Appendix 2

Calculations II: Worked examples

A2.1 Yarn numbering

Q1. How many yards of yarn are there in 1 lb of 24s cotton yarn?
Ans. In 1 lb of cotton yarn there are 840 × 24 = 20 160 yd. In other words, there are
840 Ne yd/lb in the cotton system of units.
Q2. If there are 20160 yd in 1 lb of yarn, what is the worsted count?
Ans. L/W = 560 × Nw
where L = length in yd and W = weight in lb
Nw = L/(560 W) = 20 160/560
= 36 worsted hanks/lb or Nw = 36s
From the foregoing, it will be realized that Nw is 50% larger than Ne for the same
yarn.
Q3. If Ne = 24s, what is the linear density in g/m?
Ans. This is a conversion from an indirect system to a direct system; therefore, one
is inversely proportional to the other. In other words n′ = constant × (1/Ne), consequently
Ne should appear on the bottom line of the equation.
There are 1.093 yards in 1 meter and 454 grams1 in a pound.
A 24s yarn has a length of 24 × 840 yd/lb and, designating gram and meter by g
and m, respectively:
1lb 454 g 1.093 yd
n ′′ = × ×
(24 × 840) yd lb m
n″ = 0.0246 g/m
Q4. What is the linear density of the yarn in Q3, expressed in tex?

1 The French spelling, gramme, is often used, to avoid confusion with grain, especially when hand
written.
330 Appendix 2

Ans. The unit tex is the same as g/km.

1000 m n ′′ g
n= ×
km m
= 1000 × 0.0246 g/km = 24.6 tex
Q5. If a 120 yd skein weighs 40 grains, what is the cotton count?
Ans. We have to change the units. Remembering that there are 7000 grains in 1 lb,
and 840 yd in 1 cotton hank,
120 yd 7000 grain 1 cotton hank
Ne = × ×
40 grain lb 840 yd
Canceling out the units as well as the numbers, we get:
Ne = 25 cotton hanks/lb

A2.2 Drafting
Q6. A roving of 1 hank roving (Ne = 1) is converted to a 24s yarn. If twist contraction
is ignored, what is the actual draft ratio?
Ans. Actual draft ratio = (output value of N)/(input value of N) in compatible units.
Nei = 1.0 cotton hanks/lb and
Neo = 24 cotton hanks/lb
Actual draft ratio = 24.
Q7. The linear velocity of a yarn leaving a drafting system is 100 ft/min, and the
entering material has a velocity of 2 ft/min. What is the mechanical draft?
Ans. Mechanical draft = Vo /Vi = 100/2 = 50.
Q8. A roller drafting system consists of two pairs of drafting rollers; the front rollers
are 1 inch diameter and the back rolls are 1.25 inch diameter. The front rollers rotate
at 90 r/min and the back rollers at 3 r/min. The system is fed with 2 hank roving (Ne
= 2 cotton hanks/lb). What is the yarn count if twist contraction is ignored?
Ans. Vo = πDoU = 90π inches/min
Vi = πDiU = 3 × 1.25π inches/min
Mechanical draft = VoVi = 90π/3.75π = 24
Output Neo = 2 × 24 = 48 cotton hank/lb.
Q9. If the yarn delivered in Q8 contracts by 3% before it is wound, what is the actual
draft ratio?
Ans. Without shrinkage (output Neo) = 48 × (input Nei).
After shrinkage, the yarn is fatter and the output Neo is less, thus the actual draft ratio
= 48 × (1.00 – 0.03) = 46.56 cotton hanks/lb.
Q10. A sliver-to-yarn drafting system is fed with 50 grain/yd sliver and delivers a
strand of Ne = 24 cotton hanks/lb. What is the actual draft?
Ans. The input is expressed in a direct system and the output in an indirect one. Thus,
the first step is to convert one value into the units of the other, because compatible
units must be used.
 Calculations II: Worked examples 331

