Simple Diffusion and Facilitated Transport

Cell Transport

 Cell transport is movement of materials across cell membranes.

 Cell transport helps cells maintain homeostasis by keeping conditions within normal ranges inside
all of an organism's cells

 Cell Membrane – a very important structure that helps regulate homeostasis.

Cell Membrane

• Made of a phospholipid bilayer (two layers of phospholipids)

• Separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment.

• Selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell.

Concentration Gradient

It is the process of particles, which are sometimes called solutes, moving through a solution or gas from
an area with a higher number of particles to an area with a lower number of particles.

In this case, it is the solute concentration on the outside of the cell and inside the cell. The outside being
the one with high concentration and the inside having the low concentration.

In passive cell transport, solutes move by diffusion, this is the of solutes movement from higher
concentration of solutes to lower concentration of solutes to equalize solute concentration. This evens
out the concentration on both sides, the inside and outside of the cell.

Simple Diffusion

 Happens when small, nonpolar molecules move to cell until its concentration becomes equal
throughout a space.

 Moves with the flow, meaning it moves with the concentration gradient, from high concentration
to low concentration.

 Doesn’t require energy for molecules to move

Facilitated Transport

 Happens when large, polar molecules diffuse.

 Also moves with the flow, in accordance to concentration gradient.

 Doesn’t require energy to move molecules.

 Uses proteins (protein channels, carrier proteins) in the cell membrane to move molecules.

Protein Channels

 Channel proteins span the membrane and make hydrophilic tunnels across it, allowing their
target molecules to pass through by diffusion.
Carrier Proteins

 Carrier proteins can change their shape to move a target molecule from one side of the
membrane to the other.

ACTIVE & VESICULAR TRANSPORT

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

o Is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a
region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient.

o requires cellular energy, usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to achieve this
movement

TWO MECHANISMS

o PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Moves ions across a membrane and creates a difference in charge across that membrane. It uses
ATP to move a substance, such as an ion, into the cell, and often at the same time, a second
substance is moved out of the cell. The sodium-potassium pump, an important pump in animal
cells, expends energy to move potassium ions into the cell and a different number of sodium ions
out of the cell. The action of this pump results in a concentration and charge difference across the
membrane called electrochemical gradient.

o SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Describes the movement of material using the energy of the electrochemical gradient established
by primary active transport. Using the energy of the electrochemical gradient created by the
primary active transport system, other substances such as amino acids and glucose can be brought
into the cell through membrane channels. ATP itself is formed through secondary active transport
using a hydrogen ion gradient in the mitochondrion.

VESICULAR TRANSPORT

ENDOCYTOSIS
 o A type of active transport

o Moves particles, such as large molecules, parts of cells, and even whole cells, into a cell by one of
the three forms of endocytosis.

 PINOCYTOSIS

Most common form of endocytosis

Literally means “cell drinking” and was named at a time when the assumption was that the cell was
purposefully taking in extracellular fluid.

Takes in dissolved molecules as a vesicle

 RECEPTOR- MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS

Some integral proteins have receptors on their surface to recognize and take in hormones,
cholesterol, etc.

Uptake of substances by the cell is targeted to a single type of substance that binds at the receptor
on the external cell membrane.

 PHAGOCYTOSIS

Is the process by which large particles, such as cells, are taken in by a cell.

(For example, when microorganisms invade the human body, a type of white blood cell called a
neutrophil removes the invader through this process, surrounding and engulfing the
microorganism, which is then destroyed by the neutrophil)

EXOCYTOSIS

o a type of active transport

o the opposite of the processes discussed above

o its purpose is to expel material from the cell into the extracellular fluid. A particle enveloped in
membrane fuses with the interior of the plasma membrane. This fusion opens the membranous
envelope to the exterior of the cell, and the particle is expelled into the extracellular space

o or moving things/molecules out of the cell by vesicles that fuse the with the plasma membrane

o This is how many hormones are secreted and how nerve cells communicate with each other

Carbohydrates.

