


To plot distance – time (s – t ) graph for an object moving with a uniform
speed from a given set of s and t data and to determine the speed of the
object.


A moving object changes its position with
time. If the object travels a distance s in
time t then its speed is
s
v= (1)
t
When an object travels equal distances
in equal intervals of time, it is said to have
a uniform speed. But if the speed or its
direction of motion changes with time
then the object is said to be in non-
uniform motion.
For a uniform motion the distance
travelled by the object is directly
proportional to time taken. Thus the graph
of distance travelled against time is a
straight line. This distance-time graph can
be used to determine the speed of the object. Fig. 32.1 : Distance-time graph of an object
moving with uniform speed
Fig. 32.1 shows the distance–time (s – t)

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graph of an object moving with uniform speed. To find the speed of the
object consider a small part AB of the s – t graph. The two lines PAC
and BCQ drawn parallel to x-axis and y-axis respectively, meet each
other at point C to form a triangle ABC. The segment AC denotes the
time interval (t2 – t1) while the segment BC corresponds to the distance
(s2 – s1). From this graph it can be seen that as the object moves from
the point A to point B, it covers a distance (s2 – s1) in time (t2 – t1). The
speed, v of the object, therefore can be represented as
s2 − s1 BC
v= = (2)
t 2 − t1 AC
This is also the slope of s – t graph. Larger the slope of the graph
more is the speed of the object. The s – t graph can also be used to
estimate the speed of the object even at the times not given in the data.
One can estimate these values at a time within the range of the given
time interval at which the position of the object is not given in the given
data (interpolation). One can similarly use the graph to obtain the values
of object position and speed at a time beyond the given range of data
(extrapolation). On the other hand, Eq. (1) can only be used to determine
the speed at instants for which the distance is given in the data.

 
Graph paper


1. Examine the given data of distance (s) of the object at different times (t ).
Find the difference between the highest
Table 1: The motion of a car and the lowest values of each quantity
Sl. No. Time, t Distance, s (these are the ranges of the distance and
time values.) Table 1 shows the data for
(s) (m) the distance travelled by a car (in m) and
1. 0 0 the time taken (in s) by it to cover that
2. 1 10 distance. In this table the time values
3. 2 20 range from 0 to 10 s while the distance
4. 3 30
values range between 0 and 100 m.
5. 4 40 2. Take a graph paper and draw two
6. 5 50 perpendicular lines OX and OY to represent
7. 6 60
x-axis and y-axis, respectively (Fig. 32.1).
Measure the lengths (or count the number
8. 7 70
of divisions available) on the graph paper
9. 8 80
along the two axes. Let, for example,
10. 9 90
the graph paper you have been provided is
11. 10 100

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15 cm (or 15 cm divisions) along the x-axis and 25 cm (or 25 cm

divisions) along the y-axis.)
3. Decide the quantity to be shown along the x -axis and that to be
shown along the y-axis. Conventionally, time is shown along the
x-axis and the distance along the y-axis.
4. On the basis of available divisions on the two axes and ranges
of the given distance and time data, choose a scale to represent
the distance along the y-axis and another scale to represent the
time along the x-axis. For example, the scales for the motion of
the car as given in Table 1, could be time 1 s = 1 cm; and
distance 10 m = 2 cm. (Try to utilise the maximum part of the
graph paper while choosing the scales.)
5. Mark values for the time and the distance on the respective axes
according to the scale you have chosen. For the motion of the car,
mark the time 1 s, 2 s, 3 s … on the x-axis at every cm from the origin
O. Similarly, mark the distance 10 m, 20 m, 30 m ... on the y-axis at
every 2 cm from the origin O.
6. Now mark the points on the graph paper to represent each set of
values for distance and time given in the data provided.
7. Join all the marked points on the graph paper. This is the plotting of
s – t graph of the data provided for the motion of a car. Check if this
graph is a straight line. A straight line graph indicates that the car is
moving with a constant speed.


To find the speed of the car, take any two points on the straight line graph
and find their corresponding values of t and s (as suggested in the theory
part above). For convenience it is suggested to take the points that
correspond to integral values of time and distance values. Suppose the
coordinates of these two points are (t1, s1,) and (t2, s2). The distance travelled
by the car in time interval (t2 – t1) is (s2 – s1). Calculate the speed of the car
during this time interval (t2 – t1) using Eq. (2).

Sl. Value of time Value of time Distance at Distance at Speed of the

No. for the first for the second time t1, s1 time t2 , s2 car, using
point chosen on point chosen on Eq. (2)
the graph, t1 on the graph, t2
(s) (s) (m) (m) (m s-1)
1.
2.
3.
4.

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In the same way determine the speed of the car for some more time
intervals by choosing different sets of points on the s – t graph. Tabulate
the observations.

  

The distance-time graph for the motion of the car is a straight line
graph. This indicates that the car is moving with a uniform speed.
Attach the distance-time graph in your practical record book.
The average speed of the car = _____ m s-1.


• Plot graph using sharp tip pencil.
• The scales chosen for representing the distance and time quantities
for the motion of the car on the two axes must be so chosen that the
maximum part of the graph paper is utilised. This will help in
interpreting the graph better.


• In this write-up a specimen set of distance-time data for the
motion of the car is presented. It is suggested that students must
be provided with different sets of distance-time data for a moving
object for plotting s – t graph and to determine the speed of the
uniformly moving object.
• While drawing the two axes OX and OY representing the time
and distance values respectively, on the graph paper, the point O
should be taken slightly away from the left bottom corner of the
graph paper.
• The physical quantities and their units must be properly indicated
on the axes. The scaling of the quantities may also be mentioned
appropriately at the top right corner of the graph paper.


• The slope of a s – t graph is a measure of speed of the moving object.
There may be different s – t graphs for different moving objects. Their
slopes can give a comparison of their speeds. Larger the slope of the
graph higher is the speed of the moving object.
• The s – t graph plotted here shows the motion of the object for a given
range of time interval. One can even determine the position at a time
beyond the range of time interval given in the data using this graph.
For this the graph should be extrapolated.


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
• What is the shape of the distance–time graph for an object moving
with uniform speed? Name the physical quantity represented by
the slope of this graph.
• What will be the s – t graph for an object at rest?
• If distance-time graph plotted for an object is parallel to the time
axis, what conclusion you can draw pertaining to its motion?
• Can you imagine a motion with a distance–time graph parallel to
distance axis?
• In this experiment, a suggestion is made to utilise the maximum
part of the graph paper. Justify the suggestion.
• State the considerations one must adhere to while choosing the
scales for plotting a graph?
• What type of speed–time graph do you expect for an object moving
with varying speed?



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 


To plot the velocity–time (v – t ) graph for an object moving with uniform
accelerations from a given set of v – t data and to determine the acceleration
of the moving object and the distance moved by the object.


In a straight line motion, we know that when an object moves unequal
distances in equal intervals of time then the object is said to be in non-
uniform motion or in accelerated motion.
In such a motion the velocity of the object
varies with time. It has different values at
different instants and at different points of
the path. The acceleration of the object is a
measure of change in its velocity per unit
time. If an object moving with an initial (at
time 0) velocity u attains the final velocity v
in time t, then the acceleration a is
v −u
a= (1)
t
If the acceleration of the object remains
same at all instants of time then the object
Fig. 33.1 : Velocity-time graph for a car moving is said to be in uniformly accelerated
with uniform acceleration motion. Thus the velocity-time graph of a

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uniformly moving object will be a straight line. Fig. 33.1 shows a velocity-
time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration. The nature of the
graph shows that the velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals. Thus the velocity of the car is directly proportional to the time.
In the earlier activity, we have already seen that using a distance-
time graph, one can determine the velocity of a uniformly moving car at
any instant. One can similarly determine the acceleration of a uniformly
accelerated object by plotting its velocity-time (v – t) graph.
To find the acceleration of the moving object consider a small part AE
of the v – t graph. The two lines PAD and EDC drawn parallel to x-axis
and y-axis respectively, meet each other at point D to form a triangle AED.
The segment AD denotes the time interval (t2 – t1) while the segment ED
corresponds to a change in the velocity of the object from v1 to v2 or (v2 – v1).
The acceleration, a of the object, therefore can be represented as
v2 − v1 ED
a= = (2)
t 2 − t1 DA
Thus from a given set of v – t data for an object moving under a uniformly
accelerated motion, the acceleration can be computed.
One can also determine the distance moved by the moving object from
its velocity-time graph. The area under the velocity-time graph gives the
distance moved by the object in a given time interval. Let us look at the v –
t graph for a uniformly accelerated car given in Fig. 33.1. The distance s
travelled by the car in a time interval t2 – t1 will be given by the area ABCDE
under the velocity-time graph. That is,
s = area of the rectangle ABCD + area of the triangle ADE, or
1
= AB× BC + (ED × AD)
2

1
s = v1  (t 2  t1 )  [(v2  v1 )  (t 2  t1 )] (3)
2


Graph paper.


1. Examine the given data of velocity (v) of the object at different
times (t). Find the difference between the highest and the lowest
values of each quantity (These are the ranges of the velocity and
time values.) Table 1 shows the velocity of a car (in m s -1) at
different instants of time. In this table the time values range from
0 to 50 s while the velocity values range between 0 and 100 m s-1.
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Table 1: The motion of a car 2. Take a graph paper and draw two
perpendicular lines OX and OY to
Sl. No. Time, t Velocity of the represent x-axis and y-axis,
car v respectively (see Fig. 33.1). Measure
(s) (m s-1) the lengths (or count the number of
1. 0 0 divisions available) on the graph paper
2. 5 10 along the two axes. Let, for example,
3. 10 20 the graph paper you have been
provided is 15 cm (or 15 cm divisions)
4. 15 30
along the x-axis and 25 cm (or 25 cm
5. 20 40
divisions) along the y-axis.)
6. 25 50
3. Decide the quantity to be shown along
7. 30 60
the x -axis and that to be shown along
8. 35 70
the y-axis. Conventionally, time is
9. 40 80
shown along the x-axis and the
10. 45 90 velocity along the y-axis.
11. 50 100
4. On the basis of available divisions on
the two axes and ranges of the given velocity and time data, choose
a scale to represent the velocity along the y-axis and another scale
to represent the time along the x-axis. For example, the scales for
the motion of the car as given in Table 1, could be time: 5 s = 1 cm;
and velocity: 10 m s-1 = 2 cm. (Try to utilise the maximum part of
the graph paper while choosing the scales.)
5. Mark values for the time and the velocity on the respective axes
according to the scale you have chosen. For the motion of the car,
mark the time 5 s, 10 s, 15 s … on the x-axis at every cm from the
origin O. Similarly, mark the velocity 10 m s-1, 20 m s-1, 30 m s-1 ... on
the y-axis at every 2 cm from the origin O.
6. Now mark the points on the graph paper to represent each set of
values for velocity and time given in the data provided.
7. Join all the marked points on the graph paper. This is the v – t graph
of the data provided for the motion of a car. Check if this graph is a
straight line. A straight line graph indicates that the car is moving
with a uniform acceleration.