1 yd 7000 grain 1 hank

Input N e = × × = 0.1666 cotton hanks/ lb
50 grain 1 lb 840 yd
The second step is to state in the input and output counts.
Output Neo = 24 cotton hanks/lb
The third step is to check the compatibility of the units and the fourth step is to
calculate the ratio as follows:
Actual draft = 24/0.1666 = 144
Q11. A drawn filament bundle is made up of filaments of 1.5 denier (i.e. 1.5 dpf).
The draw ratio used to orient the molecular structure was 5. What was the denier of
the original ‘spun’ filaments before drawing?
Ans. Output linear density = no = 1.5 denier.
Input linear density = no × draw ratio = 1.5 × 5 = 7.5 denier.
Q12. A 150 denier yarn is made of 1.5 dpf fibers. How many fibers are there in the
cross-section?
Ans. No of fibers in cross-section = nyarn/nfil
= 150 denier/1.5 denier
= 100 filaments/yarn.
Q13. A toothed drafting system takes in sliver at 53 grains/yd and converts it to a
stream of fibers that average 5 fibers in the cross-section. The fibers have a linear
density of 1.5 dtex. What is the draft ratio?
Ans. Linear density of input = ni
53 grain 1 lb 454 g 1.09 yd 1000 m
ni = × × × ×
yd 7000 grain lb m km
= 3747 g/km
Since 1 tex = 1 g/1000m, linear density of input = 3747 tex, and of output = 5 ×
1.5/10 = 0.75 tex. The units of input and output are compatible, hence

Draft ratio = 3747 tex = 4996

0.75 tex
Q 14. The foregoing is a very high draft ratio, typical of these devices. What is the
draft when the thin stream of fibers is condensed into a 30 tex yarn? What is the
overall draft?
Ans. The new input linear density for the second stage is 0.75 tex and the output is
30 tex. Therefore the draft ratio is 0.75/30 = 1/40. In other words, the condensation
stage gives a fractional draft. The overall draft is 3750 tex/30 tex = 125.
Q15. Four 40s yarns are plied. What is the equivalent count of the plied yarn if twist
effects are ignored?
Ans.
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
NT 40 40 40 40 40
from which it follows that NT = 10 hanks/lb.
332 Appendix 2

Q16. A 40s yarn is plied with a 20s and a 10s yarn to make a fancy yarn. What is the
equivalent count, if twist effects are ignored?
Ans.
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 2 + 4
NT 40 20 10 40 40 40
= 0.025 + 0.05 + 0.10 = 0.175 (hank/lb)–1
This is the reciprocal of NT, hence
NT = 1/0.175 = 5.71 hanks/lb
This calculation is typical of all indirect systems. To apply it to a particular one, make
sure to quote what sort of hank is involved. For example, if this had been wholly in
the cotton system, the answer would have been quoted as 5.71 cotton hanks/lb.
However, if it had been in the worsted system, the answer would have been 5.71
worsted hanks/lb. If the counting systems had been mixed, the answer could have
been expressed in one of the systems but the units used in the calculation would have
had to be consistent with the answer. Notice how the equivalent yarn count is smaller
than that of any of the component yarns.

A2.3 Belt transmission

Q 17. Consider a belt or yarn being driven in the direction shown in Fig. A2.1, by a
pair of rolls, one of which is 1.3 inch radius and it rotates at 110 r/min. The linear
velocity of the yarn, V, equals ωr. What is the velocity? (Hint: care has to be taken
with the units. If V is to be in ft/sec, then the rotational speed, ω, must be expressed
in radians/sec and r in feet.)

V = 1.25 ft/sec

110 rpm

r = 1.3 inch
Fig. A2.1 Strand delivery
 Calculations II: Worked examples 333

Ans.
V = ωr

ω = 2 π × 110 rev × min rad/ sec

min 60 sec

r = 1.3 inch × ft
12 inch

V = 2 π × 110 rev × min × ft × 1.3 inch

min 60 sec 12 inch
= 1.25 ft/sec
Q18. Determine the speed ratio of the pulleys shown in Fig. A2.2(a). The large pulley
has a radius of rL inches the small pulley of rs inches and they rotate at UL and
Us r/min, respectively.
Ans. The belt speed can be determined by considering either the small pulley or the
large one. The belt thus runs at:
V = KULrL ft/sec, where K = 2π/(60 × 12)
The small pulley radius is rs and it rotates at Us r/min, which gives:
V = KUsrs ft/sec
KULrL = KUsrs
Thus
ULrL = Usrs
or ULDL = Us Ds [A2.1]
where D = diameter and the subscripts have the same meaning as already explained.
It will be noticed that the constants cancel because we are dealing with ratios.
Q19. An electric motor runs at 1800 r/min and drives a shaft by a pulley and belt