Fruits, vegetable, beans, and grains are all sources of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the simple
and complex sugars obtained from the foods we eat. Not all carbohydrates are the same. Simple
carbohydrates include sugars such as table sugar or sucrose and fruit sugar or fructose. Complex
carbohydrates are sometimes called "good carbs" due to their nutrient value. Complex carbohydrates are
composed of several simple sugars linked together and include starches and fiber. Carbohydrates are an
important part of a healthy diet and a valuable energy source needed to perform normal biological
activities.

Carbohydrates are one of the four major classes of organic compounds in living cells. They are
produced during photosynthesis and are the main sources of energy for plants and animals. The term
carbohydrate is used when referring to a saccharide or sugar and its derivatives. Carbohydrates can be
simple sugars or monosaccharides, double sugars or disaccharides, composed of a few sugars
or oligosaccharides, or composed of many sugars or polysaccharides.

Organic Polymers

Carbohydrates are not the only types of organic polymers. Other biological polymers include:

 Lipids: diverse group of organic compounds inclusive of fats, oils, steroids, and waxes.
  Proteins: organic polymers composed of amino acids that perform a multitude of functions in the
body. Some provide structural support, while others act as chemical messengers.
 Nucleic Acids: biological polymers, including DNA and RNA,that are important for genetic
inheritance.

A monosaccharide or simple sugar has a formula that is some multiple of CH2O. For instance, glucose (the
most common monosaccharide) has a formula of C6H12O6. Glucose is typical of the structure of
monosaccharides. Hydroxyl groups (-OH) are attached to all carbons except one. The carbon without an
attached hydroxyl group is double-bonded to an oxygen to form what is known as a carbonyl group.

The location of this group determines whether or not a sugar is known as a ketone or an aldehyde sugar. If
the group is not terminal then the sugar is known as a ketone. If the group is at the end, it is known as an
aldehyde. Glucose is an important energy source in living organisms. During cellular respiration, the
breakdown of glucose occurs in order to release its stored energy.

Two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic linkage is called a double sugar or disaccharide. The
most common disaccharide is sucrose. It is composed of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is commonly used
by plants to transport glucose from one part of the plant to another.

Disaccharides are also oligosaccharides. An oligosaccharide consists of a small number of monosaccharide

units (from about two to 10) joined together. Oligosaccharides are found in cell membranes and assist
other membrane structures called glycolipids in cell recognition.

Polysaccharides can be composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides combined together.

These monosaccharides are joined together through dehydration synthesis. Polysaccharides have several
functions including structural support and storage. Some examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.

Starch is a vital form of stored glucose in plants. Vegetables and grains are good sources of starch. In
animals, glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Cellulose is a fibrous carbohydrate polymer that forms the cell walls of plants. It composes about one-third
of all vegetable matter and cannot be digested by humans.

Chitin is a tough polysaccharide that can be found in some species of fungi. Chitin also forms the
exoskeleton of arthropods such as spiders, crustaceans, and insects. Chitin helps to protect the animal's
soft internal body and helps to keep them from drying out.

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrates in the foods we eat must be digested to extract the stored energy. As food travels through
the digestive system, it is broken down allowing glucose to be absorbed into the blood. Enzymes in the
mouth, small intestines, and pancreas help to break down carbohydrates into their monosaccharide
constituents. These substances are then absorbed into the bloodstream.

The circulatory system transports glucose in the blood to cells and tissues of the body. The release of
insulin by the pancreas allows glucose to be taken in by our cells to be used to produce energy
through cellular respiration. Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles for later use. An
overabundance of glucose can also be stored as fat in adipose tissue.

Digestible carbohydrates include sugars and starches. Carbohydrates that cannot be digested include
insoluble fiber. This dietary fiber is eliminated from the body through the colon.

Proteins

Proteins are very important biological molecules in cells. By weight, proteins are collectively the
major component of the dry weight of cells. They can be used for a variety of functions from cellular
support to cell signaling and cellular locomotion. Examples of proteins include antibodies, enzymes, and
some types of hormones (insulin). While proteins have many diverse functions, all are typically constructed
from one set of 20 amino acids. We obtain these amino acids from the plant and animal foods we eat.
Foods high in protein include meats, beans, eggs, and nuts.

