DNA WPS Office

DNA
Found within cell nucleus
Storage and transfer of genetic information
Passed from one cell to other during cell division
A NUCLEIC ACID is a polymer in which the monomer units are nucleotides.
DNA
2-DEOXYRIBOSE
a —H atom
PHOSPHATE
derived from phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Under cellular pH conditions, the phosphoric acid is fully dissociated to give a hydrogen phosphate ion
(HPO42-)
Complementary Bases of DNA
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
A deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleotide polymer in which each of the monomers contains
deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of the heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, or
thymine.
THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX

Nucleic acids have secondary and tertiary structure
The secondary structure involves two polynucleotide chains coiled around each other in a helical fashion
The poly nucleotides run anti-parallel (opposite directions) to each other, i.e., 5’ - 3’ and 3’ - 5’
The bases are located at the center and hydrogen bonded (A=T and GΞC)
Base composition:
%A = %T and %C = %G
Example: Human DNA contains 30% adenine, 30% thymine, 20% guanine and 20% cytocine
DNA SEQUENCE: the sequence of bases on one polynucleotide is complementary to the other
polynucleotide
Complementary bases are pairs of bases in a nucleic acid structure that can hydrogen-bond to each
other.
Complementary DNA strands are strands of DNA in a double helix with base pairing such that each base
is located opposite its complementary base.
EXAMPLE
List of bases in sequential order in the direction from the 5’ end to 3’ end of the segment:
5’-A-A-G-C-T-A-G-C-T-T-A-C-T-3’
3’-T-T-C-G-A-T-C-G-A-A-T-G-A-5’
Complementary strand of this sequence
REPLICATION OF DNA MOLECULES
REPLICATION: Process by which DNA molecules produce exact duplicates of themselves
Old strands act as templates for the synthesis of new strands
DNA polymerase checks the correct base pairing and catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester linkages
Therefore one strand (top; leading strand ) grows continuously in the direction of unwinding
The lagging strand grows in segments (Okazaki fragments) in the opposite direction
The segments are latter connected by DNA ligase
DNA replication usually occurs at multiple sites within a molecule (origin of replication)
DNA replication is bidirectional from these sites (replication forks)
Multiple-site replication enables rapid DNA synthesis
CHROMOSOMES
The histone–DNA complexes

A chromosome is about 15% by mass DNA and 85% by mass protein.
Cells of different kinds of organisms have different numbers of chromosomes.
Chromosomes occur in matched (homologous) pairs.
OVERVIEW OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Protein synthesis is directly under the direction of DNA
Proteins are responsible for the formation of skin, hair, enzymes, hormones, and so on
Protein synthesis can be divided into two phases.
TRANSCRIPTION – A process by which DNA directs the synthesis of mRNA molecules
TRANSLATION – a process in which mRNA is deciphered to synthesize a protein molecule
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Cells in an organism are exact replicas
Cells have information on how to make new cells

RNA
Occurs in all parts of cell
Primary function is to synthesize the proteins
PENTOSE SUGAR
RNA
RIBOSE
a —OH group present on carbon 2’
Complementary of Bases
Uracil
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
A ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleotide polymer in which each of the monomers contains ribose, a
phosphate group, and one of the heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil
TYPES OF RNA MOLECULES
HETEROGENOUS NUCLEAR RNA (hnRNA) - Formed directly by DNA transcription.
POST-TRANSCRIPTION PROCESSING - converts the hnRNA to mRNA
MESSENGER RNA - Carries instructions for protein synthesis from DNA
SMALL NUCLEAR RNA - Facilitates the conversion of hnRNA to mRNA.
RIBOSOMAL RNA (RRNA) -

Combines with specific proteins to form ribosomes - the physical site for protein synthesis
TRANSFER RNA (TRNA) - Delivers amino acids to the sites for protein synthesis
TRANSCRIPTION: RNA SYNTHESIS
A process by which DNA directs the synthesis of mRNA molecules
Two-step process –
(1) synthesis of hnRNA and (2) editing to yield mRNA molecule
GENE: A segment of a DNA base sequence responsible for the production of a specific hnRNA/mRNA
molecule
GENOME: All of the genetic material (the total DNA) contained in the chromosomes of an organism
STEPS IN TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS
UNWINDING of DNA double helix to expose some bases
ALIGNMENT of free ribonucleotides along the exposed DNA strand forming new base pairs
RNA polymerase catalyzes the linkage of ribonucleotides one by one to form mRNA molecule
Transcription ends when the RNA polymerase enzyme encounters a stop signal on the DNA template
The newly formed RNA molecule and the RNA polymerase enzyme are released
POST-TRANSCRIPTION PROCESSING: FORMATION OF MRNA

