Larry Brown

Tom Holme

Chapter 12
Chemical Equilibrium

Jacqueline Bennett • SUNY Oneonta

www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown
Chapter Objectives

• List chemical reactions important in the production and

weathering of concrete.

• Explain that equilibrium is dynamic, and that at equilibrium the

forward and backward reaction rates are equal.

• Write the equilibrium constant expression for any reversible

reaction.

• Calculate equilibrium constants from experimental data.

2
Chapter Objectives

• Calculate equilibrium composition from initial data and the

numerical value of the equilibrium constant.

• Calculate molar solubility from Ksp, or vice versa.

• Write equilibrium constants for the dissociation of weak acids

and weak bases and use them to calculate pH or the degree
of ionization.

• Use Le Châtelier’s principle to explain the response of an

equilibrium system to an applied stress.

3
Chapter Objectives

• Calculate the new equilibrium composition of a system after

an applied stress.

• Explain the importance of both kinetic and equilibrium

considerations in the design of an industrial chemical process.

4
Concrete Production and Weathering

• Traditionally, concrete has been composed of cement, water,

and aggregate.

• Modern concrete includes admixtures, which are additives

that manipulate concrete into having desired properties.

• Most concrete uses Portland cement, which begins with the

production of CaO from limestone.
CaCO3 ® CaO + CO2

• This process accounts for an estimated 5% of CO2

released into the atmosphere annually.
5
Concrete Production and Weathering

• Cement also includes oxides of silicon and aluminum.

• The combination is hydrated (water is added) when concrete is

mixed. Three representative hydration reactions:

3CaO · Al2O3 + 6H2O ® Ca 3Al2 (OH)12

2CaO · SiO2 + x H2O ® Ca 2SiO4 · x H2O

3CaO + SiO2 + (x + 1)H2O ® Ca 2SiO4 · xH2O + Ca(OH)2

• These reactions release heat from net formation of bonds.

6
Concrete Production and Weathering

Energy liberated from concrete hydration as a function of time.

7
Concrete Production and Weathering

• The use of fly ash to partially replace Portland cement has

become common recently.

• Fly ash is generated when coal is burned in power plants.

Minerals present in the coal react with oxygen at high
temperatures to produce fly ash.

• The average composition of fly ash is similar to Portland

cement with the main components being SiO2, Al2O3,
Fe2O3, and CaO.

• Fly ash typically consists of small spherical particles and

can improve the strength of concrete.

8
Concrete Production and Weathering

• Uses of admixtures

• Water reducers: lower the amount of water in the concrete

without affecting the ability to work with it.

• Air entraining admixtures: improve concrete durability by

stabilizing small air bubbles within the cement portion of
concrete, particularly when exposed to freeze-thaw cycles.

• Waterproofers: combat effects of moisture.

• Accelerators or retardants: affect the speed of the

hardening process.
9
Concrete Production and Weathering

• Uses for admixtures and common chemicals that provide desired

characteristics in concrete. 10
Concrete Production and Weathering

• Weathering of concrete

• Freeze-thaw cycles

• Aging of concrete through carbonation, where CO2 from the air

diffuses into the concrete.

® Ca 2 + (aq) + 2OH – (aq)

Ca(OH)2 (s) ¾¾
Ca 2 + (aq) + 2OH – (aq) + CO2 (g) ¾¾
® CaCO 3 (s) + H 2O( )

• Interior of concrete appears pink with phenolphthalein

indicator, which is pink under basic conditions.
• The exterior of concrete will not turn pink because carbon
dioxide from air reacts with hydroxide to neutralize it.
11
Chemical Equilibrium

• For complex chemical reactions, there are several variables

that must be considered.

• The nature of the reactants, including the equilibrium that

ultimately dictates the efficiency of the reaction, is the first
issue that must be considered.

• Water in an open system, such as a glass, will slowly

evaporate, decreasing the amount of liquid water over time.

• Water in a closed system, such as a covered glass, will

establish a dynamic equilibrium, where the amount of liquid
water present does not decrease over time.

12
Forward and Reverse Reactions

• This photo sequence shows the water level in two glasses

over the course of 17 days. The glass on the left is covered.

13
Forward and Reverse Reactions

• The equilibrium
between liquid and
vapor in a closed
container is governed
by the kinetics of
evaporation and
condensation.