Amino Acids

Most amino acids have the following structural properties:

A carbon (the alpha carbon) bonded to four different groups:

 A hydrogen atom (H)

 A Carboxyl group (-COOH)
 An Amino group (-NH2)
 A "variable" group

Of the 20 amino acids that typically make up proteins, the "variable" group determines the differences
among the amino acids. All amino acids have the hydrogen atom, carboxyl group and amino group bonds.

The sequence of the amino acids in an amino acid chain determines a protein's 3-D structure. Amino
acid sequences are specific to specific proteins and determines a protein's function and mode of action. A
change in even one of the amino acids in an amino acid chain can alter protein function and result in
disease.

 Proteins are organic polymers composed of amino acids. Examples of proteins antibodies,
enzymes, hormones, and collagen.
 Proteins have numerous functions including structural support, storage of molecules, chemical
reaction facilitators, chemical messengers, transport of molecules, and muscle contraction.
 Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. These chains can twist to
form 3-D protein shapes.
 The two classes of proteins are globular and fibrous proteins. Globular proteins are compact and
soluble, while fibrous proteins are elongated and insoluble.
 The four levels of protein structure are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure. A
protein's structure determines its function.
 Protein synthesis occurs by a process called translation where genetic codes on RNA templates are
translated for the production of proteins.

Amino acids are joined together through dehydration synthesis to form a peptide bond. When a
number of amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, a polypeptide chain is formed. One or more
polypeptide chains twisted into a 3-D shape forms a protein. Polypeptide chains have some flexibility but
are restricted in conformation. These chains have two terminal ends. One end is terminated by an amino
group and the other by a carboxyl group. The order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain is determined
by DNA. DNA is transcribed into an RNA transcript (messenger RNA) that is translated to give the specific
order of amino acids for the protein chain. This process is called protein synthesis.

There are two general classes of protein molecules: globular proteins and fibrous proteins. Globular
proteins are generally compact, soluble, and spherical in shape. Fibrous proteins are typically elongated and
insoluble. Globular and fibrous proteins may exhibit one or more of four types of protein structure. The
four structure types are primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure.

A protein's structure determines its function. For instance, structural proteins such as collagen and keratin
are fibrous and stringy. Globular proteins like hemoglobin, on the other hand, are folded and compact.
Hemoglobin, found in red blood cells, is an iron-containing protein that binds oxygen molecules. Its
compact structure is ideal for traveling through narrow blood vessels.

Protein Synthesis

Proteins are synthesized in the body through a process called translation. Translation occurs in
the cytoplasm and involves the rendering of genetic codes that are assembled during DNA
transcription into proteins. Cell structures called ribosomes help translate these genetic codes into
polypeptide chains. The polypeptide chains undergo several modifications before becoming fully
functioning proteins.
Lipids

Lipids are very diverse in both their respective structures and functions. These diverse compounds that
make up the lipid family are so grouped because they are insoluble in water. They are also soluble in other
organic solvents such as ether, acetone, and other lipids. Lipids serve a variety of important functions in
living organisms. They act as chemical messengers, serve as valuable energy sources, provide insulation,
and are the main components of membranes. Major lipid groups include fats, phospholipids, steroids,
and waxes.

 Lipids, as a class of compounds, are insoluble in water but are soluble in other organic solvents.
Examples of such solvents include: acetone and ether.
 Waxes, steroids, phospholipids and fats are the most common types of lipid groups.
 Fats have glycerol in addition to three fatty acids. The structure of the fatty acids determines
whether or not the fat is considered saturated or unsaturated.
 Phospholipids have four major components: fatty acids, a glycerol component, and both a
phosphate group and a polar molecule.
 Human sex hormones, like testosterone and estrogen, are classed as steroids. Steroids most often
have a four-fused ring structure.
 Waxes are composed of an alcohol and a fatty acid. Plants often have wax coatings that help them
to conserve water.

Lipid Soluble Vitamins

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in adipose tissue and in the liver. They are eliminated from the body more
slowly than water-soluble vitamins. Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. Vitamin A is
important for vision as well as skin, teeth, and bone health. Vitamin D aids in the absorption of other
nutrients including calcium and iron. Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant and also aids in immune function.
Vitamin K aids in the blood clotting process and maintaining strong bones.