US V UL

rs

(a) rL

US UL

V
rS

(b) rL

Fig. A2.2 Belts and pulleys

334 Appendix 2

system. The pulley on the motor is 6 inches diameter and the pulley on the driven
shaft is 18 inches diameter. What is the speed of the driven shaft?
Ans. Us = 1800 r/min, UL = ? r/min
Ds = 6 inches, DL = 18 inches
From Equation [A2.1], UL = Us Ds/DL
= 1800 × 6/18 = 600 r/min
This answer is not completely accurate – see Q20 (b) and (c).
Q20. (a) What would be the effect if the belt of Q19 is crossed? (b) What effects
would slippage have? (c) What effect does belt thickness have?
Ans. (a) If the belt were crossed as in Fig. A2.2(b), the direction of rotation of the
driven member would be reversed and a minus sign can be introduced to take this into
account. Thus the answer for the crossed belt case is minus 600 r/min.
Ans. (b) There is always a slight amount of belt slippage, which slightly reduces the
speed of the driven member.
Ans. (c) The thickness of the belt cannot be ignored. It is usual to add one belt
thickness to the actual pulley diameters in calculating the speeds. If a 1/8 inch thick
belt were used in the foregoing example, and slip is ignored, the approximate speed
would be:
U1 ≈ 1800 × (6.0 + 1/8)/(18 + 1/8)
≈ 1800 × 6.125/18.125
≈ 608 r/min

A2.4 Gearing
Q21. A motor runs at 720 r/min and drives a shaft by means of a sprocket and chain.
The motor sprocket has 20 teeth and the driven sprocket has 80 teeth. What is the
speed of the shaft?
Ans.
Let output speed = Uo

Output speed = 720 × 20 = 180 rpm

80
Q22. A compound gear system consists of a 20 tooth driver that meshes with an 80
tooth gear and the latter is locked concentrically with a 25 tooth gear that meshes
with the output gear as shown in Fig. A2.3. The gear ratio is 16:1. How many teeth
are there in the output gear?
Ans. Let the output gear have m teeth.
Gearing ratio = (–80/20) × (–m/25) = 16
whence m = 16 × 20 × 25/80 = 100 teeth.

A2.5 Machine speeds

Q23. To be able to get a reasonable output per card and yet only have a thin web of
fibers on the main cylinder, it is necessary to have a high surface speed. Suppose
 Calculations II: Worked examples 335

80 teeth

20 teeth

Output
gear

25 teeth

Mesh
Mesh
Fig. A2.3 Compound gears

there are 200 fibers/sq inch on the surface of a 40 inch wide card. There are 200 × 40
= 8000 fibers/inch of circumference on the card. If a single cotton fiber weighs 1.3
× 10–8 lb, there are roughly 8000 × 1.3 ×10–8 = 10.4 × 10–5 lb/inch of circumference.
Assuming an output of 100 lb/hr, what is the surface speed?
Ans.

vo = 100 lb × 1 inch × 1 ft × 1 hr
hr 10.4 × 10 lb 12 inch 60 min
–5

= 1335 ft/min
Q24. What is the rotational speed of the cylinder in Q23 if the diameter is 40 inches?
Ans. U = V/πD r/min.
The diameter concerned must be expressed in feet to be compatible with the
velocity in ft/min. The diameter is 3.333 ft, V = 1335 ft/min, and U = 127 r/min.
Q25. If the output is to be 65 grains/yd sliver, what is the sliver delivery speed in
Q23?
Ans.
1 yd 7000 grain 3 ft
V d = 100 lb × × × × 1 hr
hr 65 grain lb yd 60 min
= 538 ft/min (or 179 yd/min)

A2.6 Twist calculations

Q26. What is the twist density, in tpi, of a 4 TM, 25/1 cotton yarn?
Ans. From Equation [A1.14], twist density = TM √Ne = 4 √25 = 20 tpi.
Q27. A 20 tex yarn has a TMdirect of 36 (α = 36); what is the twist level?
Ans. Twist level = 36/√20 = 8.05 turns/cm.
Q28. A yarn has 20 tpi and a count of 36s in the cotton system. What is the twist
multiple?
Ans. Twist multiple = TM = 20 / √36 = 3.33. No units need be quoted in this case.
336 Appendix 2

Q29. Plot a graph of twist level versus count, for a TM of 3.0.

Ans. Set out a table of co-ordinates.

Table A2.l Co-ordinates of graph

Ne 4 9 16 25 36
Ne 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
τ tpi 6 9 12 15 18

The data are plotted in Fig. A2.4.