• In (c), the two rates

are equal.

14
Forward and Reverse Reactions

• At the start of a chemical reaction, the reactant concentrations

decrease over time, with a corresponding decrease in rate of the
forward reaction.

• As the reactants are being consumed, the product concentration

increases, with a corresponding increase in the rate of the reverse
reaction.

• When the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction, the reaction has reached equilibrium.
• Reactants form products at the same rate the products reform
the reactants.
• The concentrations of reactants and products do not change
over time at equilibrium.

15
Forward and Reverse Reactions

• A chemical system reaches equilibrium when the rate of the forward

reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.
• The concentration of products and reactants does not change at
equilibrium. 16
Mathematical Relationships

• For any reaction involving reactants, R, and products, P, the

chemical reaction is written at equilibrium with a double arrow.

R P
• Rate laws for the forward and reverse reaction can be written.

Rate for = kfor [R]

Rate rev = krev [P]
17
Mathematical Relationships

• At equilibrium Ratefor = Raterev.

• Therefore

kfor [R]eq = krev [P]eq

• or

kfor [P]eq
=
krev [R]eq

18
Mathematical Relationships

kfor [P]eq
=
krev [R]eq

• Since both kfor and krev are constants, and as long as

temperature does not change, the left hand side of the
equation is a constant.

• This means at a given temperature, the ratio [P]eq/[R]eq is also

a constant.

19
Equilibrium Constants

• The amounts of reactants and products are determined using

a mathematical model to describe equilibrium.

• A relationship exists between reactant and product

concentrations at equilibrium (the ratio of products to
reactants is constant at a given temperature).

• This relationship is often called the law of mass action.

20
The Equilibrium (Mass Action) Expression

• For the general chemical equation

a A+b B c C+d D
• A ratio of concentrations, whether or not at equilibrium, can
be defined, where Q is the reaction quotient.
[C]c [D]d
Q= a b
[A] [B]
• At equilibrium, Q = K, the equilibrium constant, and this ratio
becomes the equilibrium expression.
[C]ceq [D]deq
K=
[A]aeq [B]beq 21
Example Problem 12.1

• Write the equilibrium expression for this reaction.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)

22
Gas Phase Equilibria: KP vs. KC

• Equilibrium expressions can be written for gas phase

reactions using partial pressures.
• Kp is the equilibrium constant in terms of partial pressures.

a A(g) + b B(g) c C(g) + d D(g)

c d
(P ) (P )
C eq D eq
KP = a b
(P ) (P )
A eq B eq

23
Gas Phase Equilibria: KP vs. KC

• The values of Kc and Kp are not necessarily equal. The

relationship between Kc and Kp is:

KP = KC ´ RT
(Dngas )

• Δngas is moles of product gas minus the moles of reactant

gas.
• Only when Δngas = 0 does KP = KC.
• All equilibrium constants in this text are based on molar
concentrations. The subscript “c” will not be used.

24
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria

• Homogeneous equilibria - the reactants and products are in

the same phase, either gaseous or aqueous.

• Heterogeneous equilibria - the reactants and products are in

different phases.

• Heterogeneous equilibrium expressions do not contain

terms for solids and liquids.

• The concentration of a solid or liquid does not change

because these substances are pure.

25
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria

• For the decomposition reaction of CaCO3(s) forming CaO(s)

and CO2(g), the equilibrium constant only depends on the
CO2 concentration because CaCO3 and CaO are solids.
26
Example Problem 12.2

• Calcium hydroxide will precipitate from solution by the

following equilibrium:

Ca 2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq) Ca(OH)2 (s)

• Write the equilibrium expression for this reaction.

27
Numerical Importance of the Equilibrium Expression

• The size of the equilibrium constant indicates the direction a

chemical reaction will likely proceed.

[products]
K=
[reactants]
• For large values of K (K >> 1) products are favored.

• For small values of K (K << 1) reactants are favored.

28
Example Problem 12.3

• In Example Problem 12.2, we saw that hydroxide ions

precipitate with calcium. Magnesium ions show similar
behavior. The two pertinent equilibria are:

Ca 2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq) Ca(OH)2 (s) K = 1.3 ´ 10 5

Mg 2+ (aq) + 2OH – (aq) Mg(OH)2 (s) K = 6.7 ´ 1011

• Which ion is more likely to precipitate hydroxide from a

solution, assuming roughly equal concentrations of calcium
and magnesium ions?

