Chemical Properties

- The chemical properties of an element depend on the arrangement in its atoms.

Find that the elements of the same group have very similar properties due to their
similarity in outermost electrons.
-> Valence electrons decide the reactivity of the element because they are
involved in bonding (valence electrons)

Group 0: Noble Gases

- Least reactive elements

- Have full valence shell, therefore do not need to react
- Are mono atomic (single atoms)
- Are colourless gases
- Have highest ionization energies and have a complete and stable octet.
All other atoms will react in order to achieve this stable octet, lose or gain electrons
if they are near Noble Gases.
- Groups 1-3 will lose electrons
- Groups 5-7 will gain electrons

Group 1: Alkali Metals

- Alkali metals are very reactive due to the fact they have only one electron in their
valence shell.
This electron is easily lost and is a major reason why they are so reactive
- Properties:
- Very reactive
- Good conductors
- Low densities
- Quite malleable with low melting points
- Form ionic compounds with non metals
- Form 1+ ions
-They react readily with reactive non metals such as O, Cl, Br, I to form ionic
compounds
2Na(s) + Cl2 (g)-> 2NaCl (s)
2K (s) + Br2 (g) -> 2KBr (s)
2Cs (s) + I2 (g) -> 2CsI (s)

- While going down a group:

Increase in atomic and ionic radius

------------------------------------------>
Decrease in ionization energy
------------------------------------------>
Decrease in electronegativity
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-Reactions with Water:
- Metals are called ‘alkali metals’ because they form alkaline (basic) solution
in water
- As you go down the group, reactivity increases:
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs < Fr
Increase Reactivity
------------------------------------------>

Group 7: Halogens

- These exist as diatonic molecules (X2)

-They are coloured
- They have a gradual change from gas to solid as you go down a group
- Very reactive, but reactivity decreases down the group
- Form ionic compounds with metals and covalent compounds with non metals

- Halogens react with Group 1 metals to produce ionic halides Group 1 metals lose
want to lose and electron and halides want to gain and electron.
The most vigorous reactions are between the elements furthest apart from each
other
(ie. Fr and F)
-Halogens form insoluble salts with silver
Different silver complexes make different coloured precipitates.
Ag ⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)-> AgCl (s) *white that darkens in lights
Ag ⁺(aq) + Br⁻(aq)-> AgBr (s) * cream coloured
Ag ⁺(aq) + I⁻(aq)-> AgI (s) *pale yellow

-Displacement reactions: (S.R. reactions)

- Reactivity decrease down group 7
F2 > Cl2 >Br2 >I2

Consider:
2 KBr (aq) + Cl2 (aq) -> 2KCl (aq) + Br2 (aq)
2 Br ⁻ + Cl2 -> 2Cl⁻+ Br2

Transition metals: the d block

- Used frequently in our society

- Examples:
- Iron and steel (an alloy of mostly iron) : used for strength -> buildings,
bridges
- Copper: conductive and low reactivity -> electrical wire, water pipes
- Gold, Silver: jewellery
-First row transition metals:
- Periodic trends we have looked at less dramatic through d-block (“lull”)
- Have similar physical and chemical properties
- Smaller range in atomic radii through d-block
- Due to small increase in Zeff since electrons are being added to an inner
subshell (reacall: 3d ends up lower in energy than 4s, therefore electrons are added
to core)
-also accounts for small change in ionization energy, since 4s electrons are
removed first for all 3d elements

-Physical properties:
- high electrical and thermal conductivity
- high melting points
- malleable
- high tensile strength (strong)
- ductile

-These properties are explained by the strong metallic bonding in these elements
-Since the 4s and 3d electrons are close in energy, they are all involved in bonding
-The electrons of metal atoms can move freely from one atom to the next
-> delocalized electrons
-Often described as a “sea of electrons”
-This creates very strong bonds and accounts for high conductivity

-Chemical properties:
- are multivalent
- form a variety of complex ions
ex) [Cu(H2O)4] 2⁺ or [Cu(NH3)4]2⁺
- H2O and NH3 are neutral molecules,
ion has overall charge of 2+ from Cu
- form coloured compounds
- can act as catalysts

Exceptions: Scandium and Zinc * IB *

- are monovalent (Sc3⁺,Zn2⁺)

- doesn’t form coloured solutions
-has to do with electron configurations
- Sc -> Sc3⁺+ 3e⁻
[Ar] 4s23d1 -> [Ar]
- Zn -> Zn2⁺+ 2e⁻
[Ar]4s23d10 -> [Ar] 3d10
- due to lack of unpaired d electrons (partially filled d-shells)