A. Determination of Acceleration of the Object
To determine the acceleration of the car, take any two points on the straight
line graph and find their corresponding values of t and v (as suggested in
the theory part above). For convenience it is suggested to take the points
that correspond to integral values of time and velocity. Suppose the
coordinates of these two points are (t1, v1,) and (t2, v2). The change in the
velocity of the car in this time interval (t2 – t1) is (v2 – v1). Calculate the
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acceleration of the car during this time interval (t2 – t1) using Eq. (2)
v 2 − v1
a =
t 2 − t1
In the same way, determine the acceleration of the car for three
more time intervals by choosing different sets of points on the v – t
straight line graph. Tabulate the observations.

B. Determination of Distance Moved by the Object

Using v – t graph one can determine the distance moved by the car in a

Sl. Value of time Value of time Velocity at Velocity at Acceleration

No. for the first for the second instant t1, instant t2 , of the car, a
point chosen on point chosen on v1 v2 [Using Eq. (2)]
the graph, t1 on the graph, t2

(s) (s) (m s-1) (m s-1) (m s-2)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

given time interval. Choose a fixed time interval T, say 10 s. Using the
method described in the theory part [Eq. (3)], calculate the distance travelled
by the car in first 10 s. That is the distance travelled by the car between t
= 0 s to 10 s. Next, calculate the distance travelled by the car in next 10 s
(that is distance travelled by the car between t = 10 s to 20 s.) Calculate the
distance travelled by the car in time T between different instants of time.
Tabulate the calculations.
The distance travelled by the car in a given time interval can also be
computed from the graph by counting squares covered under v – t graph.
Sl. Initial Final Velocity at Velocity at Distance travelled by the
No. time, t1 time, t2 time t1, v1 time t2, v2 car in time interval, (t2 - t1)
Using Eq. (3) By counting
squares
(s) (s) (m s-1) (m s-1) (m) (m)

1. 0 T=
2. T= 2T =
3. 2T = 3T =
4. 3T = 4T =
5. 4T = 5T =
Time at
the end
of the Total distance Total distance
journey

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  

The velocity-time graph for the motion of the car is a straight line graph
sloping with the time axis. This indicates that the car is moving with a
uniform acceleration. Attach the velocity-time graph in your practical record
book.
The acceleration of the moving car (from the graph) = ______ m s -2.
The total distance covered by the car [from the graph, but using Eq.
(3)] = ______ m; and the total distance covered by the car [by counting the
squares under the v – t graph = ______ m.
It is observed that the distance travelled by the car in a given time
intervals but at different instants are different. This shows that the car is
in accelerated motion.


• Plot graphs using a sharp tip pencil.
• The scales chosen for representing the velocity and time quantities for
the motion of the car on the two axes must be so chosen that the
maximum part of the graph paper is utilised. This will help in
interpreting the graph better.


• It is advised that before performing this activity all students must
have completed the earlier activity titled: To plot distance–time (s – t)
and graph for an object moving with a uniform velocity from a given
set of s and t data and to determine the velocity of the object.
• In this write-up a specimen velocity-time data for the motion of the
car is presented. It is suggested that students be provided with different
sets of velocity-time data for a moving object for plotting v – t graph
and to determine the acceleration of the object under uniformly
accelerated motion. The distances travelled by the object between
different time intervals may also be determined.
• While drawing the two axes lines OX and OY representing the time
and velocity values respectively, on the graph paper, the point O should
be taken slightly away from the left bottom corner of the graph paper.
• The physical quantities and their units must be properly given on the
axes. The scaling of the quantities may also be mentioned
appropriately at the top right corner of the graph paper.

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
• The slope of a v – t graph is a measure of acceleration of the moving
object. And the area under a v – t graph gives the distance travelled.
One can draw several v – t graphs for different moving objects. Their
slopes can give a comparison of their accelerations. Larger the slope of
the graph higher is the acceleration of the moving object. Similarly
larger the area under the v – t graph, more the distance travelled.
• The v – t graph plotted here shows the motion of the object for a given
range of time interval. One can even determine the velocity (or
acceleration) at a time beyond the range of time interval given in the
data. For this, the graph should be extrapolated.


• What is the nature of the velocity–time graph for an object moving
with uniform velocity? What will be the slope of this graph?
• What is the nature of the velocity–time graph for an object moving
with uniform acceleration? With non-uniform acceleration?
• What will be the shape of the v – t graph for an object at rest?
• What conclusion you draw if velocity-time graph plotted for an
object is parallel to the time axis?
• Can you imagine a velocity–time graph parallel to velocity axis?
• Two cars run on a straight road with different uniform
accelerations for 15 minutes. Thus their v – t graphs have different
slopes. Which car will travel more distance?
• In this experiment it is suggested to utilise the maximum part of
the graph paper. Why?
• State the considerations one must adhere to while choosing the
scales for plotting a graph.

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 


To study the third law of motion using two spring balances.


The first two laws of motion tell us how an applied force changes the state
of motion of an object and provide us with a method of determining the
force. The third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on
another object, the second object also exerts a force back on the first.
These two forces are always equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
These forces act on different objects and never on the same object. The two
opposing forces are also known as action and reaction forces. Let us consider
two spring balances, A and B connected together as shown in Fig. 34.1.
The fixed end of balance B is attached with a rigid support, like a wall.
When a force is applied through the free end of spring balance A, it is
observed that both the spring balances show the same readings on their
scales. It means that the force exerted by spring balance A on balance B is
equal but opposite in direction to the force exerted by the balance B on

B A

Fig. 34.1 : Action and reaction forces are equal and opposite

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balance A. The force which spring balance A exerts on spring balance B is

called the action and the force of balance B on balance A is called the
reaction. This gives us an alternative statement of the third law of motion.
That is to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. However, it
must be remembered that the action and reaction always act on two different
objects.


Two identical spring balances (0 – 5 N; 0 – 500 g), weight box, inextensible
thread, a frictionless pulley (which can be fixed at the edge of the table),
and a pan of known mass.


1. Find the range and the least count of the two spring balances.
2. Ensure that the two spring balances are identical.
3. Check whether the spring balances can measure the force? If the two
spring balances have the graduation markings in terms of force units
 well. If not, that is the spring balances have graduation markings
in terms of mass only, then learn to convert it in force units as
explained in the Note for the Teacher.
4. Hold the two spring balances vertically and ensure that their pointers
are at zero mark.

Fig. 34.2 : The experimental set up

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5. Arrange two spring balances A and B, a pulley and a pan with the
help of an inextensible thread, as shown in Fig. 34.2. The spring
balance B must be attached to a rigid support. The spring balances
may rest on the smooth table-top while the thread must not touch
the table-top. The other end of the thread, which is attached with the
pan, should also hang freely without touching the table.
6. What are the readings of the scales on the two spring balances? Are
they equal? Is it approximately equal to the weight (w) of the pan
(mass of the pan (m) × acceleration due to gravity (g) at your place)?
7. Identify the action and reaction forces. The force which spring balance
A exerts on B is action (reading on the scale of spring balance B). The
reading on the scale of balance A shows the reaction that spring
balance B exerts on A.
8. Put some mass M on the hanger (say 100 g). The total mass attached
to the thread is now (M + m). Observe the readings of both the balances.
9. Repeat step 8 for at least five more masses on the pan. Tabulate
your observations.


(i) Range of the two spring balances = ___ –– ___ N or ___ –– ___ g.
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = ___ –– ___ N or ___ –– ___ g.
(iii) Acceleration due to gravity (g) at your place = ___ m s-2.
(iv) Mass of the pan (given) m = _____ g = ___ kg.
(v) Weight of the pan w = m (in kg) ×g = ___ N.

Sl. Mass on Total mass Total Weight Reading on the scale of the FA ∼ FB
No. the pan, attached attached to the spring spring
M to spring balance A balance balance
balance A (M + m) × g A B
(M + m)

FA FB

(g) (g) (kg) (N) (g) (kg) (N) (g) (kg) (N) (N)

1. 0

2.

3.

4.

5.

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
The readings on the scales of the two spring balances are same. It means
the action force; exerted by the spring balance A on B is equal to the reaction
force (exerted by the spring balance B on A). Thus the action and reaction
forces are equal and opposite and act on different objects. This verifies the
third law of motion.
In case if the readings on the scales of the two spring balances are
approximately same (that is, not exactly same), discuss the reasons.


• Before making use of the two spring balances it should be ensured
that their pointers are at zero mark.
• The readings of the two spring balances should be noted only when
their pointers come to rest.
• Select spring balances having uniform and evenly spaced calibration
marking.
• The thread used in experiment should be inextensible lest the stretch
in the string may change the force on the spring balances.


• In order to make use of spring balances properly, it is advised
that before performing this experiment students may be given
proper grooming in the use of spring balance (see Experiments 3
and 4).
• The purpose of this experiment is to elucidate the third law of
motion. In order to give avoid unnecessary importance to the
measuring skills, it is advised that the mass of the pan may be
provided.
• A spring balance is primarily meant for measuring the weight
(force) of an object. However in laboratories, a spring balance is
often used to measure the mass of an object. It should be
remembered that the calibration of spring balance scale is done
at the place of its manufacture and depends on the value of
acceleration due to gravity (g) at that place. Therefore, if a spring
balance is used to measure mass at any other place where the
value of g is different, an error in the measurement of mass will
appear. In this experiment however, if the two spring balances
are identical then this error will not matter because here we use
spring balances to compare the forces due to gravity.

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• In this experiment we intend to study the third law of motion,

which is about the action and reaction forces. It is therefore
important to measure forces rather than the masses. It is therefore
suggested to use the spring balances which also measure weight
(force) in N. In case such spring balances are not available and
students are compelled to make use of spring balances that
denotes mass readings only, then suggest them to take mass
readings correctly. The mass readings then can be multiplied by
the value of the acceleration due to gravity (g) at the place where
the experiment is being performed.


Look for some examples from your daily life where you can see application
of third law of motion. How do we move on the road? Identify the pair of
action and reaction forces. Do they produce accelerations of equal
magnitudes on the two objects involved?