29
Mathematical Manipulation of Equilibrium Constants

• When reversing a chemical reaction by switching the

reactants and products, the value of the equilibrium constant
for the new reaction is the inverse of the value of the original
equilibrium constant.
c d
[C] [D]
eq eq
aA + bB cC + dD K= a b
[A] [B]
eq eq
a b
[A] [B]
eq eq
cC + dD aA + bB K' = c d
[C] [D]
eq eq

1
K' =
K
30
Adjusting the Stoichiometry of the Chemical Reaction

• If changes are made to the stoichiometry (represented by factor n), the

changes also affect the equilibrium expression.
• For example, if the stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical reaction
are multiplied by a factor n, the K for the new chemical equation
becomes Kn.
[C]ceq [D]deq
aA + bB cC + dD K=
[A]aeq [B]beq
c d

a b c d 2
[C] [D]
eq
2
eq
A+ B C+ D K' = a b
2 2 2 2 2 2
[A] [B]
eq eq

• Equation 1 was multiplied by n = 1/2.

• K’ becomes Kn, which is K1/2 in this case
31
Example Problem 12.4

• Write equilibrium expressions for:

N2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g)

• the reaction as written

• the reverse reaction

• the reaction as written with all coefficients in the equation

halved

32
Equilibrium Constants for a Series of Reactions

• When two chemical reactions are added (summed), the

equilibrium constant for the new chemical reaction is the
product of the equilibrium constants for the two original
chemical reactions.

• Where K1 and K2 are equilibrium constants for the two

chemical reactions being combined and K3 is the
equilibrium constant for the new combined chemical
reaction.

K 3 = K1 ´ K 2
33
Example Problem 12.5

• Given the following equilibria:

1
CO2 (g) CO(g) + O 2 (g)
2
1
H 2 (g) + O2 (g) H 2O(g)
2
Determine the equilibrium expression for the sum of the two
reactions.

34
Units and the Equilibrium Constant

• The equilibrium constant K is dimensionless.

• The concentrations used to calculate the equilibrium

constant are divided by the standard concentration of 1 M,
which has no numerical consequence.

• A dimensionless K is required when K is used as the

argument in a natural log function.

35
Equilibrium Concentrations

• The equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products for a

chemical reaction can be predicted using the balanced
chemical equation and known equilibrium constants.
• There are three basic features for the strategy used in any
equilibrium calculation.
• Write a balanced chemical equation for the relevant
equilibrium or equilibria.
• Write the corresponding equilibrium expression or
expressions.
• Create a table of concentrations with all reacting
species as columns and the following rows: initial
concentration, change in concentration, and final
concentration.
36
Equilibrium Concentrations

• Equilibrium concentrations can be determined from initial

concentrations by realizing:

• The first row contains the initial concentrations.

• The second row contains the changes in the initial
concentrations as the system comes to equilibrium.
• The third row contains the final equilibrium concentrations.

• Equilibrium concentrations can be determined from initial

concentrations by realizing which direction the reaction will
shift to achieve equilibrium, expressing the concentration
change in terms of a single variable, and solving for the
equilibrium concentrations using the equilibrium expression.

37
Example Problem 12.6

• Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of H2, I2 and

HI, if the initial concentrations are 0.050 M each for
H2 and I2 and K = 59.3 at 400oC.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) 2 HI(g)

38
Equilibrium Concentrations from Initial Concentrations

• The concentration of HI = 0 initially, so the reaction will shift

to the right to achieve equilibrium.

• For every x moles of H2 and I2 consumed, 2x moles of HI are

produced.

39
Equilibrium Concentrations from Initial Concentrations

• The final concentrations are expressed in terms of the initial

concentration minus x for the reactants and initial
concentration plus 2x for the products.

