ZOOLOGY

SCIENCE
• comes from a the Latin word, scientia, meaning knowledge.
• it is any systematic, knowledge-based or prescriptive practice capable of resulting in prediction.
• it is a system of acquiring information utilizing the scientific method in order to produce an organized body of
knowledge.
• Is the description of the world based on measurable facts (data) and the formulation of testable explanation of
how the world works.
ZOOLOGY
• Comes from the Greek word, zoon which means animals and logos which means study of.
• Scientific study of animals, their anatomy, physiology, evolution, reproduction, interactions, including
embryology and heredity, among others.

The Scientific Method

-first formally stated by Sir Francis Bacon, a 17th century philosopher.

Hypothesis – a tentative explanation to a specific question with minimal verification

Theory – general principle explaining a range of questions based on verifiable data (facts), experimental proofs and
collaborative evidence and that has a predictive value.
- generally accepted by the scientific community
Scientific Law – a theory (general principle) that has demonstrated its capacity to repeatedly explains and accurately
predicts numerous phenomena.
- universally accepted by the scientific community

Characteristics of Living Things

• Chemical Uniqueness
Living systems demonstrate a unique and complex molecular organization
• 4 major biological macromolecules
• Proteins
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids
• Cellular Composition
All living things are made up of cells. Some are unicellular and some are multicellular.
a. Unicellular Organisms
- Entire organism is made up of one single cell
- Bacteria and protists

b. Multicellular Organisms

- The organism is made up of many cells

- Cells have specialized functions within the organism
• Response to Stimuli
• Growth and development
Growth means to get bigger in size
DEVELOPMENT – Describes the characteristic changes that an organism undergoes to its adult form.
• Nutrition
Anabolism - The process of building up complex substances from simpler substances.
Catabolism - The process of breaking down complex substances into simpler substances to release
energy.
Anabolism + Catabolism = metabolism
• Release of Energy
• Adaptation - A process that enables organisms to become better suited to their environment
• Homeostasis

The Chemistry of Life

Matter - Anything that occupies space and has mass.
 • States of Matter
– Solid – definite shape and volume
– Liquid – variable shape and volume
– Gas – variable shape and volume
• Elements
– are stable substances that cannot be broken into anything simpler.
– is a chemical substance which consists of only a single type of atoms, hence they are pure.
– There are about 92 naturally occurring elements and 25 artificial ones.
• Atom
– defined as the smallest particle of matter or the smallest sample of an element.
– There are 109 types of atom.
Structure of an Atom
1. Nucleus – (center)
o Proton- positive charge
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the type of the element.
o Neutron – neutral charge
The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom determines the atom’s physical stability.
o Electron – orbiting around the nucleus
- negatively charge

• Compound
– are combination of two or more elements.
– either held together by ionic and covalent bond.
– Have unique and defined chemical structure
– Contain fixed ratio of atom
• Isotopes
– An element that differ in the number of neutrons in the nucleus
– Same number of protons but different number of neutrons.
• Ions
• is formed when electrons are gained or lost by an atom
• 2 types:
– Cations – positively charged ion (losses electron)
– Anion – negatively charged ion (gains electron)
 Examples of cations: Sodium ion (Na+), Calcium ion (Ca++)
 Examples of anions: Chloride ion (Cl-), Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
Molecular bonds
• The way that connects elements with one another
• 2 types:
– intermolecular bonds (Hydrogen bonds)
– Intramolecular bond (covalent and ionic)
• Ionic Bond
– Complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another
• Covalent Bond
– Common type of bond where there is sharing of two or more electrons from one atom to another
 Single Covalent Bond - when only one pair of electrons is shared between atoms.
  Double Covalent Bonds (double bond) - where two pairs of electrons are shared between the
atoms rather than just one pair.

• Hydrogen Bond
– a bond between the negative pole of a polar molecule (a covalently bonded molecule where the
electrons are not equally shared between atoms) and the slight positive charge on a hydrogen atom that
participates in another polar molecule.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF THE CELL
1. Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose and galactose

Disaccharides : maltose, sucrose and lactose

Maltose – glucose + glucose
Sucrose – glucose + fructose
Lactose – glucose + galactose

hydrolysis

dehydration
MALTOSE

 These sugars can be broken down first into simple sugars so that it will be absorbed by the body.
 Hydrolysis – is a reaction involving the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water.
 Dehydration - a chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecule.