Organic Polymers

Biological polymers are vital to the existence of all living organisms. In addition to lipids, other organic
molecules include:

Carbohydrates: biomolecules that include sugars and sugar derivatives. They not only provide energy but
are also important for energy storage.

Proteins: - composed of amino acids, proteins provide structural support for tissues, act as chemical
messengers, move muscles, and much more.

Nucleic Acids: - biological polymers composed of nucleotides and important

for gene inheritance. DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids.

Fats are composed of three fatty acids and glycerol. These so called triglycerides can be solid or liquid at
room temperature. Those that are solid are classified as fats, while those that are liquid are known as oils.
Fatty acids consist of a long chain of carbons with a carboxyl group at one end. Depending on their
structure, fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.

Saturated fats raise LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels in the blood. This increases the chances
for developing cardiovascular disease. Unsaturated fats lower LDL levels and reduce the risk for
disease. While fats have been denigrated to the point that many believe that fat should be eliminated from
the diet, fat serves many useful purposes. Fats are stored for energy in adipose tissue, help to insulate the
body, and cushion and protect organs.

A phospholipid is composed of two fatty acids, a glycerol unit, a phosphate group and a polar molecule. The
phosphate group and polar head region of the molecule is hydrophillic (attracted to water), while the fatty
acid tail is hydrophobic (repelled by water). When placed in water, phospholipids will orient themselves
into a bilayer in which the nonpolar tail region faces the inner area of the bilayer. The polar head region
faces outward and interacts with the water.
Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes, which enclose and protect the cytoplasm and
other contents of a cell. Phospholipids are also a major component of myelin, a fatty substance that is
important for insulating nerves and speeding up electrical impulses in the brain. It is the high composition
of myelinated nerve fibers that causes white matter in the brain to appear white.

Steroids have a carbon backbone that consists of four fused ring-like structures. Steroids
include cholesterol, sex hormones (progesterone, estrogen, and testosterone) produced by gonads and
cortisone.

Waxes are composed of an ester of a long-chain alcohol and a fatty acid. Many plants have leaves and fruits
with wax coatings to help prevent water loss. Some animals also have wax-coated fur or feathers to repel
water. Unlike most waxes, ear wax is composed of phospholipids and esters of cholesterol.

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are molecules that allow organisms to transfer genetic information from one generation to
the next. These macromolecules store the genetic information that determines traits and makes protein
synthesis possible

 Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production.
 Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides.
 Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
 DNA is composed of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the nitrogenous bases adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
 RNA has ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and uracil (U).

Two examples of nucleic acids include: deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (better known as RNA). These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides held together
by covalent bonds. Nucleic acids can be found within the nucleus and cytoplasm of our cells.

Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotide monomers linked together. Nucleotides have three parts:

 A Nitrogenous Base
 A Five-Carbon (Pentose) Sugar
 A Phosphate Group

Nitrogenous bases include purine molecules (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine molecules (cytosine,
thymine, and uracil). In DNA, the five-carbon sugar is deoxyribose, while ribose is the pentose sugar in RNA.
Nucleotides are linked together to form polynucleotide chains. They are joined to one another by covalent
bonds between the phosphate of one and the sugar of another. These linkages are called phosphodiester
linkages. Phosphodiester linkages form the sugar-phosphate backbone of both DNA and RNA.

Similar to what happens with protein and carbohydrate monomers, nucleotides are linked together
through dehydration synthesis. In nucleic acid dehydration synthesis, nitrogenous bases are joined
together and a water molecule is lost in the process. Interestingly, some nucleotides perform important
cellular functions as "individual" molecules, the most common example being ATP.

DNA is the cellular molecule that contains instructions for the performance of all cell functions. When a cell
divides, its DNA is copied and passed from one cell generation to the next generation. DNA is organized
into chromosomes and found within the nucleus of our cells. It contains the "programmatic instructions"
for cellular activities. When organisms produce offspring, these instructions in are passed down through
DNA.