• Substitute the algebraic final concentration terms into the

equilibrium concentration and solve for x.
40
Equilibrium Concentrations from Initial Concentrations

[HI]2 (2x)2
K= = = 59.3
[H 2 ][I2 ] (0.050 - x)(0.050 - x)
(2x)2
= 59.3
(0.050 - x)(0.050 - x)
2x
= 7.70
0.050 - x
0.39 = 9.70x
x = 0.040

[H 2 ] = [I2 ] = 0.050 - x
[H 2 ] = [I2 ] = 0.050 - 0.040 = 0.010 M
[HI] = 2x = 0.080 M
41
Example Problem 12.7

• The equilibrium constant for the reaction of chlorine gas with

phosphorous trichloride to form phosphorus pentachloride is
33 at 250°C. If an experiment is initiated with concentrations
of 0.050 M PCl3 and 0.015 M Cl2, what are the equilibrium
concentrations of all three gases?

Cl2 (g) + PCl3 (g) PCl5 (g)

42
Mathematical Techniques for Equilibrium Calculations

• For complex equilibria that cannot be solved using the

quadratic equation, software packages such as Maple®, and
Mathematica® must be used.

• Equilibrium expressions help process engineers determine

ways to manipulate equilibria to improve efficiency.

43
Le Châtelier’s Principle

• Le Châtelier’s principle - When a system at equilibrium is

stressed, it responds by reestablishing equilibrium to reduce
the stress.

• There are three common means to introduce a stress to an

equilibrium.

• Changes in concentration

• Changes in pressure

• Changes in temperature

44
Effect of a Change in Concentration

• For a reaction at equilibrium, a change in concentration for

one or more of the reactants and/or products will disturb the
equilibrium.

• The system will react to re-establish equilibrium.

• For a reaction at equilibrium, increasing the concentration of

one of the reactants will shift the equilibrium toward the
products.

• The reactant concentration will decrease as reactant is

converted to product, and the product concentration will
increase until equilibrium is re-established.

45
Effect of a Change in Concentration

• The increase in product concentration for a reactant

concentration increase can be rationalized by examining the
reaction quotient.

• The reactant quotient, Q, is defined as the ratio of the

product to the reactants.

• For a reaction at equilibrium, K = Q.

[products]
Q=
[reactants]

46
Effect of a Change in Concentration

• For a reactant concentration increase, the value of Q

becomes small compared to K.

• To re-establish equilibrium, Q must equal K.

• The value of Q will approach K as the reactant

concentration decreases and as the product concentration
increases.

[products]
Q=
[reactants]

47
Effect of a Change in Concentration

• Placed in an empty flask, NO2 achieves equilibrium by

reacting to form N2O4.
• Once at equilibrium, additional NO2 is added. The
system responds to this stress by shifting the equilibrium
toward N2O4.
48
Effect of a Change in Concentration

49
Example Problem 12.8

• Predict the change in the reaction quotient, Q, when:

CH 3COOH(aq) H+ (aq) + CH 3COO– (aq)

• sodium acetate is added

• additional acetic acid is added

• sodium hydroxide is added

• Then, explain how the equilibrium shifts in response to each

stress.

50
Effect of a Change in Pressure

• For reactions involving gases, if the number of moles of

gas differs between reactants and products, a shift in
pressure (due to a volume change) will result in a change
in equilibrium position.

• For an increase in pressure, the equilibrium will shift

toward the side of the equation with fewer moles of
gas.

• For a decrease in pressure, the equilibrium will shift

toward the side of the equation with more moles of
gas.

51
Effect of a Change in Pressure

• For the equilibrium between NO2 and N2O4, the increase in pressure is
offset by reducing the moles of gas present by forming N2O4.
• Decreasing the volume to 2 L initially increases the pressure to 5.0 atm.
• Equilibrium is re-established when the pressure is reduced to 4.6
atm by reacting 2 NO2 to form N2O4.

52
Example Problem 12.9

• Predict the direction in which the reaction will go to respond to

the indicated stress.

NH3 (g) + CH 4 (g) HCN(g) + 3H2 (g); pressure is increased

2NH3 (g) + 2CH 4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2HCN(g) + 6H2O(g); pressure is decreased

53
Effect of a Change in Temperature on Equilibrium

• During a temperature change, heat flows in or out of the

reacting system.
• Heat is treated as a product for an exothermic reaction.
reactants products + heat
• Heat is treated as a reactant for an endothermic reaction.
reactants + heat products
• Increase the temperature, equilibrium shifts away from the
side with the heat.
• Decrease the temperature, equilibrium shifts toward the side
with the heat.