20
TM = 3
Twist/ inch

10

0
0 10 20 30 40
Yarn count (Ne)

Fig. A2.4 Twist characteristics

A2.7 Production
Q30. The front roll of a drafting system advances a strand into a twister that rotates
at 10 000 r/min. The roll diameter is 1.2 inch. Calculate the front roll speed when a
yarn of Ne = 25 hanks/lb and TM = 3.5 is being made. What is the speed ratio between
the spindle and the front roll?
Ans.
Twist density = τ

τ = TM N e

= 3.5 25 = 17.5 tpi

Ut = twister speed in rev/min
V = linear speed of yarn in inches/min
= U t /τ

10 000 rev
V= × inch
min 17.5 turn
= 571 inch/min
 Calculations II: Worked examples 337

But V = Ufr πD
where Ufr = rotational speed of front roller and D = diameter of front roller.
Substituting for V and D and rearranging:

U fr = 571 inch × rev = 151 rev/ min (i.e. r/ min)

min 1.2 π inch
Velocity ratio = 10 000/151 = 66.
In other words, the spindle has to rotate 66 times as fast as the front roll of the
drafting system.
Q31. A roving frame running at 1000 r/min and producing a 1.1 hank roving
(Ne = 1.1) at 0.9 TM will produce P lb/spindle hour. What is the value of P?
Ans. Assuming the pu (per unit) efficiency is 1.0
Uη
P=
504 × 0.9 × 1.1 × 1.1

P= 1000
504 × 0.9 × 1.1 × 1.1
= 1.91 lb/spindle hr [A2.2]
Q32. A traveler slides at 120 ft/sec on a 1.75 inch diameter ring. The twist density of
the yarn being spun (τ) is 20 tpi and it is wound on to a 1.25 inch diameter bobbin.
(Figure 7.3 shows a ring and traveler.) What is the percentage difference between the
traveler and package speeds? What does this difference represent?
Ans.
Let ωt = rotational speed of the traveler, and since ωt = V/R:

ω t = 120 ft × 2 × 12 inch = 1645.7 rad/ sec

sec 1.75 inch ft
Let Ut = rotational speed of traveler in traditional units

U t = 1645.7 rad × 60 sec = 15 718 r /min (i.e. rev/min)

2π sec min
V = the linear speed of the yarn = U/τ
Since τ = 20 tpi, V = 15 718/20 = 785.9 inches/min
d = 1.25 inches and the wind-on speed = V/πd
Uwind = 785.9/(1.25π) = 200 r/min
This is 1.27% of the traveler rotational speed.
Ring spindle speed = Ut + Uwind = 15 718 + 200 = 15918 r/min
Note: As the bobbin diameter builds from (say) 1 inch to 1.6 inch, with a bobbin
speed of 15 918 r/min, the wind-on speed varies from
785.9/π = 250 r/min to 785.9/(1.6π) = 156 r/min
and the traveler speed varies from
15 918 – 250 = 15 668 r/min to 15 918 – 156 = 15762 r/min,
338 Appendix 2

a difference of about 0.6%. As the bobbin diameter changes, a small variation in twist
occurs but the effect of this is neglected.
Q33. A ring frame produces a yarn of average count of 25/1. The twist multiple is 3.5
and the spindle speed is 20 000 r/min with a spinning efficiency of 0.95. (a) What is
the output for the given ring frame? (b) If the count were reduced to 36/1, what would
be the output?
Ans. (a) Equation [A1.24] contains the group Ne√Ne and it is easier to calculate this
first.
Ne√Ne = 25 × √25 = 125
Substituting this in Equation [A1.24] we get:
20 000 0.95
P= × × 1 = 0.0862 lb/ sp hr
504 3.5 125
(b) Calculating Ne√Ne as a preliminary step,
Ne√Ne = 36 × √36 = 216 and inserting this in Equation [A1.24] we get:
20 000 0.95
P= × × 1 = 0.0499 lb/ sp hr
504 3.5 216
At least 12 spindles are needed in one case, and 20 in the other, to produce 1 lb/hr.
Q34. A mill has an output of 2500 lb/hr of yarn of 16/1 (Ne) at 3.8 TM spun on ring
frames running at 15 000 r/min at an efficiency of 0.92 and a waste level of 1.8%. The
ring frames are supplied with 1.1 hank roving (Ne), made on roving frames running
at 1200 r/min and with a TM of 0.996. The efficiency of the roving frames is 93% and
the fiber loss is 0.2%. (a) How many ring frame spindles, and (b) how many roving
spindles are required?
The mill has two passages of drawing and the drawframes run at 600 yd/min when
producing 90 grain/yd sliver. (c) How many drawframe heads are needed if the
operational efficiency is 95%, the sliver wastage is 1%, and each drawframe has two
heads?
It is intended to install cards, each with a productivity of 100 lb/hr. The waste fiber
from carding and opening is 2% and the operational efficiency is 96%. (d) How many
cards would be needed, (e) what input fiber flow would be required, and (f) what flow
of new fiber would be needed if 50% of the waste from spinning, roving, and drawing
is recycled?
Ans. (a) Starting this question with the ring frames, the yarn flow required from them
= 2500 lb/hr.
Calculating the value of Ne√Ne = 16 × √16 = 64, the productivity of one ring spindle
15 000 × 0.92
Prf = = 0.113 lb/ sp hr
504 × 3.8 × 64
The number of ring spindles needed = 2500/0.113 = 22 124.
If there were 800 spindles per machine, 27.66 machines would be needed; rounding
this up gives us 28 machines. (This number would have to be increased to allow for
maintenance shutdowns and repairs.)
(b) Allowing for 0.008 pu fiber loss in spinning, the roving flow needed is:
2500 + (2500 × 0.008) = 2500 × 1.008 = 2540.16 lb/hr
 Calculations II: Worked examples 339