• Why do we find it difficult to move on sand?
• When a horse pulls a cart, according to the third law of motion,
the cart also pulls the horse in opposite direction with equal force.
Why does the horse-cart system move at all then?
• A spring balance is calibrated in mass. Does it measure mass or
weight?
• A spring balance is calibrated in grams at Kolkata (say). The mass
of an object measured from this balance at New Delhi is 60 g.
What is the accurate mass of this object? What mass of the object
will be shown by this spring balance on the surface of the moon?
• In one of the experimental observations with a good spring
balance, the mass of an object was found to be 495 g. However
the accurate mass of this object was 500 g. How will you explain
this observation? Does it go against the third law of motion?

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 


To study the variation in limiting friction with mass and the nature of
surfaces in contact.


Whenever an object is made to slide over another surface by applying a
force, the force of friction (or simply friction) opposes its motion. The force
of friction acts in a direction opposite to the direction of the applied force.
As the force applied on the object is increased, the force of friction also
increases accordingly to balance it. The net force on the body remains zero
and it doesn’t move. However, the force of friction can increase only up to
a certain limit. Once the applied force is increased beyond this limit, an
unbalanced force acts on the object and it begins to move. The maximum
value of force of friction, acting between the two solid surfaces just before
the object sets into motion is called limiting force of friction (or simply limiting
friction).
To study the dependence of limiting friction on the mass of an object,
you will need an arrangement to measure the force applied on the object
and find the force that is just sufficient to make it move on the surface.
One such arrangement is shown in Fig. 35.1. In this arrangement, one end
of a string is fixed to the object to be moved while its other end has a pan
attached to it. The string passes over a frictionless pulley such that the
pan remains suspended freely in air. When a weight is kept on the pan, a
force acts on the body in the horizontal direction through the string. If the

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weight of the pan is equal to the limiting friction, the object starts sliding.
Thus,
Limiting friction = Force exerted through the string
= Mass of the pan and the mass of extra weights
placed on it × acceleration due to gravity (g)

Fig. 35.1 : Experimental set up to study variation in limiting

friction with the mass of the object suspended


A wooden block with a hook, horizontal plane, two different plane top
surfaces (such as glass top, a wood mica top or a hard board), a frictionless
pulley (which can be fixed at the edge of the plane), a pan of known mass,
a spirit level, weight box including forceps, spring balance, a string, and
ten pieces of mass (say each of 100 g).


1. Place a clean glass sheet on the top of a table. Make the surface
horizontal with the help of a spirit level. To make the glass top
horizontal, pieces of paper or cardboard may be inserted below it.
2. Find the range and the least count of the spring balance.
3. Measure the mass of wooden block having hook (M) using a spring
balance.
4. Fix the pulley at the edge of the table as shown in Fig. 35.1.
5. Tie one end of the string to the pan and other end to the hook of the
block.
6. Place the wooden block on the horizontal glass top and pass the string

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over the pulley as shown in Fig. 35.1. Make sure that the portion of
string between the pulley and the wooden block is horizontal and
does not touch the table-top anywhere. For this adjust the height of
pulley so that its top is at the same level as the hook fixed to the
wooden block.
7. Put a small mass (p), say 20 g, on the pan from the weight box. Gently
tap the glass surface and observe whether it makes the block move.
Increase or decrease the mass on the pan in steps till the wooden
block just begins to slide on gently tapping the glass top surface.
Note the mass kept on the pan.
8. Remove the mass from the pan and move the block to the same positon
as before.
9. Put some mass (q), say 200 g, on the wooden block. Find out the
mass required to be kept on the pan that is just sufficient to make
the wooden block (together with the mass q) slide over the glass top
surface. Note the mass kept on the pan.
10. Repeat the activity by putting different mass on the top of the wooden
block and note the mass required (to be placed on the pan) to make it
slide in each case.
11. Replace the glass top with any other surface such as wood mica,
hard board and repeat the steps 6 to 10 and record your observations.


Record the observations for two different surfaces in different tables.
(i) Range of the spring balance = ______ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = ______ g
(iii) Mass of the wooden block with hook, M = ______ g
(iv) Mass of the pan, m (given) = ______ g
(v) Acceleration due to gravity at your place = ______ m/s2
Table 1 : Sliding of Wooden Block on Surface 1 (Glass Top)

Sl. Mass on the Total mass of Mass on pan, Total mass of Limiting friction
No. wooden wooden block required to make the pan = m + p = Weight of the
block, q =M+q the wooden pan = (m + p)g
block slide on
glass top, p

(g) (g) (kg) (g) (g) (kg) (kg m/s2) or (N)

1. 0
2.
3.

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Table 2 : Sliding of Wooden Block on Surface 2 (Wood Mica Top)

Sl. Mass on the Total mass of Mass on pan Total mass of Limiting friction
No. wooden wooden block required to make the pan = m + p = Weight of the
block, q =M+q the wooden pan = (m + p)g
bloc slide on
wood mica top, p

(g) (g) (kg) (g) (g) (kg) (kg m/s2) or (N)

1.
2.
3.


• The limiting friction increases with the increase in weight of the object
sliding on a given surface.
• The value of limiting friction changes with the change in the nature of
surfaces in contact. Friction between _______ and _______ surfaces is
more than friction between ________ and ________ surfaces.


• Since the friction at the pulley affects the value of limiting friction, the
pulley should be as smooth as possible.
• The string should be inextensible.
• The portion of the string between the pulley and wooden block must be
horizontal.
• The surface of plane (glass, wood mica, hard board etc.) and the wooden
block in contact must be clean and dry.
• The pan should be attached with the string in such a manner that it
remains horizontal when it is suspended freely with no mass on it.
• Whenever a mass is added to the pan, tapping on horizontal plane
surface (glass, wood mica, hard board etc.) should be done very gently
to check whether the block just moves or not.
• Forceps should be used while handling the weights. Ensure that mass
does not slip down as the pan moves.

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
• Give practice to the student for the use of spring balance
(Experiments 3 and 4).
• The purpose of this experiment is to understand the phenomenon
of limiting friction. It is advised that the mass of the pan (m) and
that of the wooden block (M) may be provided.
• The portion of string that lies between the pulley and wooden block
should remain horizontal. For this the position of pulley fixed on
one end of a table may have to be adjusted (in accordance to the
thickness of plane surfaces and the position of the sliding wooden
block).
• It is important to make a judicious choice of the size of the block
and set of mass for this experiment. If the block is too light, the
force of limiting friction may be even less than the weight of the
empty pan and in this situation the observations cannot be taken
with the block alone. Similarly, the maximum mass of the block,
which can be varied by putting a given set of mass on it, should not
be so large that a large mass is required to be kept on the pan to
make the wooden block slide.

Fig. 35.2 : An alternate arrangement (improvised) to

study the limiting friction

• In case a pulley is not available or cannot be positioned properly, a

spring balance may be used to measure the force required to make
the block move. Tie one end of the string with the wooden block and
its other end with the hook of the spring balance. The length of the
string should be such that the spring balance could be held at one
end of the table while the wooden block is kept near the other end
of the horizontal plane surface (Fig. 35.2). Here too, the string should

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be kept horizontal while the force is applied on the block. Now apply
a small force on the wooden block by pulling the spring balance.
Gradually increase the force till the block begins to slide on the
horizontal surface. Note that the spring balance shows a larger value
of force just before the wooden block begins to slide. This maximum
reading of the spring balance gives the value of limiting friction. If
the given spring balance is calibrated in newtons, the force can be
measured directly. However, if it is calibrated in kilograms, then
the measured value has to be multiplied with the acceleration due
to the gravity.


• Why is use of a frictionless pulley advised?
• In this experiment, what will happen if the weight of the empty
pan is more than the limiting friction between the surface and
the wooden block you are using?
• In which direction the force of friction acts on the block?
• Why is the thread used to move the block kept horizontal to the
surface and the wooden block you are using?
• How is limiting friction between two surfaces in contact affected
when grease or oil is put between them?
• A 100 g block slides when tension in the string is x N. What will
be the tension in the string when an identical block is placed at
top of the first block?
• The two blocks mentioned in above question are connected and
placed on the same surface. What would be the tension in the
string now?
• How can you use the concept of limiting friction to measure a
force?
• In the above experiment as the block slides over the surface a
sound is heard. Can you explain the reason for the sound
produced?



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 


To verify Archimedes’ principle.


Archimedes’ principle, also called law of buoyancy, states that any object
that is completely or partly immersed (or submerged) in a fluid at rest is
acted on by an upward (or buoyant) force. The magnitude of this force is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The volume of the
fluid displaced is equal to the volume of the portion of the object submerged.
Here in this experiment we shall make an attempt to verify this principle
by submerging a solid object in water.


An overflow-can, a wooden block, a measuring cylinder (100 mL and
preferably with a least count of 1 mL), a spring balance, a solid object (a
stone or a metallic block of size that can be easily lowered in the overflow-
can), laboratory stand, and a piece of silk thread.


1. Find the range and least count of the spring balance and the measuring
cylinder. In case the spring balance is calibrated in newton (N), note
its range and the least count in N.

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2. Place an overflow-can on a wooden block and fill it with

tap-water until the water begins to flow from its spout.
Wait till the last drop of excess water flows out. This is
to ensure that the level of water in the can is up to its
brim.
3. Place an empty measuring cylinder under the spout of
the overflow-can to collect water [Fig. 36.1(a)].
4. Tie the given solid with a thread and suspend it from
the hook of spring balance. Clamp the spring balance
with a laboratory stand such that the solid is suspended
freely in air as shown in Fig. 36.1(b). Note the reading
of the spring balance.
5. Lower the solid into the water in the overflow-can such
that a part of it, say less than half of it gets immersed in
Fig. 36.1(a) : The overflow-can water. Let the water displaced by the solid in the
and measuring
cylinder
overflow-can flows out form its spout and gets collected
assembly in the measuring cylinder placed below (as shown

Fig. 36.1(c) : Measuring the weight

Fig. 36.1(b) : Measuring the weight of of the object when it is
the object in the air immersed in water

in Fig. 36.1(c). Wait till the water stops dripping out from the overflow-
can. Note the volume of the water collected in the measuring cylinder.

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6. Note the reading of spring balance while the solid is partly immersed
in water and the dripping of water has stopped. This corresponds to
the weight of the solid when it is partly immersed in water.
7. Lower the solid further into the water (but do not let it immerse
completely) in the overflow-can. Let the displaced water be collected
in the measuring cylinder as before and note the new volume of water.
Note the reading of the spring balance as you did before in step 6.
8. Next, lower the solid further into the water till it gets completely
immersed in it. Again note the volume of water collected in the
measuring cylinder and the reading of the spring balance.
9. As a courtesy to your fellow students, clean the table as some water
might have been spilled on the table while performing this experiment.