54
Effect of a Change in Temperature on Equilibrium

• Temperature effect on
the equilibrium between
NO2 and N2O4, an
exothermic reaction.

• As temperature
increases, the
amount of NO2
increases, as
indicated by the
deepening color of
the NO2 gas in the
50oC water bath
(right) compared to
the ice bath (left).

55
Effect of a Change in Temperature on Equilibrium

• Summary of the effects a temperature change will have on

exothermic and endothermic reactions at equilibrium.
56
Effect of a Catalyst on Equilibrium

• When a catalyst is added to a system at equilibrium, there is

no impact on the equilibrium position.

• Catalysts speed up the rate of the forward and reverse

reactions to the same extent.

• The equilibrium concentrations of products and reactants

do not change.

57
Solubility Equilibria

• The insoluble solutes predicted by the solubility guidelines are also

referred to as sparingly soluble.
• Given enough fresh solvent, an insoluble salt will completely
dissolve.

• The equilibrium describing the solubility of an insoluble salt is

heterogeneous.
• The insoluble salt is not included in the equilibrium expression.
• The chemical reaction representing the dynamic equilibrium
between the insoluble salt and the dissolved ions, is written with
the dissolved ions as products.

Ca(OH)2 (s) Ca 2+ (aq) + 2OH - (aq)

Ksp = [Ca 2+ ][OH - ]2 = 7.9 ´ 10 -6
58
Defining the Solubility Product Constant

• The solubility product constant, Ksp, is

the special name for the equilibrium
constant for solubility equilibria.
• Ksp values can vary over a wide
range.

• Molar solubility is the concentration of

a dissolved salt present in a saturated
solution, expressed in molarity.

• Molar solubility's are determined

from Ksp values.

59
Example Problem 12.10

• Write the solubility product constant expression for calcium

fluoride.

60
Example Problem 12.11

• What is the molar solubility of calcium phosphate, given that

Ksp = 2.0 × 10-33?

• Assuming that the density of the saturated solution is 1.00

g/cm3, what is the solubility in grams of Ca3(PO4)2 per 100
grams of solvent?

61
The Relationship Between KSP and Molar Solubility

• Initial concentration for dissolved solutes is zero. The

equilibrium concentrations equal the change in concentration.
Solving for x in the Ksp expression yields the molar solubility.

Ksp = 2.0 ´ 10 -33 = [Ca 2+ ]3[PO3-

4 ]2
= (3x) 3
(2x)2
= 108x 5

x = 1.1 ´ 10 -7
62
Common Ion Effect

• For a sparingly soluble salt at

equilibrium, addition of a common ion
from an outside source will depress the
solubility of the salt.
• Common ions are found in both the
sparingly soluble salt and the
aqueous solution being added.

• The test tube on the left contains a

saturated solution of AgCN. Adding
aqueous NaCN causes additional
AgCN to precipitate due to the common
ion effect, as seen in the test tube on
the right. This effect is an application of
Le Châtelier’s principle.
63
Example Problem 12.12

• The Ksp of Ca3(PO4)2 is 2.0 × 10-33. Determine its molar

solubility in 0.10 M (NH4)3PO4.

• Compare your answer to the molar solubility of Ca3(PO4)2 in

water, which we calculated in Example Problem 12.11.

64
Reliability of Using Molar Concentrations

• Calculations involving ionic species in equilibria are simplified

by using molarity.

• When ion concentrations are high, the interactions

between cations and anions require the use of an effective
molarity, or activity.

• Activities are needed for a high degree of accuracy.

65
Acids and Bases

• Strong acids and strong bases completely dissociate in

solution.

• Weak acids and weak bases only partially dissociate in

solution.

• Partial dissociation is due to an equilibrium for the weak

acid or base.

• A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor.

• A Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.

66
The Role of Water in the Brønsted-Lowry Theory

• When an acid ionizes in water, the acid transfers a proton to

water, creating hydronium, H3O+.
+ -
HA(aq) + H2O( ) H 3O (aq) + A (aq)
• When a base ionizes in water, water transfers a proton to the
base, creating hydroxide, OH–.
+ -
NH3 (g) + H2O( ) NH (aq) + OH (aq)
4

• A substance, such as water, that can be either an acid or a

base is referred to as amphoteric.
+ -
H2O( ) + H2O( ) H 3O (aq) + OH (aq)
67
The Role of Water in the Brønsted-Lowry Theory

• The reaction between a weak acid or base and water is a

dynamic equilibrium.