The Cell
What are cells?
- Are the functional units of life in which all of the chemical reactions necessary for the maintenance and
production of life takes place.
- They are the smallest independent units of life.
Why are most cells small?
Reasons:
 The ratio of the volume of the cell’s nucleus to the volume of its cytoplasm must not be so small that the
nucleus, the cells major control center, cannot control the cytoplasm.
 As the radius of the cell lengthens, cell volume increases more rapidly than cell surface area.
Types of Cells
A. Prokaryotic cells
 Lack nucleus and other membrane bound organelles
 Includes bacteria and blue-green algae
B. Eukaryotic Cells
 Have cells with a membrane – bound nucleus containing DNA.
  Contains many other structures called “organelles” (little organs) that perform a specific function.
 All eukaryotic cells have three basic parts:
 The plasma membrane – the outer boundary of the cell.
 Cytoplasm – the portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
 Nucleus – the cell control center.

The Ultrastructure of the Cell

The cell membrane
Two models of the cell membrane
 Classical Model (Danielli-Davson Model)
- Characterize the cell membrane as a phospholipid bilayer sandwiched by a coat of protein on
each surface.
 Fluid mosaic model
- The phospholipids have one polar and one non-polar end.
- Cholesterol is present in the plasma membrane and organelle membrane of the eukaryotic cells.
- The membrane protein are individual molecules attached to the inner and outer membrane
surface (peripheral proteins) or embedded in it (intrinsic proteins)
- Carbohydrates + proteins = glycoproteins,
- Carbohydrates + lipids = glycolipids
glycocaLyx
The external coating of the cell membrane and is made up of glycoproteins and polysaccharides.
Functions:
 Provides protection
 Enables cell –to-cell recognition
 contains receptor sites for enzymes and hormones
 Allows the cell to respond to changes in electrical potentials
 act as a filtration barrier
Major Components of cell membrane

• A phospholipid bilayer
• Cholesterol
• Membrane proteins
• Glycocalyx
•
Functions of the cell membrane
 Regulates material moving into and out of the cell, and from one part of the cell to another.
 Acts as a semi-permeable membrane, allowing only some substances to enter or leave the cell. (selective
permeability)
 Separate the inside of the cell from the outside.
 Separate various organelles within the cell
 Provides a large surface area on which specific chemical reactions can occur
 Sites of receptors containing specific cell identification markers that differentiate one type from another.
Movement across cell membranes
Different types of movement across plasma membrane

 Simple Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Osmosis
 Filtration
 Active Transport
 Bulk Transport

1. Simple Diffusion
 Molecules move “down” a concentration gradient.
 Molecules spread out randomly from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration until they
are distributed evenly in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
 No cell energy is needed
2. Facilitated diffusion
 Carrier (transport) proteins in a plasma membrane temporarily bind with molecules and help them pass across
the membrane.
 Other proteins form channels through which molecules move across the membrane
3. osmosis
 Water molecules diffuse across selectively permeable membranes from areas of higher concentration to areas
of lower concentration
Aquaporins
 Specialized water channels that facilitates the flow of water in living cells.
Two general classes:
 Those that are specific only for water
 Those that allow hydrophilic molecules (eg. Urea, glycerol) to cross the membrane
Tonicity

 Refers to the relative concentration of solutes in the water inside and outside the cell.
Isotonic Solution
 (Gr. isos – equal + tonus, tension)
 The solute concentration is the same inside and outside a cell.
 The concentration of water molecules is also the same inside and outside cell.
Hypertonic solution
 Gr. hyper, above
 The solute concentration is higher outside the cell than the inside.
 Concentration of water molecules inside the cell is higher than the outside, water moves out of the cell,
which shrinks the cell.
 Example: crenation of the red blood cell.
Hypotonic solution
 Gr. hypo, under
 The solute concentration is lower outside the cell than the inside.
 The concentration of water molecules outside the cell is higher than the inside.
4. Filtration
- A process that forces small molecules across selectively permeable membranes with the aid of hydrostatic
(water or blood) pressure
5. Active transport
 Process that moves molecules across a selectively permeable membrane against a concentration gradient, - that
is, from an area of lower concentration to one of higher concentration.
 This movement against the concentration gradient requires ATP energy.
 Types:
o Uniport – transport single type of molecule/ion
o Symport – transport two molecules/ion in the same direction
o Antiport – transport of two molecules/ion in the opposite direction
6. Bulk transport
 Process used by large molecules to pass through the plasma membrane.
 “bulk” used because many molecules moved at the same time.
A. endocytosis
 The bulk movement of material into a cell by the formation of a vesicle.
 Three forms:
 Pinocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Pinocytosis
- non-specific uptake of small droplets of extracellular fluid
 Phagocytosis
- The plasma membrane forms a vesicle around a solid particle or other cell and draws them into the
cell.
Receptor- mediated transport
- Involves a specific receptor protein on the plasma membrane that recognizes an extracellular
molecule and binds with it.
B. Exocytosis
 The bulk movement of material out of the cell.
 A vesicle (with particles) fuses with plasma membrane and expels particles or fluids from the cell across the
plasma membrane