(i) Range of the spring balance = _____ g = _____ N
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = _____ g = _____ N
(iii) Range of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(iv) Least count of the measuring cylinder = _____ mL
(v) Weight of solid in air, W0 = _____ N
[or W0 = mass of solid in air, m0 (in kg) ×
acceleration due to gravity g (in m/s2)]
(vi) Density of water, ρ (given) = _____ g/mL
(vii) Acceleration due to gravity (g) at your place = _____ m/s2.

Sl. Reading of the Corresponding Volume of Weight of Difference in

No. spring balance loss in weight water coll- water collected apparent loss
when succesively of the solid, ected in the in the in weight and
greater W = W0 – W 1 measuring measuring the weight of
volume of the (or W = mog – m1g) cylinder, V cylinder displaced
solid is imm- (buoyant water
ersed in water force), Ww =
W1 (or m1g) V Tap × ρ × g W ~ Ww

(N) (N) (mL) (N) (N)

1.

2.

3.

4.

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
The difference between the apparent loss in weight of the solid when
immersed in water and the weight of water displaced is negligibly small
( _____ N). In each case the observed value of the apparent loss in the
weight of solid immersed in water is nearly equal to the weight of displaced
water. This verifies Archimedes’ principle.


• The graduation marks on the measuring cylinder and on spring balance
should be evenly spaced.
• The impurities present in the water may alter its density.
• The solid used should be non-porous otherwise it will absorb some
water. Absorption of water by the solid may affect the change in its
weight and the volume of water displaced by it.
• The density of solid should be larger than that of water so that it sinks
in water.
• The measuring cylinder must be kept on a horizontal surface and the
line of sight should be at the same level as that of the lower meniscus
of water while recording the volume of displaced water.
• Before reading the liquid meniscus in the measuring cylinder, it must
be ensured that there is no air bubble inside the liquid.
• The readings of the spring balance should be taken only after its pointer
comes to rest. If the spring balance has some zero error then it must be
noted before taking measurements and the same should be taken into
account while using the spring balance.
• The thread used in this experiment may also absorb some water.


• Experiment 37 “To establish the relation between the loss in weight
of a solid when fully immersed in (i) tap water; (ii) strongly salty
water, with the weight of water displaced by it by taking at least
two different solids” and this experiment have some-what similar
objectives and procedure. It is therefore advised that students
may be asked to perform only one of these two experiments.
• In case, an overflow-can is not available, a large size-beaker with
a spout may also be used.

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
• Why does the pointer of a spring balance move up when the stone
suspended from it is immersed in water?
• State the factors on which buoyant force acting on an object
immersed in a fluid depend.
• What will be the effect on the apparent loss in weight of a stone if
it is immersed in salty water instead of tap-water?
• State two precautions that should be observed while making use
of an overflow-can.
• An object suspended from a spring balance is gradually lowered
in an overflow-can. What will be the change in the apparent loss
in the observed weight as the object is immersed in water?
• What is a fluid? Is it different from a liquid or from a gas or from
a solid?



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 


To establish the relation between the loss in weight of a solid when fully
immersed in (i) tap water; (ii) strongly salty water, with the weight of water
displaced by it by taking at least two different solids.


When a solid object is immersed in water, there is a loss in its weight. This
loss is equal to the weight of the water displaced. In this experiment we
shall appreciate this relationship by immersing two different solid objects
in tap-water and in strongly salty water.


An overflow-can, a wooden block, a measuring cylinder (100 mL and
preferably with a least count of 1 mL), a spring balance, two small different
solid non-porous objects, laboratory stand, tap-water and strongly salted
water of known densities, and a piece of silk thread.


1. Find the range and the least count of the spring balance and measuring
cylinder.
2. Hold the spring balance vertically and ensure that its pointer is at
zero mark.

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3. Check whether the spring balance can measure the

weight? If it has the graduation markings in terms of
force units, that is N –– well. If not, that is the spring
balances have graduation markings in terms of mass
only, then convert it in weight by multiplying the mass
with the acceleration due to gravity at your place.
4. Place an overflow-can on a wooden block and fill it with
tap-water until the water begins to flow from its spout.
Wait till the last drop of excess water flows out. This is
to ensure that the level of water in the overflow-can is
up to its brim.
5. Tie one of the two given solid objects with a thread and
suspend it from the hook of spring balance. Clamp the
spring balance in a laboratory stand such that the solid Fig. 37.1(a) : The overflow can
is suspended freely in air. Measure its mass (m1a) or its and measuring
weight (w1a) in air [Fig. 37.1(b)]. cylinder assembly
6. Place an empty measuring cylinder under the spout of
the overflow-can to collect water [Fig. 37.1(a)].

Fig. 37.1(c) : Measuring the weight of

Fig. 37.1(b) : Measuring the weight of the object when it is
the object in the air immersed in water

7. Bring the laboratory stand (clamped with the spring balance and
the solid object) over the tap-water filled overflow-can. Immerse the
solid fully into the tap-water in overflow-can, as shown in Fig. 37.1(c).



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8. Collect the water displaced by the solid in the overflow-can that flows
out from its spout in measuring cylinder. Wait till the water stops
dripping out from the overflow-can. Note the Volume VTap of water
collected in the measuring cylinder.
9. Note the reading of spring balance to get the mass (m1Tap) or the weight
(w1Tap) of the solid in tap-water. Record your observations.
10. Repeat step 3 onwards for second solid object.
11. Repeat the whole procedure for strongly salted water in place of tap-
water. Do you observe difference in your readings?


(i) Range of the spring balance = __ –– __ N or __ –– __ g
(ii) Least count of the spring balance = __ N or ___ g
(iii) Acceleration due to gravity (g)
at your place = ____ m s-2
(iv) Other Values:

Sl. Solid object Density of

No. First/ Mass in air, Weight in air Tap water, Strongly salty water,
Second ma wa = ma ×g ρTap ρSSW

(g) (kg) (N) g/mL kg/m3 g/mL kg/m3

1. First
2. Second

A. For tap-water

Sl. Solid Reading of the Loss in weight Volume of Weight of Difference in

No. Object spring balance of the solid when tap water tap water loss inweight
when the solid fully immersed collected in collected in of solid and
object is fully in tap water, measuring measuring weight of
immersed in WSTap cylinder, cylinder, displaced tap
tap water VTap WWTap = water
V Tap×
ρ Tap × g WSTap ~ WWTap

First/ Mass Weight

Second WTap

(g) (kg) (N) (N) (mL) (m3) (N) (N)

1. First

2. Second

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B. For strongly salty water

Sl. Solid Reading of the Loss in weight Volume of Weight of Difference in
No. Object spring balance of the solid strongly strongly weight of
when the solid when fully salty water salty tap loss of solid
object is fully immersed in collected in water and weight
immersed in strongly salty measuring collected in of displaced
strongly salty water cylinder, measuring strongly
water WSSSW VSSW cylinder, salty water
WWSSW = WSSSW~WWSSW
V SSW × ρ SSW × g
First/ Mass Weight
Second WSSW
(g) (kg) (N) (N) (mL) (m3) (N) (N)

1. First
2. Second


The loss in weight of both the solids used in this experiment when fully
immersed in tap and strongly salty water are equal (or approximately equal)
to the weight of water displaced by them, respectively.
For a given solid, the weight of water displaced by it when immersed
fully in strongly salty water is more than the weight of the water displaced
when fully immersed in tap-water. Thus larger the density of liquid in which
the solid is immersed, larger the weight of liquid displaced or larger the
upward (or buoyant) force.

    

• Before making use of the spring balance it should be ensured that its
pointer is at zero mark.
• Ensure that the spring balance hangs vertically with the laboratory stand.
• The solid objects used should be non-porous otherwise they will absorb
some water. This may affect the apparent change in its weight and the
volume of water displaced by it.
• The density of solid should be larger than that of liquid so that it sinks in it.
• The measuring cylinder must be kept on a horizontal surface and the
line-of sight should be at the same level as that of the lower meniscus of
water while recording the volume of displaced water.
• Before reading the water meniscus in the measuring cylinder, it must be
ensured that there is no air bubble inside the water.
• The readings of the spring balance should be taken only after its pointer
comes to rest. If the spring balance has zero error then it must be noted
before taking measurements and the same should be taken into account
while using the spring balance.



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• The graduations mark on the two spring balances may not be evenly
spaced.
• The impurities present in the water may alter its density.
• The thread used in experiment may also absorb water to introduce
some error.


• The earlier experiment: “To verify Archimedes’ principle” and this
experiment have some-what similar objectives and procedure. It
is therefore advised that students may be asked to perform only
one of these two experiments.
• In case an overflow-can is not available, a large size beaker with
a spout may also be used.
• Students may be provided tap water and strongly salty water
separately. The density of salty water may also be provided. In
case if the density of salty water is not provided then students
can be asked to prepare strongly salty water by dissolving a known
quantity of salt in known volume of tap water (to calculate the
density of strongly salty water).
• Thread used for tying the solid objects may absorb some water to
cause error. It is therefore suggested that cotton thread be not
used instead a silk thread may be used.
• If the density of any solid object is less than the density of water
then a sinker can be used to perform the experiment.


This method can be used to determine the density of any liquid.


• Why is it easier to swim in sea-water rather than a swimming
pool or river water?
• In which liquid––glycerin or kerosene––the loss in the weight of a
solid object when fully immersed in it will be more?
• How can you perform this experiment for a solid whose density is
lesser than that of the liquid used?
• What are the limitations of this experiment?
• Using this method, how would you find the density of a liquid?
• How will you select solid to perform this experiment using glycerin
instead of water?



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 


To plot temperature–time graph for a hot object as it cools.


A hot object loses heat to its surroundings in the form of heat radiation.
The rate of loss of heat depends on the difference in temperature between
the object and its surroundings.


A calorimeter (500 mL) with a stirrer, a lid for the calorimeter with two
holes in it, a thermometer ( –10 ºC — 110 ºC), a stop-watch or stop-clock,
spirit lamp or gas burner, tripod stand with wire gauze, a laboratory stand,
water and a piece of thread.


1. Find the range and least count of the thermometer.
2. Hold the thermometer vertically in air and note the room temperature.
3. Take about 300 mL of water in the calorimeter with a stirrer and
cover it with two-holed lid. Fix a thermometer through a hole in the
lid (Fig. 38.1). Make sure that the bulb of thermometer is immersed
in the water.