-Transition Metals are multivalent

- most T.M. are multivalent due to small increase in successive IEs

ex) Ca2⁺is the only type of ion Ca forms -> stability
-3rd IE is too high, don’t get Ca3⁺forming
-because of huge gap between energy of 4s and 3p orbital’s
Ca -> Ca2⁺+ 2e⁻
[Ar]4s2 -> [Ar]
- Titanium can form 2+, 3+, and 4+ ions
- it has 3 different oxidation states
- because 3d and 4s electrons are close in energy
Ti -> Ti2⁺-> Ti3⁺-> Ti4⁺
[Ar]4s23d2 -> [Ar]3d2 -> [Ar]3d1 -> [Ar]
- no Ti5⁺ ,jump in IB is too big to remove 3p e⁻

Possible Oxidation States *know larger bold *

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
1+
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
5+ 5+ 5+ 5+ 5+
6+ 6+ 6+
7+

- 3+ oxidation state most stable for: Sc -> Cr

- 2+ oxidation state most stable for: Mn -> Zn (increase Zeff makes 3+ harder)
- oxidation states above 3+ have covalent character
Periodic Trends-Physical Properties
The Periodic Law:
-The properties of the elements repeat periodically when they are arranged in order
of increasing atomic number

A “period”: the rows of the periodic table

A “group” : the columns of the periodic table

Effective nuclear charge:

Nuclear charge:
-given by the atomic number
-increases by 1 as you go across the periodic table

Effective nuclear charge (Z effective):

-The charge “felt” by outer electrons
-less than full nuclear charge

The outer electrons, which determine many of the physical and chemical properties
of the atom, experienced a lessened attraction to the nucleus as they are shielded by
the inner electrons
-Effective nuclear charge increases across the table
(nuclear charge increases, but the number of shielding electrons do not
change)

Na/ [Ne] 3s3 Al/ [Ne] 3s2p1

Mg/ [Ne]3s2 Si/ [Ne] 3s2p2

-As you go down a group, effective nuclear charge is offset by increased

number of inner electrons.
The effective charge is felt by outer electrons down a group remains about
the same

1. Atomic Radius

-The atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outer edge of the atom

Atomic radius (size) decreases across a period

- Number of protons increases across a period
- The outer electron feels increased attraction to nucleus and move closer

Atomic radius (size) increases down a group

- The number of occupied shells increases
Li- [He] 2s1 Rb- [Kr] 5s1
Na- [Ne] 3s1 Cs- [Xe] 6s1
K- [Ar] 4s1

2. Ionic Radius

-In general, the trend for ionic radii is the same as for atomic radii
-decreases across a period

5 Important Trends:
i) Positive ions smaller than their parent atom
ii) Negative ions larger than their parent atom
iii) Ionic radii decreases from groups 1-> 4 for positive ions
Na⁺, Mg2⁺, Al3⁺, Si4⁺all have same electron configuration
Decreased radii is due to increase effective nuclear charge
iv) Ionic radii decreases from group 4-7 for negative ions
v) Ionic radii increases down a group (more shells being filled)

3. Ionization Energy (IE)

-Energy needed to remove an electron from atom

Ionization energy increases across a period

-increase in effective nuclear charge across a period results in increased attraction of
electron to nucleus
*harder to remove electron
(due to change of Z effective)

Ionization energy decreases down a group

-the electron removed is from shell furthest away from nucleus
since effective nuclear charge remains about the same down a group, the decrease in
IE is due to distance from nucleus
(distance from nucleus and bigger atom)

4. Electronegativity (EN)

-A measure of the ability to attract electron in a covalent bond

Trend is the same for ionization energy

-Increase in nuclear charge across period results in increased attraction to nucleus
-Going down a group, bond electrons are furthest from nucleus, therefore reduced
reaction
Summary:

Down a Group: Across a Period:

Radius increases Radius decreases

--------------------------------> --------------------------------->

EN decreases IE increases
---------------------------------> --------------------------------->

IE decreases EN increases
---------------------------------> --------------------------------->

5. Melting Points

-Comparison between the melting points of different elements is complex because of

the different bonding in each element
-however the melting points of Group 1 & 7 elements can be explained, since they
bond in similar ways

Group 1:
Element: Melting Point (K):
-Melting point down Group 1 decreases
Li 454 -The bonding in these elements is called ‘metallic
Na 371 bonding’
K 337 -The atoms are held together by the attraction
Rb 312 between the delocalized valence electrons & the
Cs 302 positively charged nuclei
-The attraction decreases as the atoms get larger
Down a Group: Melting points decreases

Group 7:
Element: Melting Point (K): -Melting point down Group 7 increases
F2 (g) 54 -These elements exist as molecules and are held
Cl2 (g) 172 together by ‘Van der Waals Forces’
Br2 (l) 266 -a type of intermolecular force
I2 (s) 387 - has to do with the total number of electrons in the
At2 (s) 575 molecule (more electrons = greater attraction)
Down a Group: Melting points increases