DNA commonly exists as a double stranded molecule with a twisted double helix shape. DNA is composed
of a phosphate-deoxyribose sugar backbone and the four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In double stranded DNA, adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and guanine pairs
with cytosine (G-C).
RNA is essential for the synthesis of proteins. Information contained within the genetic code is typically
passed from DNA to RNA to the resulting proteins. There are several different types of RNA.

 Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the RNA transcript or RNA copy of the DNA message produced
during DNA transcription. Messenger RNA is translated to form proteins.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) has a three dimensional shape and is necessary for the translation of mRNA in
protein synthesis.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of ribosomes and is also involved in protein synthesis.
 MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that help to regulate gene expression.

RNA most commonly exists as a single stranded molecule composed of a phosphate-ribose sugar backbone
and the nitrogenous bases adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil (U). When DNA is transcribed into an RNA
transcript during DNA transcription, guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C) and adenine pairs with uracil (A-U).

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA differ in composition and structure. The differences are listed as follows:

DNA

 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Thymine

 Five-Carbon Sugar: Deoxyribose
 Structure: Double-stranded

DNA is commonly found in its three dimensional, double helix shape. This twisted structure makes it
possible for DNA to unwind for DNA replication and protein synthesis.

RNA

 Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil

 Five-Carbon Sugar: Ribose
 Structure: Single-stranded

While RNA does not take on a double helix shape like DNA, this molecule is able to form complex three
dimensional shapes. This is possible because RNA bases form complementary pairs with other bases on the
same RNA strand. The base pairing causes RNA to fold forming various shapes.

ADP – ATP Cycle

Energy currency of the cells

Adenosine Triphosphate- is an organic molecule that contains high energy phosphate bonds that store and
release energy, and that Bond is called phosphor anhydride bond.

Food molecule function as fuel molecules and called as “the long – term energy currency of the cell while
ATP molecules stores smaller quantities of energy and refers to as “ the short – term energy currency of
the cell”.

What is the Purpose of ATP molecule?

ATP provides us energy. ATP comes indirectly from the food that we eat. Molecules of carbohydrates
(glucose) and lipids are broken down through the process of cellular respiration to produce ATP. ATP is also
used to close the energy gap between energy – releasing reactions (food breakdown) and energy –
requiring reactions (synthesis).

All cells does 3 main kinds of work

Chemical (synthesis), Transport, Mechanical (movement)

ATP is composed of A Nitrogenous base (adenine), A sugar (ribose) and Three phosphate groups.

Chemical formula:
C10H16N5O13P3

The energy – carrying part of an ATP molecule is the triphosphate “tail”. Three phosphate groups are joined
by covalent bonds. The electrons in these bons carry energy. ATP molecules are soluble in water.

ATP – ADP CYCLE

Adenosine triphosphate to Adenosine diphosphate.

The “ATP/ADP cycle” is the continuously ongoing “energy recycling,” through oxidative phosphorylation of
“low energy” adenosine diphosphate (ADP) molecules, to “high energy” adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) molecules (binding energy), and the subsequent hydrolysis of ATP molecules back to ADP
(releasing energy), facilitated by a complex series of biochemical processes collectively called cellular
respiration.

How does it happen?

Cells break phosphate bonds between the last two phosphate groups in a molecule of ATP as needed to
supply energy for most cellular functions, when this happens a molecule of ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
and a phosphate become available for reuse.

How Do We Get Energy From ATP?

 Energy is released each time a phosphate is removed from the molecule.

 Energy is stored each time a phosphate attaches to the molecule.

 To constantly supply the cell with energy, the ADP is recycled, creating more ATP which carries
much more energy than ADP.

 To supply cells with energy, a “high energy” bond in ATP is broken. ADP is formed and a phosphate
is released back into the cytoplasm.

 ATP → ADP + phosphate + energy

 As the cell requires more energy, ADP becomes ATP when a free phosphate attaches to the ADP
molecule. Then energy needed to create an ATP molecule is much less than the amount of energy
produced when the bond is broken.

 ADP + phosphate + energy → ATP

Oxidative Phosphorylation

• Happens in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

• Occurs during electron transport chain

• Electron transport chain is a series of membrane bound carriers in the mitochondria that passes
electrons from one to another.