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4. Place the calorimeter over the wire gauze on

the tripod stand and heat it with a spirit lamp
or a gas burner.
5. Heat the water till it attains a temperaure
nearly 40 ºC above the room temperature
(temperature of the surroundings). Stop
heating the water.
6. Switch on the stop-watch or stop-clock. Note
the reading of the thermometer after fixed
intervals of time. One can read the
thermometer initially after every one minute
and after every two minutes once the
temperature of water falls down to nearly
10 ºC above the room temperature. In order
to maintain uniform temperature of the water
in the calorimeter, keep it stirring gently with
the stirrer.
7. Continue to note the temperature of water
till it attains a temperature about 5 ºC above
that of the surroundings (room temperature).
Fig. 38.1 : Heating of water in a calorimeter

 
Room temperature (temperature of surroundings), θ1 = ___ ºC = ___ K.

Sl. No. Time, t Temperature of water Temperature difference, θ

(minute) θ2 (ºC) = θ2 - θ1 (ºC)

1.
2.
3.
..
..
..
9.
10.



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
Study the range of variation in the values of
temperature difference θ and that of time t.
Choose appropriate scales for the temperature
and time to plot a graph between them. Draw
x and y-axis on the graph paper. Take θ along
the y-axis and time t along the x-axis. Plot the
points on the graph for each value of
temperature difference θ and the corresponding
value of time t. Join all the points with as smooth
(without pointed edges) a curve as possible. It
is likely that a smooth curve may not be
obtained by joining all points on the graph.
However, a smooth curve can be drawn by Fig. 38.2 : Curve showing cooling of hot
joining as many points as possible. Do not water with time
bother even if some points are left out on either
side of the curve drawn (Fig. 38.2).


Study the curve obtained on plotting the graph. From the graph infer as to
how the cooling of hot water depends on the difference of its temperature
with that of the surroundings. Remember that a curve nearly parallel (or
close to it) to the y-axis shows that cooling is quick (that is, rate of cooling
is high). While the curve nearly parallel (or close to it) to the x-axis shows
that cooling is slow (that is the rate of cooling is slow).


• The initial temperature of hot water in calorimeter should be about
40 °C above the temperature of surroundings (the room temperature).
• The water in the calorimeter should be gently stirred all the times during
the experiment.
• The calorimeter should be covered properly to avoid (or to minimise)
loss of heat by water due to convection or evaporation.
• The scale for drawing the graph should be chosen such that all the
observed values could be accommodated easily. The curve drawn should
not only be continuous and smooth but care should also be taken to
ensure that it passes through maximum number of points in such a
manner that nearly equal number of remaining points lie on either side
of it. In some cases the smooth curve may be such that nearly all points
lie outside it.

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
• Blackening of calorimeter from outside will reduce the cooling of
hot water by conduction. Therefore, use of blackened calorimeter
should be preferred.
• In case a calorimeter is not available, then a beaker with its outer
surface painted black may be used instead of a calorimeter.
• Experiments 32 and 33 provide a good practice in plotting graphs.
It is therefore advised that students must first perform either of
these two experiments.


• Why does the temperature fall rapidly when we start reading the
temperature of given hot water in this experiment?
• Why is the calorimeter covered with a lid while performing the
experiment?
• Why do we prefer to keep the calorimeter on an insulating surface
while performing the experiment?
• Why does the temperature fall slowly when the temperature of
hot water in the calorimeter approaches the room temperature?
• Why do we prefer to use a calorimeter whose outer surface is
blackened?
• For a given hot liquid, the θ - t graph is parallel to time axis. What
inference do you draw from such a graph? (Caution: This situation
may not be real one.)
• What would you infer from a temperature - time graph that is
parallel to temperature axis?
• In this experiment you might have observed that initially the
temperature of hot water falls rapidly. But as the temperature of
water comes close to the temperature of surroundings, the fall of
temperature becomes rather slow. How?



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 


To study the effect of amplitude on the time period of a simple pendulum.


A simple pendulum consists of a small
object of heavy mass, called the pendulum
bob, suspended by a light inextensible
thread from a fixed and rigid support [Fig.
39.1(a)]. When the bob P is released after
taking its free end P slightly to one side
(say to point R), it begins to oscillate about
its mean position O [Fig. 39.1(b)]. The time
taken by the pendulum to complete one
oscillation is called its time period. The
maximum departure of the pendulum from
its mean position (or half the length of the
swing) is called its amplitude. Does the time
period of a simple pendulum depend on
its amplitude? In this experiment we shall (a) (b)
attempt to explore it.
Fig. 39.1 : (a) A simple pendulum; and
(b) Different positions of the bob of an
oscillating simple pendulum and a
complete oscillation



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
A heavy iron stand, a cork (split along length through middle), an
inexstensible thread of about 1.5 m length, a metallic spherical bob of
known radius, a stop-watch (or a stop clock), a large size protractor, and a
meter scale.


1. Find the least count of the given stop-watch or stop clock.
2. Tie one end of an inextensible thread of nearly 1.5 m length with a
pendulum bob and pass the other end of thread through the split
cork as shown in Fig. 39.2(a).
3. Clamp the cork firmly to a heavy iron stand and place it on a horizontal
table. The pendulum must over-hang the table.
4. Fix a large size protractor just below the split cork such that its 0° -
180° line is horizontal so that the pendulum, hanging vertically,
coincides with the 90° line of the protractor. Also ensure that the
centre of the protractor lies just below the point C of suspension of
the pendulum in its rest position
[Fig. 39.2(b)].
5. Adjust the effective length of the
pendulum, L, to any desired length
(say 1 m). The effective length of
pendulum is measured from the point
of suspension (the lowest point on the
split cork from which the bob
suspends freely) to the centre of mass
of the pendulum bob (which in the
case of a spherical object is at its
geometric centre), that is, length CP
in Fig. 39.2(a). The length of the
pendulum can be increased (or
decreased) by pulling down (or up) the
thread through the split cork after
slightly loosening the grip of the
clamp. Note the length of the simple
pendulum.
6. Draw two lines on the surface, one
(a) (b)
parallel to the edge of table (AB) and
other perpendicular to it (MN) such
Fig. 39.2 : (a) A simple pendulum fixed in a
split cork; and (b) Experimental set
that the two intersect at the point O
up for studying the variation in the [Fig. 39.2(b)].
time period of pendulum with a 7. Adjust the position of the laboratory
change in its amplitude stand and the height of the clamp

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such that the point of intersection, O, of lines AB and MN lies

exactly below and very close to the centre of bob in its rest position.
8. Divide line AB through equal divisions of 4 cm each (say) on both sides
of the point O.
9. Gently hold the pendulum bob P just above the point O. Keeping the
thread stretched, displace the bob to the first division point OA1(or
OB1) on line AB in either side of mean position (O). Also check the
angular displacement of the bob on the protractor attached at the top
of pendulum C, with the clamp. Release the bob so that it begins to
oscillate about its mean position. What is the amplitude of the
oscillating pendulum? It is the maximum departure (point A1 or B1) of
the pendulum from its mean position (point P or O). Thus the
amplitude of the simple pendulum is OA 1 (or OB1). Measure the
amplitude and angular displacement and record them in observation
table.
10. Observe the time taken for appreciable number of oscillations n (say,
10 oscillations) with the help of a stop-watch or stop-clock. Record
the time taken for n oscillations in the observation table.
11. Bring the pendulum at rest in its mean position. Displace the
pendulum bob to the twice of the distance displaced earlier. Record
the amplitude and angular displacement of the pendulum. Repeat
step 10 for recording the time taken for n number of oscillations.
12. Repeat step 11 for more values of amplitude (and angular
displacements) and record the time taken for n number of oscillations
in each case.
13. Calculate the time period of the simple pendulum in each case.


(i) Least count of the stop-watch or stop-clock = ___ s
(ii) Diameter of the pendulum bob, d = ___ cm
(iii) Radius of the pendulum bob, r = d/2 = ___ cm
(iv) (Length of the thread + length of hook (if any), l = ___ cm
(v) Effective length of the simple pendulum, L (= l + r) = ___ cm
= ___ m.

Sl. Amplitude of Angular Number of Time taken Time period

No. the pendulum displacement oscillations in n oscillations, T = t/n
a θ n t
(cm) (°) (s) (s)

1. 4
2. 8
3. 12
4. 16
5. 20
6. 25

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
Plot a graph between the amplitude of the pendulum, a, and time period,
T for a fixed effective length of the pendulum, L. Take a along y-axis and
T along x-axis. Smoothly join all the points. Attach the graph with
observations.


From the observation table and graph we may infer about the relation
between the amplitude of simple pendulum and its time period.
You may discover that for smaller amplitudes (corresponding to angular
displacements, θ ≤ 10°), the time period is independent of amplitude. But
for larger amplitudes (or for larger angular displacements) the time period
of the pendulum changes with amplitude.
(Why is the time period independent of amplitude for smaller amplitudes
and not for larger amplitudes? You will study this in higher classes.)


• Effective length and mass of the bob of simple pendulum must be kept
same for all measurements.
• Thread used must be light, strong and inextensible. An extension in
the thread will increase the effective length of the pendulum. There
should be no kink or twist in the thread.
• The pendulum support should be rigid. For this take a laboratory stand
with heavy base.
• The split cork should be clamped keeping its lower face horizontal.
• During oscillations the pendulum should not touch the edge of the
table or the surface below.
• The bob must be released from its displaced position very gently and
without a push otherwise it may not move along the straight line AB.
In case you notice that the oscillations are elliptical or the bob is spinning
or the bob is jumping up and down, stop the pendulum and displace
it again.
• At the place of experiment, no air disturbance should be present. Even
all the fans must be switched off while recording the observations.
• Counting of oscillations should begin when the bob of the oscillating
pendulum passes its mean position.

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
• To simplify the experiment, the values of diameter or radius of
the pendulum bob and length of hook may be provided to
students.
• If it is found that the experiment is taking too much time, then
the measurements of angular displacements may be skipped.
• Practically the amplitude may decrease in each swing of the
pendulum with time. Thus the pendulum will not keep on
oscillating for a long time. Therefore counting of the number of
oscillations for measuring the time taken should be stopped before
the amplitude of oscillation becomes too small. It is therefore
advised that number of oscillation (n) for which time is noted
should be small (say n = 10).
• A large size protractor can be improvised on a cardboard.