TMroving = 0.996 and Ne √Ne = 1.1 × √1.1 = 1.154

Proving = 1200 × 0.93 = 1.927 lb/ hr

504 × 0.996 × 1.154
Number of roving spindles needed = 2540/1.927 = 1318, say 1400.
(c) Drawframe production/head for one passage, Pdf = Vsliver × nsliver
600 yd 90 grain lb
Pdf = × × × 60 min × 0.95 × 0.99
min yd 7000 grain hr
= 435.3 lb/ hr
Allowing for 0.002 pu (per unit) fiber losses in roving, the throughput is: (the value
in Answer (b) × (1 + 0.002)) = 2540 × 1.002 = 2545 lb/hr.
Number of heads required = 2545/435.3 = 5.847 for one passage.
For two passages the number required = 5.847 × 2 = 11.69 and rounding up, this
would be taken as 12.
With 2 heads/drawframe, 6 machines are required.
(d) Allowing for 0.01 pu fiber losses in drawing, the card output is:
(the value in Answer (c) × (1 + 0.01)) = 2545 × 1.01 = 2570 lb/hr.
Taking the efficiency into account, the production rate/card is 100 × 0.96 =
96 lb/hr. The theoretical number of cards required would be = 26.77. However, one
cannot have a fraction of a card so the number required is rounded up to 27.
(e) After losing 2% of the fiber in carding and opening, the input rate is:
2570 × 1.02 = 2621 lb/hr
(f) The specified wastes are:
Spinning waste = 0.008 × 2500 = 20.00 lb/hr
Roving waste = 0.002 × 2540.16 = 5.08 lb/hr
Drawing waste = 0.01 × 2570 = 25.71 lb/hr
—————
Total specified waste = 50.79 lb/hr
Recycled waste = 50.79/2 = 25.4 lb/hr, which offsets the losses and the total fiber
requirement drops by this amount. Thus, the net input fiber required in this case is
2622 – 25.4 ≈ 2597 lb/hr.

A2.8 Texturing
Q35. A texturing machine has a six-disk stack. The coefficient of friction, µ, is 0.2,
the run-on and run-off angles are both 30°, and the inclination on the periphery of the
disk is 0°. Assume that all disks are working disks and that they give no aid in moving
the yarn through the stack. Calculate the output tension and the torque produced by
disks 1 and 6.
Ans. The angle of wrap for each disk = (90 – θ) × 2 = 120° (equivalent to
2π/3 radians). Let the input tension to disk 1 = T1 and, using Amonton’s Law (i.e. To
= T1 eµθ), output tension from disk 1 = T1 e0.2×2π/3 = 1.52 T1.
Since the passage past five disks accumulates an angle of wrap of five times that
of the passage over a single one, and the angle appears as an exponent in the equation
we may write:
340 Appendix 2

Input tension to disk 6 = 1.525 T1 = 8.11T1

Output tension from disk 6 = 1.526 T1 = 12.3T1
The torque generated by a disk = (T1 + T2) µ √n K cos θ
where n is the linear density of the yarn, µ is the coefficient of friction, and K is a
factor.
Torque generated by disk 1 is ((1 + 1.52) × 0.2 × 0.866) KT1 √n
= 0.436 KT1√n
Torque generated by disk 6 is ((8.11 + 12.3) × 0.2 × 0.866) KT1√n
= 3.54 KT1√n
This torque for disk 6 is 8.1 times that generated by disk 1, but the maximum tension
is 12.3T1; this is also 8.1 times the tension output of disk 1.