Involves conversion of hnRNA to mRNA
SPLICING - Excision of introns and joining of exons (EXON - a gene segment that codes for genetic
information, INTRON - a DNA segments that interrupt a genetic message)
ALTERNATIVE SPLICING - A process by which several different protein variants are produced from a single
gene
TRANSCRIPTOME
All of the mRNA molecules that can be generated from the genetic material in a genome.
Responsible for the biochemical complexity created by splice variants obtained by hnRNA
THE GENETIC CODE
The base sequence of an mRNA molecule involves only 4 different bases - A, C, G, and U
CODON: A three-nucleotide sequence in an mRNA molecule that codes for a specific amino acid
GENETIC CODE: The assignment of the 64 mRNA codons to specific amino acids (or stop signals)
CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC CODE
The genetic code is highly degenerate:
Many amino acids are designated by more than one codon.
Arg, Leu, and Ser – represented by six codons.
–Most other amino acids - represented by two codons
–Met and Trp - have only a single codon.
–Codons that specify the same amino acid are called synonyms
TRANSLATION: RNA SYNTHESIS

A process in which mRNA codons are deciphered to synthesize a protein molecule
RIBOSOME
an rRNA–protein complex - serves as the site of protein synthesis:
Contains 4 rRNA molecules and ~80 proteins - packed into two rRNA-protein subunits (one small and one
large)
~65% rRNA and 35% protein by mass
A ribosome’s active site – Large subunit
Ribosome is a RNA catalyst
The mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome.
STEPS IN TRANSLATION PROCESS
ACTIVATION OF TRNA: addition of specific amino acids to the 3’-OH group of tRNA.
INITIATION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS: Begins with binding of mRNA to small ribosomal subunit such that
its first codon occupies a site
ELONGATION: Adjacent to the P site in an mRNA–ribosome complex is A site and the next tRNA with the
appropriate anticodon binds to it.
TERMINATION: The polypeptide continues to grow via translocation until all necessary amino acids are in
place and bonded to each other.
POST-TRANSLATIONAL PROCESSING – gives the protein the final form it needs to be fully functional
MUTATION
An error in base sequence reproduced during DNA replication
Errors in genetic information is passed on during transcription.
The altered information can cause changes in amino acid sequence during protein synthesis and thereby
alter protein function
Such changes have a profound effect on an organism.

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DNA

Found within cell nucleus

Storage and transfer of genetic information

Passed from one cell to other during cell division

A NUCLEIC ACID is a polymer in which the monomer units are nucleotides.

Complementary Bases of DNA

THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX

Complementary strand of this sequence

REPLICATION OF DNA MOLECULES

REPLICATION: Process by which DNA molecules produce exact duplicates of themselves

Old strands act as templates for the synthesis of new strands

The segments are latter connected by DNA ligase

DNA replication is bidirectional from these sites (replication forks)

Multiple-site replication enables rapid DNA synthesis

The histone–DNA complexes

Cells of different kinds of organisms have different numbers of chromosomes.

Chromosomes occur in matched (homologous) pairs.

OVERVIEW OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Protein synthesis is directly under the direction of DNA

Protein synthesis can be divided into two phases.

TRANSCRIPTION – A process by which DNA directs the synthesis of mRNA molecules

TRANSLATION – a process in which mRNA is deciphered to synthesize a protein molecule

Cells in an organism are exact replicas

Cells have information on how to make new cells

Occurs in all parts of cell

Primary function is to synthesize the proteins

a —OH group present on carbon 2’

TYPES OF RNA MOLECULES

HETEROGENOUS NUCLEAR RNA (hnRNA) - Formed directly by DNA transcription.

POST-TRANSCRIPTION PROCESSING - converts the hnRNA to mRNA

MESSENGER RNA - Carries instructions for protein synthesis from DNA

SMALL NUCLEAR RNA - Facilitates the conversion of hnRNA to mRNA.

RIBOSOMAL RNA (RRNA) -

TRANSCRIPTION: RNA SYNTHESIS

A process by which DNA directs the synthesis of mRNA molecules

(1) synthesis of hnRNA and (2) editing to yield mRNA molecule

STEPS IN TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS

UNWINDING of DNA double helix to expose some bases

POST-TRANSCRIPTION PROCESSING: FORMATION OF MRNA

THE GENETIC CODE

CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC CODE

The genetic code is highly degenerate:

Many amino acids are designated by more than one codon.

Arg, Leu, and Ser – represented by six codons.

–Most other amino acids - represented by two codons

–Met and Trp - have only a single codon.

TRANSLATION: RNA SYNTHESIS

an rRNA–protein complex - serves as the site of protein synthesis:

~65% rRNA and 35% protein by mass

A ribosome’s active site – Large subunit

Ribosome is a RNA catalyst

The mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome.

STEPS IN TRANSLATION PROCESS

An error in base sequence reproduced during DNA replication

Errors in genetic information is passed on during transcription.

Such changes have a profound effect on an organism.

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