• Discuss how does the time period of a pendulum of fixed length
vary with a change in the amplitude of oscillation?
• Observe a simple pendulum swinging with some appreciable
amplitude. Does its amplitude remain constant? Discuss your
findings after 10 oscillations?
• Two students perform this experiment in two different conditions,
namely (i) in the school laboratory, and (ii) in vacuum, respectively.
Which of the students is more likely to get better result? Discuss
it.
• What makes a simple pendulum oscillate when it is displaced
and then released from its mean position?
• What are the factors, which are responsible for the dying out of
oscillations of a simple pendulum?
• What will happen if bob of pendulum touches the edge of the
table?
• While determining the time period of a pendulum why do we prefer
to measure time for about ten oscillations?
• Observe Fig. 39.2(b). Locate the positions where the speed of bob
is minimum and maximum. Also discuss the kinetic and potential
energies of the pendulum at these points.
• Can you imagine a situation in which the time period of a simple
pendulam becomes infinite?

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 


To study the variation in time period of a simple pendulum with its length.


A simple pendulum consists of a small object
of heavy mass, called the pendulum bob,
suspended by a light thread from a fixed and
rigid support [Fig. 40.1(a)]. When the bob CP
is released after taking its free end P slightly
to one side (say to point R), it begins to oscillate
about its mean position O [Fig. 40.1(b)]. The
time taken by the pendulum to complete one
oscillation is called its time period. The time
period of a simple pendulum depends on the
length of the simple pendulum. In this
experiment we shall attempt to establish a
(a) (b) relationship between the length of the simple
pendulum and its time period.
Fig. 40.1 : (a) A simple pendulum; and
(b) Different positions of the bob
of an oscillating simple pendulum
and a complete oscillation



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
A heavy iron stand, a cork (split along length through middle), an
inexstensible thread of about 1.5 m length, a metallic pendulum bob of
known radius, a stop-watch (or a stop clock), a large size protractor, and a
meter scale.


1. Find the least count of the given stop-watch (or stop clock).
2. Tie one end of an inextensible thread of nearly 1.5 m length with a
pendulum bob and pass the other end of thread through the split
cork as shown in Fig. 40.2(a).
3. Clamp the cork firmly to a heavy iron stand and place it on a horizontal
table. The pendulum must over-hang the table.
4. Adjust the effective length of the pendulum, L, to any desired length
(say 1 m). The effective length of pendulum is measured from the
point of suspension (the lowest point on the split cork from which the
bob suspends freely) to the centre of mass of the pendulum
bob (which in the case of a spherical object is at its geometric centre),
that is, length CP in Fig. 40.2(a). The length of the pendulum can be
increased (or decreased) by pulling
down (or up) the thread through the
split cork after slightly loosening the
grip of the clamp. Note the length of
the simple pendulum.
5. Draw two lines on the surface, one
parallel to the edge of table (AB) and
other perpendicular to it (MN) such
that the two intersect at the point O
[Fig. 40.2(b)].
6. Adjust the position of the laboratory
stand and the height of the clamp
such that the point of intersection, O,
of lines AB and MN lies exactly below
and very close to the centre of bob in
its rest or position.
7. Gently hold the pendulum bob P just
above the point O. Keeping the thread (a) (b)
stretched, displace the bob to either
Fig. 40.2 : (a) A simple pendulum fixed in a split
side, say to point X or point Y, along cork; and (b) Experimental set up for
the line AB (the displacement of the studying the variation in the time
bob should be around 10 cm from its period of pendulum with a change in
mean position so that the angular its length

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displacement does not exceed 10°). Release the bob so that it begins
to oscillate about its mean position. Also check the angular
displacement of the bob on the protractor attached at the top of
pendulum C, with the clamp.
8. Observe the time taken for appreciable number of oscillations n
(say, 10 oscillations) with the help of a stop-watch or stop clock.
Record the time taken for n oscillations in the observation table.
9. Bring the pendulum at rest in its mean position. Repeat steps 7
and 8 for the same length (L) of the pendulum and record the time
taken.
10. Repeat the activity for different values of pendulum length in either
ascending or descending order. Record the observations in
observation table.


(i)Least count of the stop-watch or stop clock = ___ s
(ii)Diameter of the pendulum bob, d = ___ cm
(iii)Radius of the pendulum bob, r = d/2 = ___ cm
(iv) Number of oscillations, n = ___
(Length of the thread + length of hook, if any) l = ___ cm
(v) Effective length of the simple pendulum, L (= l + r) = ___ cm
= ___ m.

Sl. Effective length of the pendulum Time taken for Time Mean T2
No. L = Length of thread + length of hook n oscillations period time
(if any) + radius of pendulum bob, r t T = t/n period, T

(cm) (m) (s) (s) (s) (s2)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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
Plot a graph between the effective length of
pendulum, L, and square of mean time period,
T2, taking L along x-axis and T2 along y-axis.
Draw a line to join all the points marked by
you with a straight line such that maximum
number of points lies on it (Fig. 40.3). Some
points may not lie on the straight line graph
and may be on either side of it. Extend the
straight line backwards to check whether the
observed graph passes through the origin.
Fig. 40.3 : Graph between L and T2


The graph between the length of pendulum and square of its time period
is a straight line. This means that the time period of a simple pendulum is
proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum.


• Thread used must be thin, light, strong and inextensible. An extension
in the thread will increase the effective length of the pendulum. There
should be no kink or twist in the thread.
• The pendulum support (laboratory stand) should be rigid.
• The split cork should be clamped keeping its lower face horizontal.
• During oscillations the pendulum should not touch the edge of the
table or the surface.
• The displacement of pendulum bob from its mean position must be
small.
• The bob must be released from its displaced position very gently and
without a push otherwise it may not move along the straight line AB.
In case you notice that the oscillations are elliptical or the bob is
spinning or jumping up and down, stop the pendulum and displace it
again.
• At the place of experiment, no air disturbance should present. Even all
the fans must be switched off while recording the observations.
• Counting of oscillations should begin when the bob of the oscillating
pendulum passes its mean position.



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
• To simplify the experiment, values of diameter or radius of the
pendulum bob and length of hook may be provided to students.
• Practically the amplitude may decrease in each swing of the
pendulum with time. Thus the pendulum will not keep on
oscillating for a long time. Therefore counting of the number of
oscillations for measuring the time taken should be stopped before
the amplitude of oscillation becomes too small. It is therefore
advised that number of oscillation (n) for which time is noted
should be small (say n = 10).


• Define mean position of a simple pendulum.
• The amplitude of an oscillating pendulum keeps on decreasing
with time. Suggest the factors responsible for it.
• When you displace a pendulum form its mean position and then
release, it executes to-and-fro motion. Why does it happen?
Discuss it with your friends and teacher.
• Which pendulum will oscillate for a longer period of time – the
one which is oscillating in air or the one which is oscillating in
vacuum?
• What will happen if bob of pendulum touches the edge of the
table?
• Why should the amplitude be small for simple pendulum
experiment?
• While determining the time period of a pendulum, why do we
prefer to measure time for about ten oscillations?
• Observe Fig. 40.2(b). Decide the positions where the speed of bob
is minimum and maximum. Also discuss the kinetic and potential
energies of the pendulum at these points?
• Would the measurements of time period of pendulum be most
accurate with a long or short thread?
• What will be the shape of the graph plotted between the total
length, (L) and time period (T ) of a pendulum?
• Can you imagine a situation in which the time period of a simple
pendulum becomes infinite?



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 


To study the effect of mass on the time period of a simple pendulum.


A simple pendulum consists of a small object of heavy mass, called the
pendulum bob, suspended by a light thread from a fixed and rigid support
[Fig. 41.1(a)]. When the bob CP is released after
taking its free end P slightly to one side (say to
point R), it begins to oscillate about its mean
position O [Fig. 41.1(b)]. The time taken by the
pendulum to complete one oscillation is called
its time period. The force responsible for
maintaning the oscillations in the simple
pendulum is the restoring force which involve
mass of the bob. In this experiment we shall study
the effect of mass of the pendulum bob on its
time period.

(a) (b)
Fig. 41.1 : (a) A simple pendulum; and
(b) Different positions of the
bob of an oscillating simple
pendulum and a complete
oscillation

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
A heavy iron stand, a cork (split along length through middle), an
inextensible thread of about 1.5 m length, three different metallic spherical
bobs of known masses and diameters. a stop-watch or a stop clock, a large
size protractor, and a meter scale.


1. Find the least count of the given stop-watch or stop-clock.
2. Tie one end of an inextensible thread of nearly 1.5 m with the metallic
bob of first pendulum having mass m1 and diameter d1 and pass the
other end of thread through the split cork as shown in Fig. 41.2(a).
3. Clamp the cork firmly to a heavy iron stand and place it on a horizontal
table. The pendulum must be over-hanging.
4. Adjust the effective length of the pendulum, L, to any desired length
(say 1 m). The effective length of pendulum is measured from the
point of suspension (the lowest point on the split cork from which the
bob suspends freely) to the centre of mass of the pendulum bob (which
in the case of a spherical object is at its geometric centre), that is,
length CP in Fig. 41.2(a). The length of the pendulum can be increased
(or decreased) by pulling down (or up) the thread through the split
cork after slightly loosening the grip of the clamp. Keep the length of
the simple pendulum fixed through out.
5. Draw two lines on the surface, one parallel
(a) to the edge of table (AB) and other
perpendicular to it (MN) such that the two
intersect at the point O [Fig. 41.2(b)].
6. Adjust the position of the laboratory stand
and the height of the clamp such that the
point of intersection, O, of lines AB and MN
lies exactly below and very close to the
centre of bob in its rest or mean position.
7. Gently hold the pendulum bob P just above
the point O. Keeping the thread stretched,
displace the bob to either side, say to point
X or point Y, along the line AB (the
displacement of the bob should be around
10 cm from its mean position so that the
(b) angular displacement does not exceed 10°).
Fig. 41.2 : (a) A simple pendulum fixed in a Release the bob so that begins to oscillate
split cork; and (b) Experimental about its mean position. Also check the
set-up for studying the variation angular displacement of the bob on the
in the time period of pendulum protector attached at the top of pendulum
with a change in its mass C, with the clamp.


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8. Observe the time taken for appreciable number of oscillations n (say,

10 oscillations) with the help of a stop-watch (or stop-clock). Record
the time taken for n oscillations in the observation table.
9. Bring the pendulum at rest in its mean position. Repeat step 8 again
for the same metallic pendulum bob. Record the total time taken in n
oscillations.
10. Replace the metallic pendulum bob of the pendulum with the second
bob of known mass (m2) and diameter (d2). Using the method given in
step 4, adjust the total length of the simple pendulum same, that is
L. Repeat steps 8 and 9 to again record the total time taken in
completeing n oscillations.
11. Repeat step 10 for the third given metallic bob.


(i) Least count of the stop-watch or stop-clock = ___ s
(ii) Specifications of the three given metallic bobs.