• During Glycolysis & tricarboxylic acid/ Krebs cycle/ Citric acid cycle oxidation of organic molecules
results in production of co-enzymes NADH and FADH.

• Co-enzymes are substances that enhances the action of an enzyme.

Substrate-level Photophosphorylation

• Occurs twice during Glycolysis and once during Krebs cycle.

• Occurs in the cytoplasm.

• The phosphate in a phosphorylated compound is being added to ADP via enzyme to make ATP.

• The phosphorylated compound & ADP acts as the substrates (a molecule upon which an enzyme
acts).

Photosynthesis is the process used by plants, algae and certain bacteria to harness energy from sunlight
and turn it into chemical energy. Here, we describe the general principles of photosynthesis and highlight
 how scientists are studying this natural process to help develop clean fuels and sources of renewable
energy.

Types of photosynthesis

There are two types of photosynthetic processes: oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic photosynthesis.
The general principles of anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis are very similar, but oxygenic
photosynthesis is the most common and is seen in plants, algae and cyanobacteria.

During oxygenic photosynthesis, light energy transfers electrons from water (H2O) to carbon dioxide (CO2),
to produce carbohydrates. In this transfer, the CO2 is "reduced," or receives electrons, and the water
becomes "oxidized," or loses electrons. Ultimately, oxygen is produced along with carbohydrates.
Oxygenic photosynthesis functions as a counterbalance to respiration by taking in the carbon dioxide
produced by all breathing organisms and reintroducing oxygen to the atmosphere.

On the other hand, anoxygenic photosynthesis uses electron donors other than water. The process typically
occurs in bacteria such as purple bacteria and green sulfur bacteria, which are primarily found in various
aquatic habitats.
"Anoxygenic photosynthesis does not produce oxygen — hence the name," said David Baum, professor of
botany at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. "What is produced depends on the electron donor. For
example, many bacteria use the bad-eggs-smelling gas hydrogen sulfide, producing solid sulfur as a
byproduct."
Though both types of photosynthesis are complex, multistep affairs, the overall process can be neatly
summarized as a chemical equation.

Oxygenic photosynthesis is written as follows:

6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Here, six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) combine with 12 molecules of water (H2O) using light energy.
The end result is the formation of a single carbohydrate molecule (C6H12O6, or glucose) along with six
molecules each of breathable oxygen and water.
Similarly, the various anoxygenic photosynthesis reactions can be represented as a single generalized
formula:

CO2 + 2H2A + Light Energy → [CH2O] + 2A + H2O

The letter A in the equation is a variable and H2A represents the potential electron donor. For example, A
may represent sulfur in the electron donor hydrogen sulfide (H2S), explained Govindjee and John
Whitmarsh, plant biologists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, in the book "Concepts in
Photobiology: Photosynthesis and Photomorphogenesis" (Narosa Publishers and Kluwer Academic, 1999).

Plants need energy from sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.

The photosynthetic apparatus

The following are cellular components essential to photosynthesis.

Pigments
Pigments are molecules that bestow color on plants, algae and bacteria, but they are also responsible for
effectively trapping sunlight. Pigments of different colors absorb different wavelengths of light. Below are
the three main groups.
 Chlorophylls: These green-colored pigments are capable of trapping blue and red light. Chlorophylls have
three subtypes, dubbed chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll c. According to Eugene Rabinowitch
and Govindjee in their book "Photosynthesis"(Wiley, 1969), chlorophyll a is found in all photosynthesizing
plants. There is also a bacterial variant aptly named bacteriochlorophyll, which absorbs infrared light. This
pigment is mainly seen in purple and green bacteria, which perform anoxygenic photosynthesis.
 Carotenoids: These red, orange or yellow-colored pigments absorb bluish-green light. Examples of
carotenoids are xanthophyll (yellow) and carotene (orange) from which carrots get their color.
 Phycobilins: These red or blue pigments absorb wavelengths of light that are not as well absorbed by
chlorophylls and carotenoids. They are seen in cyanobacteria and red algae.