• The equilibrium is composed of two conjugate acid-base

pairs.

• The conjugate acid of a base is the acid formed when

the base accepted a proton.

• The conjugate base of an acid is the base formed

when the acid donated a proton.

68
The Role of Water in the Bronsted-Lowry Theory

• For the equilibrium between ammonia and water,

NH 3 (g) + H 2O( )  NH +4 (aq) + OH - (aq)

base1 acid 2 acid1 base2

• NH3 is the base and NH4+ is the conjugate acid.

• H2O is the acid and OH– is the conjugate base.

69
Example Problem 12.13

• When dissolved in water, CH3COOH is called acetic acid.

Write the equilibrium for its reaction in water and identify the
conjugate acid–base pairs.

70
Weak Acids and Bases

• Weak acids react with water to produce a conjugate acid-

base system in which the acid and base in the products are
stronger than their conjugate acid and base in the reactants.
• Weak acid equilibria favor reactants.
• Only a small percentage of acid molecules ionize.
+ -
HA(aq) + H2O( ) H 3O (aq) + A (aq)
• The K for the dissociation of a weak acid is called the acid
ionization constant, Ka.
+ -
[H 3O ][A ]
Ka =
[HA]
71
Weak Acids and Bases

• Acid ionization
constants for some
common weak acids
at 25oC. Larger
values of Ka indicate
stronger acids.

72
Weak Acids and Bases

• For weak bases, an ionization equilibrium and equilibrium

expression can be written.

B(aq) + H2O( ) HB+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

• The K for the reaction of a weak base with water is called the
base ionization constant, Kb.

+ -
[HB ][OH ]
Kb =
[B]

73
Weak Acids and Bases

• The hydronium ion concentration for an aqueous solution can

be reported as pH.

• pH is a logarithmic scale used to avoid dealing with small

numbers in scientific notation.

pH = -log[H 3O+ ]

• The Ka and initial concentration of a weak acid are required to

calculate the hydronium concentration for a weak acid and the
pH of the solution.

74
Weak Acids and Bases

• The pH scale provides an

easy way to measure the
relative acidity or basicity of
aqueous solutions.

75
Example Problem 12.14

• The Ka of acetic acid is 1.8 × 10-5. Calculate the pH of a

0.10 M acetic acid solution.

76
Weak Acids and Bases

• The weathering of concrete by carbonation is an acid-base

reaction.
• If CO2 dissolves in water first, the resulting carbonic acid
would react with the basic calcium hydroxide.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2CO3 (aq) ¾¾

® CaCO3 (s) + 2H2O( )

77
Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium

• Equilibrium is a state of minimum free energy.

• ΔG = 0 at equilibrium.

• A chemical system tends to move spontaneously toward

equilibrium.

• When equilibrium is reached, the change in free energy is

zero.

78
Graphical Perspective

• Chemical reactions always proceed toward a minimum in free

energy.
79
Free Energy and Nonstandard Conditions

• For reactions with negative free energy changes, the

equilibrium is product-favored, or the value of K is greater
than 1.
• For reactions with positive free energy changes, the
equilibrium is reactant-favored, or the value of K is less than
1.
• The value of the equilibrium constant can be calculated from
the Gibbs free energy change, or vice versa.

DG = -RT ln K
o

80
Example Problem 12.15

• Using tabulated thermodynamic data, calculate the

equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 25˚C:
1
CH 4 (g) + O2 (g) CH 3OH( )
2

81
Bendable Concrete

• Brittleness is the biggest constraint in how concrete is used in

engineering designs.

• Reinforcement with steel or other materials can minimize

impact of cracking.

• The key characteristic to whether a crack will lead to failure is

size: a single large crack is more likely to lead to failure than
many small cracks.

• Materials known as “engineered cementitious composites,” or

(ECC), are being developed to make concrete less brittle by
altering its composition and thus how cracks form in it.

82
Bendable Concrete

• A sample of bendable concrete undergoing stress testing.

The formation of many micro-cracks rather than a single
large crack allows the material to bend under stress that
would fracture traditional concrete.
83