Bob Mass Diameter Radius length of the hook

m (g) d (cm) r (cm) attached, h (cm)

First m1 = d1 = r1 = h1 =
Second m2 = d2 = r2 = h2 =
Third m3 = d3 = r3 = h3 =

(iii) Total length of the simple pendulum, L = length of thread + r + h =

___ cm = ___ m
(iv) Number of oscillations, n = ___ .

Sl. Mass of Length of the Total length of Time taken Time Mean
No. the thread, l the pendulum, n oscillations, period time
bob, m =l+r+h t T = t/n period

(g) (cm) (cm) (s) (s) (s)

1. m1 __ L __ __ __
2. L __ __
3. m2 __ L __ __ __
4. L __ __
5. m3 __ L __ __ __
6. L __ __



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
From the observations, infer the effect of the mass of the simple pendulum
on its time period. You are likely to see that the time period of a simple
pendulum does not depend on its mass. (You will be studying about this
independence in detail in higher classes.)


• Total length of the simple pendulum must be kept same throughout the
experiment.
• Thread used must be strong and inextensible. An extension (which may
depend on the mass of the bob) in the thread will increase the effective
length of the pendulum. There should be no kink or twist in the thread.
• The pendulum support (laboratory stand) should be rigid.
• The split cork should be clamped keeping its lower face horizontal.
• During oscillations the pendulum should not touch the edge of the table
or the surface below.
• The displacement of pendulum bob from its mean position must be small.
• The bob must be released from its displaced position very gently and
without a push otherwise it may not move along the straight line AB. In
case you notice that the oscillations are elliptical or the bob is spinning,
stop the pendulum and displace it again.
• At the place of experiment, no air disturbance should be there. So switch
off all fans while taking the observations.
• Counting of oscillations should begin when the bob of the pendulum passes
its mean position while it is oscillating.


• In order to avoid unnecessary emphasis on measuring skills, the
value of diameters or radii of the pendulum bobs, their masses,
and their lengths of hooks may be provided to students. It is not
necessary that the metallic bobs are made up same material.
These can be different.
• Practically the amplitude may decrease in each swing of the
pendulum with time. Thus the pendulum will not keep on
oscillating for a long time. Therefore counting of the number of
oscillations for measuring the time taken should be stopped before
the amplitude of oscillation becomes too small. It is therefore
advised that number of oscillation (n) for which time is noted
should be small (say n = 10).



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• The masses of the metallic bobs must not be very large. Otherwise
the thread may break. Moreover, the amplitude of the swinging
pendulum may die out quickly (friction at the point of suspension
of the pendulum!).
• To ensure a constant length is pretty difficult. A small bowl may
be used as pendulum bob whose mass may be altered by filling it
with different materials.


• Does the time period of a simple pendulum depend on the mass
of the pendulum bob?
• Does the time period of a simple pendulum depend on the size of
the bob? Does it depend on the shape of the bob?
• You are provided with two simple pendulums of same length but
of different masses. The two pendulums are displaced by the same
amount and then released to oscillate freely about their mean
positions. If the air resistance is same for both the simple
pendulums, compare their time periods of oscillation?



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 


To determine the speed of a transverse pulse propagated through a stretched
string.


A pulse is a small disturbance in a medium that usually lasts for a short
time. The motion of a pulse can be observed on a long stretched string or
in a stretched slinky. A pulse can be classified by the direction in which it
disturbs the medium. A transverse pulse is a disturbance that moves the
medium at the right angles to the direction in which the pulse travels. If
the disturbance is in the direction of motion of the pulse then the pulse is
longitudinal.
The motion of a transverse pulse can be observed on a long stretched
string that is fixed at one end. A hump created at one end of the string
by giving it a jerk, is an example of a transverse pulse. A sudden pulse
created at the end, held in hand moves, to the other end along the string
where it dies out. However, if the string is fixed at both the ends the
pulse may reflect back and forth a few times before it dies out [Fig.
42.1(a-g)]. The speed of a pulse along the string can be determined by
measuring the time taken T by it to travel through a known length of
the string l. The length of the string divided by the time gives the speed
of the pulse in the string. That is,
l
v= .
T


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
A 10 m long tightly knitted cotton string or rope of about 0.5 cm diameter,
a stop-watch or a stop clock, and a meter scale.


1. Find the least count of the stop-watch or the stop-clock.
2. Fix one end of the tightly knit cotton string (the type of the one used
in skipping) or rope by tying its one end to a door handle or to a
window grill or to a hook on a wall. Stretch a known length of the
string (say l1) while holding the other end firmly with your hands. The
other end of the string can also be tied to another door handle, or a
hook. The string might sag in the middle due to its weight. However,
a little sagging do not affect your observations.
3. Give a small transverse horizontal jerk to the string at one end to
create a pulse. Let the pulse travel along the string. It may require
some practice to create a single pulse that moves smoothly along the
string.

Fig. 42.1(a-g) : A pulse moves back and forth along a string fixed at both ends before it
dies out



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4. Observe the pulse as it moves along the string and note what happens
when the pulse reaches at the other end of the string. Does it get
reflected back? Does the same phenomena occur when it reaches the
end where the pulse originated?
5. Holding one end of the stretched string give it a jerk to create a pulse.
Ask one of your friends to switch on the stop-watch or clock as soon
as you give a jerk to the stretched string. Measure the time taken by
the pulse to make n number of journeys along the entire length of the
string between its two ends [Figs. 42.1(a-g)]. This could be possible if
the pulse moves back and forth along the string a few times before it
dies out. The starting and closing of the stop-watch or stop-clock
must be simultaneous with the creation of the pulse and its arrival at
the end up to which the measurement are to be taken. Care should
also be taken in counting the number of times the pulse travels through
the entire length of the string.
6. Repeat the experiment with different lengths of the same string (say
l2 and l3) by changing the distance between the two ends to which it is
tied. Note the time taken by a pulse for making n journeys through
different lengths of the string.


(i) Least count of the stop-watch or stop-clock = _____ s

Sl. Length of the string Time taken by the Time taken by the Speed of the pulse
No. between two ends pulse in making n pulse in making one in string

l journeys, t journey, T (= t/n) v = l/T

(m) (s) (s) (m/s)

1. l1 = v1 =
2. l2 = v2 =
3. l3 = v3 =


The speed of pulse in the string at different lengths are given in table
above. In this experiment you probably find different values of speeds of
the transverse pulse for different values of lengths of the string. Discuss
and state the factors which affect the speed of the pulse with your friends
and teacher.



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
• The string should not be too tight (large tension) when it is tied at the
two ends otherwise the velocity of pulse may be high to observe and
to measure time of its travel. Some sagging due to the weight of the
string is helpful in creating the pulse and observing its motion.
• The string should not be placed on a rigid surface (in contact with) as
in such a situation the pulse would die out quickly making
observations difficult.
• It must be ensured that no part of the stretched string, except the
two ends, touches any surface. Why?
• The string should not have any knots or kinks at any point along its
length.
• The counting of pulse journeys must start from zero (and not from
one). That is, the creation of pulse and pressing of the knob of stop-
watch must be simultaneous.
• The efforts should be made to keep the amplitude of pulse appreciably
high so that it can get reflected sufficient number of times from the
fixed ends of the string.


• This experiment requires a good amount of practice and therefore
should be performed in a group of two or three students.
• Strings or ropes made of jute or plastic or some other material
may also be tried instead of cotton.
• This experiment should preferably be performed in a hall or in a
gallery.
• In this experiment, the speed of pulse changes for different string
lengths. It is suggested that students may try to repeat the
observations for the same length of string say l1. They will probably
find different values of speed the pulse. Encourage the students
to find the reasoning.
• It is advised that this experiment be performed at a place where
external effects such as air are minimal. Switch off the fan while
performing this experiment.
• The speed of a pulse (or a wave) in a string is found to be
proportional to the square root of tension in the string and
inversely proportional to the square root of mass per unit length
of the string. In order to keep the time measurements recordable,
it is suggested to make a judicious choice of the string and of
stretching it.



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
• What is the difference between a pulse and a wave?
• State the nature of pulse generated in a stretched string. Is it
transverse or longitudinal? Can a longitudinal pulse be generated
in a string or a thread (an amateur’s telephone!)?
• Why we prefer a longer string to perform the obove experiment?
• In this experiment, you must have noticed that while expressing
the result for the speed of a pulse in a string, it is not suggested
to take the average value of speeds determined with different
lengths of the string. Why?



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 


To determine the speed of a longitudinal pulse propagated through a
stretched slinky.


A pulse is a small disturbance in a medium that usually lasts for a short
time. The motion of a pulse can be observed on a long stretched string or
in a stretched slinky. A pulse can be classified by the direction in which it
disturbs the medium. A longitudinal pulse is a disturbance that causes
the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of motion of
the pulse. If the disturbance moves the particles of the medium
at the right angles to the direction of motion of the pulse then
the pulse is transverse.
A longitudinal pulse can be created in a metallic slinky if the slinky
is stretched out in a horizontal direction and the first few coils of the
slinky are compressed and then released horizontally. In such a case,
each individual coil of the medium (slinky) is set into vibrational
motion in directions parallel to the direction of motion of the pulse. A
traveling longitudinal pulse in a slinky is composed of compression,
where the parts of the medium (coils of the Slinky) are closer together

Fig. 43.1 : A longitudinal pulse in a metallic slinky



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than normal, or rarefaction, where the parts of the medium are farther
apart than normal. The compression or rarefaction (pulse) travel along
the length of the slinky. If the two ends of the stretched slinky are
rigidly fixed, the pulse may reflect back and forth a few times before
it dies out. The speed of the pulse in the metallic slinky can be
determined by measuring the time taken (T) by the pulse to travel
through a ‘known length’ (l) of the stretched slinky. The speed of the
pulse v is
l
v=
T


A long metal slinky, an inextensible thread, a meter scale (or a measuring
tape), and a stop-watch or a stop-clock.


1. Find the least count of the given stop-watch (or the slop clock).
2. Fix one end of the metal slinky to a rigid support such as a door
handle, or a window grill or a hook on a wall.
3. Firmly hold the other end of the slinky and stretch it to a known
length l1 (Fig. 43.2). Stretch the slinky until its coils are nearly 1 cm
apart. The slinky might sag in the middle due to its weight. However,
a little sagging may not effect the observations. Here the known
length of the slinky means the length of the stretched-sagged slinky

Fig. 43.2 : A stretched slinky of known length l

as shown in Fig. 43.2. For measuring this length use a measuring

tape along the sagged path of the stretched spring. You can
alternatively use a thread and meter scale to measure the length l of
the stretched slinky.



