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4 Evolution | BioNinja

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5.4 Evolution

5.4.1 Define evolution

Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population

5.4.2 Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated
animals and homologous structures

Something provides evidence for evolution when it demonstrates a change in characteristics from an
ancestral form

The Fossil Record

A fossil is the preserved remains or traces of any organism from the remote past

Fossil evidence may be either:

Direct (body fossils): Bones, teeth, shells, leaves, etc.

Indirect (trace fossils): Footprints, tooth marks, tracks, burrows, etc.
Types of Fossils

The totality of fossils (both discovered and undiscovered) is known as the fossil record

The fossil record reveals that, over time, changes have occurred in features of organisms living on the
planet (evolution)
Moreover, different kinds of organisms do not occur randomly but are found in rocks of particular ages in
a consistent order (law of fossil succession)
This suggests that changes to an ancestral species was likely responsible for the appearance of
subsequent species (speciation via evolution)

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Furthermore, the occurrence of

transitional fossils demonstrate the
intermediary forms that occurred over the
evolutionary pathway taken within a single
genus
Law of Fossil Succession

While fossils may provide clues regarding

evolutionary processes and ancestral
relationships, it is important to realise that the
fossil record is incomplete

Fossilization requires a unusual

combination of specific circumstances to
occur, meaning there are many gaps in
the fossil record
Only the hard parts of an organism are
preserved and often only fragments of
fossilized remains are discovered
Fossilization

Selective Breeding

Selective breeding of domesticated animals is an

example of artificial selection, which occurs when
man directly intervenes in the breeding of animals
to produce desired traits in offspring

As a result of many generations of selective

breeding, domesticated breeds can show
significant variation compared to the wild
counterparts, demonstrating evolutionary changes
in a much shorter time frame than might have
occurred naturally

Examples of selective breeding include:

Breeding horses for speed (race horses) versus strength and endurance (draft horses)
Breeding dogs for herding (sheepdogs), hunting (beagles) or racing (greyhounds)
Breeding cattle for increased meat production or milk
Breeding zebras in an attempt to retrieve the colouration gene from the extinct Quagga

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Homologous Structures

Comparative anatomy of groups of animals or plants shows certain structural features are basically
similar, implying a common ancestry
Homologous structures are those that are similar in shape in different types of organisms despite being
used in different ways
An example is the pentadactyl limb structure in vertebrates, whereby many animals show a common
bone composition, despite the limb being used for different forms of locomotion (e.g. whale fin for
swimming, bat wing for flying, human hand for manipulating tools, horse hoof for galloping, etc.)
This illustrates adaptive radiation (divergent evolution) as a similar basic plan has been adapted to suit
various environmental niches
The more similar the homologous structures between two species are, the more closely related they are
likely to be

Homologous Structures (Pentadactyl Limb)

5.4.3 State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support

The Malthusian dilemma states that populations tend to multiply geometrically, while food sources
multiply arithmetically
Hence populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support

5.4.4 Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival

When there is an abundance of resources, a population can achieve a J-curve maximum growth rate
(biotic potential)

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However, with more offspring there will be less

resources available to other members of the
population (environmental resistance)
This will lead to competition for available
resources and a struggle for survival
Intraspecific competition occurs when
members of the same species compete for
the same resources in an ecosystem (e.g.
light, food, water)
It is density dependent, as the available
resources must be shared among members of
the species
Competition that occurs between different
species for resources is interspecific
The result of this competition will be an increase in the mortality rate, leading to an S-curve growth rate
as the population approaches the carrying capacity (K)

5.4.5 State that members of a species show variation

Members of a species show variation, which can manifest itself in one of two forms:

Discontinuous variation: A type of variation usually controlled by a single gene, which leads to distinct
classes (e.g. ABO blood group in humans)
Continuous variation: A type of variation controlled by many genes, which leads to a range of
characteristics (e.g. skin pigmentation in humans)

There are three primary sources of variation within a given population

Gene mutations (a permanent change to the genetic composition of an individual)

Gene flow (the movement of genes from one population to another via immigration and emigration)
Sexual reproduction (the combination of genetic materials from two parental sources)

5.4.6 Explain how reproduction promotes variation within a species

There are three primary ways by which sexual reproduction promotes variation within a species:

Independent Assortment

During metaphase I, when homologous chromosomes line up at the equator, the paired chromosomes
can randomly arrange themselves in one of two orientations (paternal left / maternal right OR maternal
left / paternal right)

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When the chromosomes separate in anaphase I, the final gametes will differ depending on whether they
got the maternal or paternal chromosome
Independent assortment of chromosomes creates 2n different gamete combinations (n = haploid number
of chromosomes)

Crossing Over

During prophase I, when homologous chromosomes pair up as bivalents, genetic information can be
exchanged between non-sister chromatids
The further apart two genes are on a chromosome, the more likely they are to recombine
Crossing over greatly increases the number of potential gamete variations by creating new genetic
combinations

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Random Fertilisation

Fertilisation results from the fusion of gametes from a paternal and maternal source, resulting in
offspring that have a combination of paternal and maternal traits
Because fertilisation is random, offspring will receive different combinations of traits every time, resulting
in near infinite genetic variability

5.4.7 Explain how natural selection leads to evolution

The theory of natural selection was postulated by Charles Darwin (and also independently by Alfred
Wallace) who described it as 'survival of the fittest'

There is genetic variation within a population (which can be inherited)

There is competition for survival (populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can
support)
Environmental selective pressures lead to differential reproduction
Organisms with beneficial adaptations will be more suited to their environment and more likely to survive
to reproduce and pass on their genes
Over generations there will be a change in allele frequency within a population (evolution)

5.4.8 Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic
resistance in bacteria

Example 1: Staphylococcus aureus (associated with a variety of conditions, including skin and lung
infections)

Variation: Antibiotic resistance (some strains have a drug-resistant gene ; other strains do not)

Environmental change: Exposure to antibiotic (methicillin)

Response: Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) die, whereas methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)

survive and can pass on their genes

Evolution: Over time, the frequency of antibiotic resistance in the population increases (drug-resistant
gene can also be transferred by conjugation)

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Example 2: Peppered Moth (Biston betularia)

Variation: Colouration (some moth have a light colour, while others are a darker melanic colour)

Environmental change: Pollution from industrial activities caused trees to blacken with soot during the
Industrial Revolution

Response: Light coloured moths died from predation, whereas melanic moths were camouflaged and
survived to pass on their genes

Evolution: Over time, the frequency of the melanic form increased (with improved industrial practices, the
lighter variant has become more common)

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