Plastids
Photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms contain organelles called plastids in their cytoplasm. The double-
membraned plastids in plants and algae are referred to as primary plastids, while the multiple-membraned
variety found in plankton are called secondary plastids, according to an erarticlein the journal Nature
Education by Cheong Xin Chan and Debashish Bhattacharya, researchers at Rutgers University in New
Jersey.
Plastids generally contain pigments or can store nutrients. Colorless and nonpigmented leucoplasts store
fats and starch, while chromoplasts contain carotenoids and chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, as explained
in Geoffrey Cooper's book, "The Cell: A Molecular Approach" (Sinauer Associates, 2000).
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts; specifically, in the grana and stroma regions. The grana is
the innermost portion of the organelle; a collection of disc-shaped membranes, stacked into columns like
plates. The individual discs are called thylakoids. It is here that the transfer of electrons takes place. The
empty spaces between columns of grana constitute the stroma.
Chloroplasts are similar to mitochondria, the energy centers of cells, in that they have their own genome,
or collection of genes, contained within circular DNA. These genes encode proteins essential to the
organelle and to photosynthesis. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are also thought to have originated from
primitive bacterial cells through the process of endosymbiosis.
"Plastids originated from engulfed photosynthetic bacteria that were acquired by a single-celled eukaryotic
cell more than a billion years ago," Baum told Live Science. Baum explained that the analysis of chloroplast
genes shows that it was once a member of the group cyanobacteria, "the one group of bacteria that can
accomplish oxygenic photosynthesis."
In their 2010 article, Chan and Bhattacharya make the point that the formation of secondary plastids cannot
be well explained by endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria, and that the origins of this class of plastids are still a
matter of debate.

Antennae
Pigment molecules are associated with proteins, which allow them the flexibility to move toward light and
toward one another. A large collection of 100 to 5,000 pigment molecules constitutes "antennae,"
according to an article by Wim Vermaas, a professor at Arizona State University. These structures
effectively capture light energy from the sun, in the form of photons.
Ultimately, light energy must be transferred to a pigment-protein complex that can convert it to chemical
energy, in the form of electrons. In plants, for example, light energy is transferred to chlorophyll pigments.
The conversion to chemical energy is accomplished when a chlorophyll pigment expels an electron, which
can then move on to an appropriate recipient.
Reaction centers
The pigments and proteins, which convert light energy to chemical energy and begin the process of electron
transfer, are known as reaction centers.

The photosynthetic process

The reactions of plant photosynthesis are divided into those that require the presence of sunlight and those
that do not. Both types of reactions take place in chloroplasts: light-dependent reactions in the thylakoid
and light-independent reactions in the stroma.
Light-dependent reactions (also called light reactions): When a photon of light hits the reaction center, a
pigment molecule such as chlorophyll releases an electron.
"The trick to do useful work, is to prevent that electron from finding its way back to its original home,"
Baum told Live Science. "This is not easily avoided, because the chlorophyll now has an 'electron hole' that
tends to pull on nearby electrons."

The released electron manages to escape by traveling through an electron transport chain, which generates
the energy needed to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate, a source of chemical energy for cells) and
NADPH. The "electron hole" in the original chlorophyll pigment is filled by taking an electron from water.
As a result, oxygen is released into the atmosphere.
Light-independent reactions (also called dark reactions and known as the Calvin cycle): Light reactions
produce ATP and NADPH, which are the rich energy sources that drive dark reactions. Three chemical
reaction steps make up the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction and regeneration. These reactions use
water and catalysts. The carbon atoms from carbon dioxide are 6“fixed,” when they are built into organic
molecules that ultimately form three-carbon sugars. These sugars are then used to make glucose or are
recycled to initiate the Calvin cycle again.

Cellular Respiration

The plants and animals carry out the chemical energy of the food molecules that is released and partially
captured in the form of ATP.

, Fats and Proteins can all be used as fuel in cellular respiration, but glucose is most commonly used as an
example to examine the reactions and pathway involved.

What is cellular Respiration?

It is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and then release waste products.

It is a process of converting carbohydrates from food produced by plants into energy.

Please study the Cellular Respiration Module

Re: Glycolysis

Kreb Cycle

Electron Transport Chain