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4. What do you observe? The slinky is vibrating! Allow the slinky to

come to rest and stable position. For this the purpose ask your
friend to gently hold the stretched slinky somewhere in between for
some time. This will help the slinky to come to rest quickly.
5. At the end where you are holding the slinky, gather a few slinky coils
towards you. Quickly release them. Observe the direction in which
the pulse move and the direction in which the coils of the stretched

Fig. 43.3 : Formation of a longitudinal pulse in a slinky

slinky (the medium) move. Are the two motions in the same direction?
Is the pulse a transverse or longitudinal?
6. In this case the slinky coils do not move at right angles to the direction
of the disturbance. The coils rather bunch up in an area and the
bunch appears to move forward in the slinky. The slinky coils move
back and forth. Thus the pulse created is longitudinal (Fig. 43.3).

Fig. 43.4 (a-g) : A longitudinal pulse moves back and forth along
a slinky fixed at both ends before it dies out

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7. Again bring the slinky to rest as done in step 4.

8. Holding one end of the stretched slinky gather a few slinky coils
towards you and quickly release them. Ask one of your friends to be
ready to switch on the stop watch simultaneously as you release the
coils. Measure the time taken by the pulse to make n number of
journeys along the entire slinky between its two ends as shown in
Fig. 43.4(a–g). This could be possible if the created pulse moves back
and forth in the slinky a few times before it dies out. The starting and
closing of the stop watch or clock must be simultaneous with the
creation and its arrival at the end up to which the measurements are
to be taken (after n number of journeys). Care should also be taken in
counting the number of times the pulse travels through the entire
length l1 of the stretched slinky.
In fact your fingers holding one end of the stretched slinky can
also very well feel the pulse reflections reaching after completing two,
four, six, eight, … journeys in the slinky. Every time the pulse reaches
your fingers exerts a pressure on your fingers.
9. Repeat the experiment with different lengths of the same slinky, say
l2 and l3. For this you may change the position of your hand holding
one end of the slinky (or changing your position) while keeping the
other end fixed at the same place. Record your observations in the
table.


Least count of the stop watch or clock = _______ s.

Sl. Length of the Time taken by the Time taken by the Speed of the pulse
No. stretched pulse making n puse in making 1 in the slinky, v
slinky between journeys, t journey, T = t/n v = l/T
two ends, l
(m) (s) (s) (m s-1)

1. l1 = v1 =

2. l2 = v2 =

3. l3 = v3 =


The speed of the longitudinal pulse in the stretched slinky at different
lengths are given in the table above.
In this experiment you probably find different values of speed of a

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longitudinal pulse for different values of known lengths of the stretched

slinky. Discuss and state the factors which affect the speed of the pulse
with your friends and teacher.


• Do not over-stretch the slinky while performing this experiment. Over-
stretching of the slinky will destroy its spring nature.
• It must be ensured that no part of the stretched slinky touches
surface. Why? Any contact of coils of the stretched slinky with any
surface leads to the absorption of pulse energy in the medium in
contact and you may not be able to observe appreciable number of
pulse journeys in the slinky.
• While creating the longitudinal pulse in the slinky, the release of
compressed slinky coils must be gentle and quick. No force must be
applied on the slinky while releasing the gathered coils.
• The slinky should not have any knot or any kink at any point along
its length. The slinky coils must also not be entangled.
• At the time of creation of the pulse the counting must start from
zero and the stop watch should be started at the same time.
• The efforts should be made to keep the amplitude of the pulse
appreciably large so that it can get reflected sufficient number of
time at the fixed ends of the slinky. By trial one can find the amplitude
that produces best result.


• This experiment requires a good amount of practice and therefore
should be performed in a group of two or three students.
• In this experiment, a metallic slinky is suggested to use. However
this experiment may also be performed with a plastic slinky. But
you may not be able to observe (or feel) the persistence of the
pulse in the slinky for appreciable time.
• It is advised that this experiment be performed at a place where
external effects such as air, are minimal. (Switch off the fan while
performing the experiment.)
• The speed of a longitudinal pulse in the stretched slinky is
sufficiently high to measure the time taken by the pulse in a
single journey. It is therefore advised to take the number of
journeys for the measurement of time as large as possible.

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• If the set-up of this experiment has a larger amount of sagging in

the slinky, the slinky may be provided a few supports with the
help of light threads as shown in Fig. 43.5.

Fig. 43.5 : A large slinky is supported with several elastic threads


• In this experiment you are suggested to find the least count of
the stop-watch or the stop-clock. At the same time you are also
using a meter scale or a measuring tape. But you are not suggested
to find the least count of this length measuring equipment. Why?
• Why the release of gathered slinky coils be quick at the time of
creation of a longitudinal pulse in the slinky?
• How a longitudinal pulse travels in a slinky?
• Why should you take a long slinky in this experiment?
• What will happen if the middle portion of the stretched slinky
touches a surface while a longitudinal pulse is traveling through
it?
• While creating a longitudinal pulse in the slinky instead of quickly
and gently releasing the gathered coils, a student happens to
move his hand, holding one end of the slinky, sideways. What
kind of pulse will be created in the slinky? Explain your answer.

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• In this experiment you probably find different values of speed of

a longitudinal pulse for different values of lengths of the stretched
slinky. Why?
• Why do we measure time for larger number of pulse journeys in
the stretched slinky in this experiment?

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 


To study the reflection of sound.


Sound is reflected following the same laws as followed by light rays. That is,
the reflected ray lies in the same plane of incidence (in which the incident ray
and normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lies), and the
angle of reflection (∠r) is equal to the angle of incidence (∠i ).

Fig. 44.1 : Reflection of sound


Two identical plastic pipes of length approximately 1 m and of diameter
approximately 10 cm or less, a protractor (preferably of big size), a meter
scale, and a source of low-amplitude sound such as a table-clock.

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
1. In this experiment, you are required to hear very low-amplitude sound
waves, it is therefore important to have a peaceful atmosphere. To
hear such sounds clearly, it is further advised to put the fan off.
2. Using a chalk piece or a pencil, draw a line ON on the table (as shown
in Fig. 44.2) normal to the wall surface.
3. Now draw a line OC making an
∠i1 (say 30°) with the line ON.
4. Put one of the two plastic pipes (say
PQ) along this line OC such that the
end P of the plastic pipe is very close
to point O on the wall. Now the axis
of pipe PQ lies over the line OC (Fig.
44.2).
5. Now put the second plastic pipe RS
on the table, keeping its end R
towards the wall on the other side
of the normal ON. Mark the position
of end R on the table.
6. Keep the table-clock close to the
open end Q of pipe PQ.
7. Bring your ear close to the end S of
pipe RS. Try to hear the sound of
the table-clock through this pipe.
Do you hear any sound? Keeping Fig. 44.2 : The experimental set-up
the position of the end R, adjust the
position of pipe RS
on the table to hear the sound of the table-clock. Mark the position of
end S of the pipe RS where you hear the maximum sound.
8. Draw a line OD joining the point O on the wall, the point representing
the position of end R, and the point representing the position of end
S.
9. Measure ∠NOD. This is the angle of reflection (say ∠r1) for angle of
incidence ∠i1. Record observations.
10. Keeping the position of the end R fixed, lift the end S of pipe RS
vertically to a small height. Are you able to hear the sound of the
table-clock through the pipe RS? If yes, lift end S pipe vertically to
some more height. Do you still hear any sound? You will observe that
on raising the height of end S, the sound of the table-clock either
weakens or completely diminishes.
11. Repeat step 2 onwards for three different values of angle of incidence
∠i and find the corresponding values of angle of reflection ∠r.

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12. You might have drawn several lines on the table. As courtesy to the
students coming to perform this experiment next, it is advised to
remove all the lines drawn on the table.


Sl. No. Angle of incidence, ∠i Angle of reflection, ∠r ∠i ∼ ∠r
(°) (°) (°)

1.
2.
3.
4.


1. The angle of reflection is equal to angle of incidence in all cases.
2. When the pipe through which the sound is heard, is lifted vertically
the sound of the table-clock is either weakened or diminishes
completely. It shows that the reflected ray lies in the same plane of
incidence.
These observations verify that the sound reflects at the surface of a
solid and follows the same laws of reflection as in case of light. In
case if your observations are different from what are expected, discuss
the reasons.


• It is obvious that to hear a clear reflected sound, the incident sound
must be clear and smooth.
• When sound falls on any surface, it is not only reflected but a part of it
is also absorbed by the surface of the wall. Hence the sound that you
hear through the pipe depends on the nature of the wall. For a smooth
reflecting wall, the reflection will be more. It is thus important to have
a smooth reflecting surface.
• If we take a larger-amplitude sound source, then you may hear the
sound of the source directly (that is the waves coming reaching directly
to your ear and not after traveling through pipe QP, reflection from the
wall, and through the pipe RS). It is therefore important to have low-
amplitude sound source. And for the reasons mentioned here, it is
advised to close your other ear while taking observations.
• In this experiment it is assumed that the table-clock produces a ray
of sound that is incident on the wall along the path QPO and reflected

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along the path ORSD (Fig. P44.2). That is, the sound source is
directional. In reality it is not so. Because of unwanted sound, it is
advised to take the pipes of larger length and smaller diameter.
• Measurements of angles should be done taking the axis of the pipes as
incident and reflected rays. Take utmost care and precaution in placing
the two pipes and in drawing the lines OC and OD.
• Since you are dealing with relatively larger dimensions, it is suggested
to use a bigger protractor to measure angles


• In this experiment, two identical plastic pipes are recommended
to use. In case plastic pipes are not available, pipes can be
prepared using chart papers or news papers.
• In order to absorb all unwanted sound rays (as explained in point
4 in the Precautions and Sources of Errors), the inner surfaces of
the two pipes may be painted black and kept rough. In case of
plastic pipes, a layer of news papers may be inserted into these
pipes. A rough paper is a good absorber of sound. This way the
sound reaching to the ear of an observer will become clear and
distinct.
• In place of a table-clock, a mobile phone may also be used in its
vibratory mode. Some other sources of low-amplitude sound may
also be explored and used.
• A cardboard (or a wooden partition) along the normal ON may
help to avoid direct sound from the source.


• While performing this experiment why do we prefer to use pipes
of larger length but of smaller diameter?
• How the experiment of reflection of sound is different from the
experiment on laws of reflection of light?
• Which sheet will you choose as sound reflecting surface for this
experiment: (a) a smooth wooden board, or (b) a thermo-cole sheet.
Why?
• Suppose the whole experimental set up of this experiment is
submerged in water. What changes do you expect in observations?
• Why do we require a low-amplitude sound source in this
experiment?
• What alterations can be made in the pipes to make the reflected
sound more distinct and clear?

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